Computer Communication and Networks

Basics:
1: Data communication:
Transmission of data electronically from one place to another place. An electromagnetic wave that is used
to transmit data Is called signal. Propagation of signal across medium is called signaling.
2: Elements of data communication?
Sending device, receiving device, communication medium and communication devices.

3: Types of communication?
Wired communication (coaxial cable, twisted pair cable and fiber optic)
Wireless communication (microwave, infrared rays, radio waves)

4: Properties of goo communication system?

Accuracy, timeliness, delivery

5: Data transmission modes

Simplex: Data can travel or flow in one direction. TV antena
Half duplex: Data can travel in both direction but not at same time like Internet surfing
Full duplex: Data can travel in both directions at a time like telephone

6: Forms of data transmission?

Digital data transmission
Digital signals are in binary form OFF and On, they are faster, less error rate. Transmission in discrete form
Analog data transmission
Analog is continuous signal in the form of wave. Telephone line, radio wave and microwave are analog
signals.
Characteristics: Frequency is the number of time a wave repeats in a specified time, while amplitude is the
height of wave in a given period of time.
7: Types of data transmission?
Synchronous: Block by block transmission, a block can contain multiple characters. Large data can be sent
in less time.
Asynchronous: Character by character transmission, less data sent in specific time, there may be gaps
between characters being sent. It uses start and stop bit. Start bit=0 and called space state sent before data.
Stop bit=1 and called mar state sent after data sent.

8: Communication technologies?
Fax, voice mail, E-mail, instant messaging, vedio conferencing, internet telephony, groupware etc.

9: Computer Networks:
Consists of two or more computers to share information or resources

10: Network criteria?

A network must meet the following criteria
Performance: It includes the response time, transmit time, throughput and delay. Transmit time is time
which is required to send data from one place to other. Response time is time which is needed to elapse an
inquiry and its response. Throughput is the number of messages sent in the specified time. It increases with
the increasing messages. Delay increases due to the congestion in network.
Reliability: It is measured with data delivery and accuracy.
Security: Data security from unauthorized resources.
1: OSI model and its layers

11: Types of Networks:

LAN WAN MAN
Covers small area Covers large area Mid of LAN and MAN
Installed in office etc. Installed in cities and countries Covers a city area
Fast data rate 10-1000mbps Less fast 56kbps to 50 mbps Faster then LAN slower WAN
Can send data in limited dist. Can send data in large dist Faster then LAN slower WAN
Faster than WAN Slower than LAN
E.g Computer lab, Cafe E.g ATMs, Nadra office e.g city, town

Personal area Network:

To connect personal devices in the range of 30 feet normally. Uses at home. Used to share info and resources
with personal devices.
12: Network Architecture:
It is the design of network devices and computers
Peer to Peer: simple and inexpensive connects less than ten PCs. Each system can share resources etc with
other connected system, but data is stored on their own storage media. OS and app software are installed
individually. Suitable for small business
Client server: Multiple clients, one or more servers, centralized data storage and OS etc.

13: Wireless network?

A network which is settled using radio signal frequency to communicate the devices. It is called WiFi or
WLAN. A wireless network adapater or access point is used to setup the Wireless network.
Fixed wireless network
Mobile wireless network

14: Types of servers:

Database, print, dedicated, file, communication, web, authentication and file server etc.

15: Network topologies?

Physical layout of a network.
Bus topology: Simpler that connects small number of computers, terminators are used at the end of bus
wire.
Star topology: Uses central hub or switch, uses in client server environment. The best LAN topology due
to its scalability and reliability. Easier for troubleshoot.
Ring topology: Makes the form of a ring, each computer connects to the next and last to the first
Tree topology: combination of bus and star topology. Different star and then all stars connect to one bus
known as backbone cable
Mesh topology: each device connected with each device, uses in WAN.

16: What is protocol?

It is a standard the is used in a network for communication among devices. It tells what to communicate,
how to communicate and when to communicate.
17: Functions of protocol?
Routing, flow control, error control, sequencing

18: Key elements of protocol?

Timing, syntax and semantic
19: Switched networks?
In networks, data is sent node to node. As data is switched from one node to other so,

Circuit switching: Creates a dedicated path between two nodes. The entire circuit must be available all the
time for data transfer. Three phases: establish a circuit, send data and terminated the circuit. Telephone is
example.
Packet switching: divides message into packets and sed to destination. Each packet has overhead
information about destination like sender address, sequence number, destination address. Each packet can
travel on any route. Message is reassembled at receiver end. Efficient and less expensive. Used in modern
switched networks.

20: Communication devices:

Modem
Digital modem
Wireless modem
NIC
HUB: connecter, multi station access unit, broadcast message to all devices, it can handle only one-way
traffic at a time
SWITCH: Intelligent only sent to the targeted system.
ROUTER: connects multiple networks, manage best route for communication, can be used at any size of
network. Can connect networks of different countries, it finds the best path using algorithms,
GATEWAY: connects 2 or more networks with diff protocols. It can convert data as per protocol. It is also
intelligent. It can be used at any level of network,
BRIDGE: It can be used to interconnect two LAN and to separate segments. It increases the performance
of network. It determines where segment signal should go.
REPEATER: Amplifies the signals in a network. Can be used for wired and wireless networks.

21: Multiplexer vs Concentrator?

Multiplexer: It combines the transmission from multiple devices and send them as a single message like
multiple analog signals can be combined and sent using multiple frequencies.
Concentrator: Type of multiplexer that combines multiple messages and send in a way as all individual
messages are active.

22: Communication Channel or media:

A path through which data is transmitted.

23: Bandwidth
Amount of data that can be sent at a time over a media. Digital signal bytes per second, analog signal cycles
per second.

24: Types of communication channel?

Guided
1: Twisted pair: used in LAN, consists on pair of coper wires, the pair is covered with shielded core
2: Coaxial: copper wired covered with insulating material, which is covered by cover mesh it protects the
data signals.
3: Fiber optic: consists on thin strands called core.
Unguided
1: Microwave system: radio waves which are used to high speed transmission. Data is transmitted through
air with the help of microwave stations
2: Satellite stations: Receive signals from earth-based stations amplifies them and then sent back to earth.
Satellite is placed 22.300 mile above earth. Uplink> transmission from earth to satellite. Downlink> satellite
to earth.
3: Broadcast radio
4: Cellular communication

25: Transmission impairment:

A loss that may occur to the signal when data is transmitted through transmission media.
Causes:
Attenuation: Reduction in the strength of signal
Distortion: Change in the structure or shape of signal
Noise: Unwanted signal is noise: Thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk noise etc.

1: What is OSI?
Open system interconnection. It is an pen system which allows two systems to communicate even if their
architecture is different. Developed by ISO in 1983. It is a layerd system.

2: Advantages of OSI?
It divides the communication process into smaller tasks
It allows various network types hardware and software to communicate

3: Physical Layer
Bit by bit delivery. It transmits the bits stream and tells how data is transmitted over network and which
control signals are used.
Responsibilities: Data rate, communication medium, characteristics of media, representation of bits,
synchronization and line configuration.
Protocols: IEEE 802, IEEE 802.2 FDDI

4: Data Link Layer

Frame deleivery. This layer is responsible to the reliability of physical link established in layer 1.
Responsibilities: Framing, Error control, flow control, access control
This layer is further divided into Logical link control to communicate with other computer and Media access
control to save data from loss.

5: Network Layer
This layer is responsible to establish, maintain and terminates a connection in network. It manages the
delivery of data from source to destination in the form of packets.
Responsibilities: Logical addressing, routing
Protocols: IPX, IP and X25
6: Transport Layer
Process to process delivery. It controls the flow of data. It ensures that the messages are delivered error
free. Messages are divided into packets and the sent. If there is error, packet will be retransmitted.
Responsibilities: Service point addressing, Segmentation and assembling, connection control, error and
flow control on end to end instead of single link.
Protocols: UDP, TCP, SPX, Net Bui

7: Session Layer:
It establishes, manages and terminates the user connection, provides error check sum and synchronization
among users.

8: Presentation Layer
It deals with the presentation of data.
Responsibilities: Encryption, data re formatting and compression
Protocols: NFS, NCP, SMB

8: Application Layer
Top most layer which provides services to users. It allows users to access systems directly.
Responsibilities: File access, file transfer, mail services etc.

IP addressing
1: MAC is the device address which is unique for each devise but it does not tell the location of network.
IP address is a unique address which locate the location of network.
2: IP: 32 bits
3: MAC: 48 bits
4: Port: 16 bits
5: IPV 4: 32 bits
IPV 4 can connect 4 billion devices. Provides error checksum. Broadcasting
Class A: 1 to 126, 127 reserved for loopback address which means that host can send something to itself.
Its for large network
Class B: Its foe medium size network. Ranges 128-191,
Class C: for small organizations. Ranges 192 to 223
Class D: For multicasting which means the datagram is sent to only specific host group instead of individual
hosts ranges 224-239
Class E: ranges 240-255, broadcasting
6: IPV 6: 128 bits
IPV 6 can connect 2^128 devices. Does not provides error checksum. unicasting
Facilitates unicast, multicast and broadcast

Protocols
1: UDP vs TCP

TCP UDP
Connection oriented Connection less
Reliable delivery Unreliable delivery
Acknowledgement No acknowledgment

2: SMTP
Simple mail transfer protocol which can send simple message, message with images and texts. It is used to
send emails via internet.

3: DNS
Domain name system. Instead of remembering the ip address the domain name is easier to remember like
www.examples.com can be the domain name of 198:32:55:4

4: DHCP
Dynamic host configuration protocol is used for dynamic IP addressing. The servers which manages the
dynamic IP addressing are called DHCP servers, while the workstations that are assigned dynamic IP
addresses are called DHCP clients.
Firewalls:
Firewall is basically a set of components which restricts the access of data and info in a network. Firewall
can be a hardware and software. Firewall software can be installed in the routers, switches and hubs.
What is Telnet?
a network protocol that allows a user on one computer to log into another computer that is part of the same
network. log into a remote computer using a telnet program.
What is Telnet and FTP?
TELNET (TELecommunication NETwork) and FTP (File Transfer Protocol) both are the application
layer protocol. They are connection oriented protocols as they create a connection between remote host and
a server.

De Jure and De facto standards?

De jure standards, or standards according to law, are endorsed by a formal standards organization. The
organization ratifies each standard through its official procedures and gives the standard its stamp of
approval. De facto standards, or standards in actuality, are adopted widely by an industry and its customers.

Protocol vs Standard?
A protocol defines a set of rules used by two or more parties to interact between themselves. A standard is
a formalized protocol accepted by most of the parties that implement it.

What is Wifi?
Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that allows devices such as computers (laptops and desktops),
mobile devices (smart phones and wearables), and other equipment (printers and video cameras) to interface
with the Internet

What us LiFi?
LiFi (light fidelity) is a bidirectional wireless system that transmits data via LED or infrared light. It was
first unveiled in 2011 and, unlike wifi, which uses radio frequency, LiFi technology only needs a light
source with a chip to transmit an internet signal through light waves.

Different bw WiFi and LiFi?

WiFi and LiFi used to send and receive data wirelessly. WiFi uses Routers and Radio Frequency
whereas LiFi uses LED bulbs and Light signals to transfer and receive data.

What is multiplexing and demultiplexing?

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium.
... Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the
receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs).

Types of Multiplexing?
 • Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a
technique of multiplexing which means combining more than one signal over a shared
medium. In FDM, signals of different frequencies are combined for concurrent
transmission.
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is
a technique of multiplexing multiple optical carrier signals through a single optical fiber
channel by varying the wavelengths of laser lights. WDM allows communication in both
the directions in the fiber cable.
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Time division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique of
multiplexing, where the users are allowed the total available bandwidth on time sharing
basis. Here the time domain is divided into several recurrent slots of fixed length, and each
signal is allotted a time slot on a round-robin basis.

5g:
1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G represent the five generations of mobile networks where G stands for
'Generation' and the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 represent the generation number. Since the early
1980s, almost every ten years, we have seen a new generation of mobile networks

Group Discussion
1: Public Vs. Private IP's

Public IP outside the local network communication k liye use hota hai on the other hand private within the
local network. Private fre public cost

2: Loopback adress of ipv 4

and 6

Ipv 4 127.0.0.1
Ipv 6 0.0.0.0.0.0.1 or ::1

3: Subnetting and how use?

Divide network into subnetwork to avoid loss of IPs

Creating a logical sub network by borrowing hosts bits to Network side is known as Subnetting
4: What are Dual Stack Routers?To accommodate ipv4 and ipv6

5: What is the other way to use transition from ipv4 to ipv6?

Tunling

6: Subnet of class A
Subnet of class A 255.0.0.0
B 255.255.0.0
C 255.255.255.0

7: What is classless addressing?

No classes
Ip address is divided into block id and host id

8: Dedicated private Ips kii range

10.0.0.0
172.16.0.0
192.168.1.0

9: Purpose of classless ip?

Provide same number of ips to an organisation as it wants to possible extent

.
Budgeting the IP's (networks and hosts) as per users' needs
10: How many bits keep to 1 (class wise)
Class A 7 B 15 C 23

11: First ans last Ip for?

First ip: network address
Last direct broadcast address

12: Can same range of private ip addresses be used in more than one internal network?

They can be used, because all are standalone

13: Broadcast IP of Class A

It will be 126.255.255.255

14: Fixed bits of all classes?

Kuch bits fix hoti hain.. leading bits.. A class mai 0, B mai 10, C mai 110, D mai 1110, E
mai 1111

15: IPsec?
Internet protocol security. ip security protocol, provides secure encrypted communication between two
computers on an internet

16: CRC vs Checksum

CRC used in LAN and WAN and crc work on data link layer whereas checkusm work on transport layer

17: Even parity vs Odd parity

Even parity mean the codes words contain even no of 1's
Odd parity mean codes word contain odd no of 1's
Both use for single bit error dectection

18: Block vs line encoding

Line : digital data to digital signal

Block: m bits subtituted with n bits

19: Manchester vs differential mabchester encoding

Two patterns are used Thomas and IEEE

20: What is SLIP
Serial Line Internet Protocol is an encapsulation of IP designed to work over serial ports

21: How a local networks become able to connect to the external network?

22: How can we detect burst error in networks?

Using crc hamming distance

23: VLAN v subnetting

VLAN mai hum LAN k andr logical distributions krte hain... Like ek hi Switch A mai jo ek hi lab mai
Computers k sth connectec port number 1 se 10 tk pc VLAN A or 11 se 20 VLAN B se belong krte

And
Submetting already defined.
24: Telnet vs FTP
Telnet use for remote access File transport protocol use to transfer files

25: Unicast?
We dilver the msg to any first host to received in the communication channel
Or
Anycast is a netowkr adressing methodology in which a single destination address has multiple paths to
two or more endpoint destinations.

26
Unicast only 1
Multicast not 1 but some, but all
Broadcast all
Anycast any first in the way

27: Hub
Broadcast

28: Switch
Unicast

29: Distance vector vs link state routing

Distance Vector
Less bandwidth req
Small Packets
Less traffic
Based on local knowledge
Link State Routing
More bandwidth req
large packets
More traffic
Based on global knowledge

30: LLC vs MAC

LLC gives flow control while MAC provides error control, media access, framing, and physical addressing

31: Data Gram Switching vs. Virtual Circuit Switching?

A virtual circuit network uses a fixed path for a particular session, after which it breaks the connection
and another path has to be set up for the next the next session. A Datagram based network is a true
packet switched network. There is no fixed path for transmitting data

32: Message switching

Buffering the whole msg until receiver is available

33: ICMP and IGMP

Internet control message protocol use for unicasting
Internet group message protocol use for multicasting

34: Proxy firewall and packet filtering

Proxy firewall work on application layer and packet filtering work on network layer

35: Boradband vs Base band

Single data signal vs multiple
36: Single data signal vs multiple

Both are used for conversion of of binary format to signal format

But for 1 and 0 both have different patterns to represent

38: VPN
Creating a private network fr a public internet, virtual private network

37: packer filtering

Packet Filtering mai hum bht sare aspects dekh skte hain..based on what is in the header.. koi source block
kr dyn, koi destination block kr dyn..koi port hi block kr dyn..ya poora ka poora network hi block kr dyn

39: Tuneling
Source and destination are of same time but network is of different
Connecting them

40: ACL?
Access control list, those allowed non harmful things which a firewall doesn't block

41: Does a firewall only caters outside traffic?

No, like yiutube blockage is a real world example

42: use of ICMP

Error reporting n error detection

43: ARP vs RARP

Address resolution for IP to MAC ( Logical address known, physical unkno )

And reverse adress resolution protocl used for MAC to IP (

Physical known, logical unknown)
44: Does we need DHCP for Ipv 6?

45: FTP and TFTP

File transfer protocol uses udp
Trivial file tranfer protocl uses tcp

46: Does youtube use UDP or TCP?

For low quality streaming udp and for high streaming tcp

47: What is Two Generals' Problem or Two Army's Probelm?

48: TFTP use which port?

69

49: FTP use which port

20 and 21
21 is to establish the connection, 20 is used for actual payload

50: What is formula to find the total number of wires in mesh topologies....

N(n-1)/2

51: Three way handshake

req fr connection, acknowledgement n connection etablishment

52: CSMA/CD
Detection of collision while transferring data in wired network
53: ALOHA
transmitting of frame detecting whether the channel is idle or busy

54: Pure vs slotted aloha?

Pure>no time slots

Slotted> obviously
So in pure any station can transmit data or try to send at any time
While in slotted only at the beginning of time slot
"Anytime dara transmission vs time slot data transmit"

55: Aloha is orotoc6of which layer

Layer 2

56: Aloha and CSMA/CD used for

Congestion control k liye hi CSMA/CD and ALOHA use krre hain.

57: Sliding window protocol?

Flow control protocol used in DLL... Uses wasted time for productive usage

58: Piggybacking?
Acknowledgement payload k sth hi bhej dena

59: TTL
Time to live,
Time to Live its used in Multicasting Routing
60: SSL
Secure socket layer

61: Dos vs Ddos

Single source vs multi source DOS attacks

62: Ids?
How to avoid false alarm in ids

Intrusion detection system, used To avoid false positives, We will have to maintain a good ACL....

63: IPS
Intrusion prevention system
Not only alarming but to also to prevent the attack by the system

64: Forward broadcast

To avoid flooding overhead and duplicate packets received in broadcasting we use forward Broadcast in
which duplicate and redundent packets received in a network from different paths are discarded and only
one copy is kept

65: Wimax
Wireless in MAN like 4g, 5g

66: In 802
What is80?
What is2?
It was developed in feb 1980
2 is for.feb
80 for 1980

67: what is 802.3?

Ethernet

68: Default gateway?

Default gateway is used to connect local network to external networks

69: Wireless protocols?

Zigbee z-wave and bluetooth

70: amplifier vs repeater

Repeater takes high input power and provides low output power. Amplifier takes low input power and
provides high output power. ... Repeater regenerates the signal so that the noise can be reduced or
eliminated. Amplifier increases the amplitude of the signal with the noise