Unit 2 - PERSONALITY

Q1. Define personality by Allport.

Ans. According to GORDON ALLPORT (1937), “Personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustments to the
environment”.

Q2. Define the following terms :

Ans.

 Temperament : Biologically based characteristic way of reacting. The enduring

characteristics with which each person is born.

 Trait : Stable, persistent and specific way of behaving.

 Disposition : Tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a particular way.

 Character : Our individual beliefs and values which shape our personality. The overall
pattern of regularly occurring behaviour. It consists of person’s moral and ethical qualities.

 Habit : Over learned modes of behaving.

 Values : Goals and ideals that are considered important and worthwhile to achieve.

Q3. Explain Sheldon’s theory on types of personality.

Ans.

In 1940s, WILLIAM HERBERT SHELDON associated body types with human temperament. He
claimed that a body type could be linked with the personality of an individual. He split up the
body/personality types into three categories called ‘Somatotypes’ :
1. Endomorphic
They are also referred to as Viscerotonic. Their body type is fat soft and round. By
temperament they are relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfort loving and peaceful.
 2. Mesomorphic
They are also referred to as Somotonic. Their body type is muscular and rectangular with a
strong body build. By temperament they are active, assertive, combative, energetic and
courageous.
3. Ectomorphic
They are also referred to as Cerebrotonic. They have a thin, long and fragile body type. By
temperament they are brainy, artistic, sensitive and introvert.
Q4. Explain the type theory of personality given by Hippocrates.
Ans.

ASCLEPIADES HIPPOCRATES proposed that the human body was made up of four humors
/fluids – Blood, Black bile, Yellow bile, Phlegm (mucus).
According to him, the dominance of one of these fluids leads to unique temperamental
characteristics associated to a particular type of personality. The types of personalities are as
follows :
1. Sanguine
Blood is the predominant fluid in the body. A Sanguine person is generally optimistic,
cheerful, even-tempered, confident, rational, popular, fun-loving, hopeful and sociable.
2. Choleric
Yellow bile is the predominant fluid in the body. A choleric person is ambitious, energetic
and driven. Many great charismatic leaders, military and political figures were choleric. On
the negative side, they are easily angered or bad tempered.
3. Melancholic
Black bile is the predominant fluid in the body. A melancholic person is characterised by
having a very kind and considerate heart. They can be highly creative like poets and artists,
but also can become overly obsessed by the tragedy and cruelty of the world. Thus,
becoming depressed. A melancholic is often a perfectionist.
4. Phlegmatic
Phlegm is the predominant fluid in the body. Phlegmatic are generally calm, controlled,
reliable, slow/sluggish, indifferent, thoughtful, peaceful, passive and careful. They are very
 consistent and observant making them good administrators and diplomats.
Q5. Explain Friedman’s types of personality.
Ans. In 1950s, two cardiologists named MEYER FRIEDMAN and RAY ROSENMAN categorized
people under two types of personalities – Type A and Type B personality. The two researchers
were trying to identify psycho-social risk factors when they discovered these types. These types
were later expanded to include Type C and Type D personality. According to him,
1. People with Type A personality, possess high motivation, lack patience, feel short of time,
be in a great hurry and feel like being always burdened with work. Such people find it
difficult to slow down and relax. They are highly competitive, dominant and high achievers.
They are more susceptible (prone) to problems like hypertension and Coronary Heart
Disease (CHD).
2. People with Type B personality are typically characterized by the absence of Type A traits.
These people are easy going and relaxed. They are less likely to experience stress and are
patient, creative and imaginative. They tend to be grounded and peaceful.
3. People with Type C personality are cooperative, unassertive and patient. They supress
their negative emotions (anger) and show compliance (obedience ) to authority. They are
focused, detail oriented and are likely to experience emotional stress. They are prone to
cancer.
4. People with Type D personality are introverted and keep their emotions to themselves.
They are pessimistic, cautious and are motivated by routine and stability. They are
organised and often prefer a calm working atmosphere. They are highly prone to
depression.

Q6. Explain the levels of consciousness given by Freud.

Ans.
While trying to understand the human mind, SIGMUND FREUD reached the startling conclusion
that most of the mind lies below the surface – below the threshold of conscious experience.
Therefore, he visualized the human mind in terms of three levels of consciousness :
1. Conscious
This includes our current thoughts: whatever we are thinking about or experiencing in a
given moment.

2. Preconscious/ Sub-conscious
Below this conscious level is the much larger preconscious. This contains memories
which are not part of current thought but can readily be brought to mind if the need arises.
3. Unconscious
Finally, beneath the preconscious and forming the bulk of human mind is the Unconscious.
This includes thoughts, desires and impulses of which we remain largely unaware. Freud
believed that much of this material was once conscious but has been actively repressed –
driven from consciousness because it was too anxiety-provoking. Freud contended that
shameful experiences or unacceptable sexual or aggressive urges are often driven deep
within the unconscious.

Freud also believed that many of the symptoms experienced by his patients were indirect
reflections of repressed thoughts and desires. This is why one of the major goal of
psychoanalysis – the method of treating psychological disorders (devised by Freud) – is
to bring repressed material back into consciousness. Through this patients get insight into
the early life experiences that caused them to repress these thoughts and desires and thus,
important causes of mental illness are removed. Freud believed that one way of probing
the unconscious was through the interpretation of dreams/ dream analysis. In dreams, he
believed we can give expression of impulses and desires we find unacceptable during our
waking hours.

Q7. Discuss the structure of personality given by Freud.

Or
Discuss the structural elements of personality given by Freud.
Ans.

According to Freud’s theory, the primary structural elements of personality are three – Id, Ego
and Superego. They reside in the unconscious as forces and can be inferred
(gathered/understood ) from the ways people behave.
1. ID
It is the source of a person’s instinctual energy. It deals with immediate gratification of
primitive needs, sexual desires and aggressive impulses. It works on the pleasure
principle, which assumes that people seek pleasure and try to avoid pain. It wants
immediate and total gratification (satisfaction ) and is not capable of considering the
potential costs of seeking this goal. it is the reservoir of life and death instincts.
For example : A boy who wants an ice-cream would immediately grab the cone and eat it.
2. EGO
It grows out of Id, and seeks to satisfy the individual needs in accordance with reality. It
works on the reality principle, and often directs the Id towards more appropriate ways of
behaving. Ego is patient, reasonable and partially conscious. It is the executive functioning
of the mind. It strives to satisfy the id’s desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways
by weighing the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon it.
For example : A boy who wants an ice-cream cone will ask for permission to eat it instead
grabbing it at once because he knows that otherwise he would be punished.
3. SUPER EGO
The final aspect of personality is the Superego. It begins to emerge at around age 5. It is
the moral branch of mental functioning and works on the morality principle, by judging
whether various ways that could potentially satisfy Id impulses are right or wrong. The
Superego permits us to gratify such impulses only when it is morally correct to do so. It is
acquired from our parents and through experience and represents our internalization of
the moral teachings and norms of our society.
For example : A boy who wants an ice-cream, his superego will indicate whether his
 behaviour is morally correct or not. Obtaining the ice-cream without permission will create
guilt, anxiety and fear in the boy.

According to Freud, the Ego faces another difficult task : it must strike a balance between
our primitive urges (the Id) and our learned moral constraints (the Superego). Freud felt
that this constant struggle between Id, Ego and Superego plays a key role in personality
and in many psychological disorders. He suggested that this struggle was often visible in
everyday behaviour, known as Freudian slips – errors in speech that actually reflect
unconscious impulses that have “gotten by” (easily slip through ) the ego or superego.

Q8. Explain the psycho-sexual stages of development.

Ans.

According to Freud, psychosexual stages are innately determined stages of sexual development
through which, presumably, we all pass, and which strongly shape the nature of our personality.
According to him, as we grow and develop, different parts of the body also termed as erogenous
zones, serve as the focus of our quest for pleasure.
1. ORAL STAGE
This stage lasts until we are about eighteen months old, we seek pleasure mainly through
the mouth. If too much or too little gratification occurs during this stage, an individual may
become fixated at it. Too little gratification results in a personality that is overly dependent
on others; too much gratification, especially after the child has developed some teeth,
results in a personality that is excessively hostile, especially through verbal sarcasm, nail-
biting or chewing tobacco.
2. ANAL STAGE
During the ages 2 and 3, the anus and bladder becomes the focus of certain pleasurable
feelings. This stage occurs in response to the efforts made by parents to toilet train their
children. The process of elimination becomes the primary focus of pleasure. Fixation at
 this stage, stemming from overly harsh toilet-training experiences, may result in the
formation of an Anal-retentive personality – individuals who are excessively orderly or
compulsive, they can’t leave any job unfinished and strive for perfection and neatness in
everything they do.
In contrast, fixation stemming from very relaxed toilet training, may result in an Anal-
expulsive personality – individuals who are undisciplined, impulsive and excessively
generous.
3. PHALLIC STAGE
During 3-6 years, genitals become the primary source of pleasure. Children begin to
realize the differences between males and females. They become aware of sexuality and
the sexual relationship between their parents. During this stage, little boys experience
Oedipus complex, which involves love for mother, hostility towards father, and the
consequent fear of punishment or castration by the father, leading to castration anxiety. A
major developmental achievement of this stage is the resolution of Oedipus complex –
little boys give up sexual desires for their mothers and come to see their father as models
rather than their rivals.
Little girls also experience similar anxiety termed as Electra complex, given by CARL
JUNG in 1913. It involves attaching her love to the father and hostility towards her mother.
To resolve this complex, little girls give up their sexual desires for their father and come to
see their mothers as their role models.
One of Freud’s most controversial suggestions is the idea that little girls experience penis
envy – stemming from their own lack of a male organ. Freud suggested that because of
such envy, girls experience strong feelings of inferiority and envy – feelings they carry
with them in disguised form even in adult life.
Fixation to this stage leads to troubled relationships with the authority figures of the
opposite gender and exhibitionism (immodesty ).
4. LATENCY STAGE
This stage lasts from 6 years until puberty. During this period, the sexual urges are latent
or hidden and the child continues to grow physically, intellectually and socially. The energy
is channelized into achievement related activities and learning new skills. At this stage,
the development of ego and superego contributes to this period of calm. Children begin to
identify themselves with the members of the same gender, they develop peer relationships,
hobbies and other interests.
Fixation at this stage may result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling
relationships as an adult.
5. GENITAL STAGE
During puberty, adolescents enter the last sage of psychosexual development. In this
stage the pleasure is again focused on the genitals, lust is blended with affection and
people become capable of adult love. The individuals develop a strong sexual interest in
the members of the opposite gender of the same age. While forming new relationships,
they now develop interest in the welfare of others, become warm, caring, well balanced
and learn to deal with relationships in a socially and sexually mature way.
Fixation to this stage may lead to difficulty in forming relationships with the members of
 the opposite gender.
Q9. Explain the basic concepts of Karen Horney’s theory of personality.
Ans.

 KAREN HORNEY was one of the neo-Freudians, who disagreed with Freud strongly over
his view that differences between men and women stemmed largely from innate factors.
Horney contended that women often do feel inferior to men, this is not a result of penis
envy but of how women are treated by society.

 She argued that if women were raised in a different type of environment, they would see
themselves more favourably. It was not the male penis women envied, but rather the
power and autonomy associated with maleness.

 She maintained that psychological disorders stem not from fixation of psychic energy, but
rather from disturbed interpersonal relationships and basic anxiety.

 Basic Anxiety – children’s fear of being left alone, helpless and insecure in a potentially
hostile world. This insecurity may be caused due to – direct or indirect domination by the
parents, lack of respect for the child’s individual needs, lack of real guidance, lack of
reliable warmth, over protection, isolation from other children, injustice, discrimination,
unkempt promises, hostile atmosphere, etc.

 This anxiety results into basic hostility towards parents and in reaction to excessive levels
of such anxiety, children adopt one of the three styles:
1. Passive style : in which they try to cope by being agreeable and complaint.
2. Aggressive style : in which they fight to get attention.
3. Withdrawn style : in which they repress their emotions.

 Thus, by emphasizing children’s relationship with their parents, Horney brought attention
to the importance of social factors in shaping personality.
Q10. Explain the theory given by Erik Erikson. OR explain the psycho-social stages of
development.
Ans.
ERIK ERIKSON’S theory suggests that all human beings pass through specific stages or phases
of development. He believed that each stage of life is marked by a specific crisis or conflict
between competing tendencies. Only if individuals negotiate each of these hurdles successfully
can they continue to develop in a normal, healthy manner.
The first four occur during childhood; one takes place during adolescence; and the final three
occur during our adult years.
1. Trust versus Mistrust
During the first year of life, infants must trust others to satisfy their needs. If these needs
are not met, infants fail to develop feelings of trust in others and remain forever
suspicious and wary (distrustful ).
2. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
During the second year of life, toddlers are learning to regulate their own bodies and to act
in independent ways. If they succeed in these tasks, they develop a sense of autonomy.
But if they fail, or if they are labelled as inadequate by the persons who care for them, they
may experience shame and may doubt their abilities to interact effectively with the
external world.
3. Initiative versus Guilt
During the preschool years, children are acquiring many new mental and physical skills.
Simultaneously, however, they must develop the capacity to control their impulses. If they
strike the right balance between initiative and feelings of guilt, all is well. However, if
initiative overwhelms guilt, children may become unruly for their own good. If guilt
overwhelms initiative, they become too inhibited (withdrawn ).
4. Industry versus Inferiority
 During early school years, between 6 – 11 years of age, children learn to make things, use
tools, and acquire many of the skills necessary for adult life. Children who successfully
acquire these skills form a sense of their own competence; those who do not may
compare themselves unfavourably with others and suffer from low self-esteem.
5. Identity versus Role Confusion
At this time of life, teenagers ask themselves, “Who am I?”, “What am I really like?”, “What
do I want to become?”. They seek to establish a clear self-identity – to understand their
own unique traits and what is really of central importance to them. According to Erikson,
during adolescence it is crucial that these questions be answered effectively. If they are
not. Individuals may drift, uncertain of where they want to go or what they wish to
accomplish.
6. Intimacy versus Isolation
During early adulthood, Erikson suggests that individuals must develop the ability to form
deep, intimate relationships with others. This does not mean simply sexual intimacy;
rather, it involves the ability to form strong emotional attachments to others. This first
crisis of adult life centres in the capacity to love – to care deeply and consistently for
others. People who fail to resolve it successfully will live in isolation, unable to form truly
intimate, lasting relationships.
7. Generativity versus Self-absorption
The second crisis of adult life involves the need for individuals to overcome selfish, self-
centred concerns and to take an active interest in helping and guiding the next generation.
For parents, such activities are focused on their children. People who do not become
parents can express generativity by providing help and guidance to young people –
students, younger coworkers, nieces and nephews, and so on. Individuals who
successfully resolve this crisis are able to discover new meaning in their life. People who
do not resolve this crisis successfully become absorbed in their own lives and gradually
cut themselves off from important source of growth and satisfaction.

8. Integrity versus Despair

As people reach the final decades of life, they look back and ask, “Did my life had any
meaning?”, “Did my being here really matter?” If they are able to answer yes, and to fell
that they reached many of their goals, they attain a sense of integrity. If, instead, they find
their lives to be lacking of such dimensions, they may experience intense feelings of
despair.
Successful resolution of this final crisis can have important effects on how individuals
come to terms with their own mortality – the inevitable fact of death – and on their
psychological and physical health during the final years of life.

Q11. Explain the theory of fully functioning person by Carl Rogers with suitable example.
Ans.
  CARL ROGERS theory assumes that human beings show many positive characteristics and
move toward becoming fully functioning persons. Rogers suggests that they are people
who strive to experience life to the fullest, who live in the here and now, and who trust their
own feelings. They are sensitive to the needs and rights of others, but they do not allow
society’s standards to shape their feelings and actions to an excessive degree. Their
actions are dominated by constructive impulses. They are in close touch with their own
values and feelings and experience life more deeply than most other persons.

 Rogers contends that often life experiences are inconsistent with our ideas about
ourselves – a gap develops between our self-concept (our beliefs and knowledge about
ourselves) and reality.

 In other words, an incongruence develops between the Real self (what someone is in real
life) and the Ideal self (what someone what to become in this life). This gap leads to an
experience of anxiety and the individual adopts one or more psychological defenses like
distortion or denial. The larger such gaps, the greater the maladjustment and personal
unhappiness.

 Rogers suggested that distortions in the self-concept are common, because most people
grow up in an atmosphere of Conditional Positive Regard. They learn that others, such as
their parents will approve them only when they behave in certain ways and express certain
feelings. Rogers termed these as Conditions of Worth.

 Rogers suggested, such distorted self-concepts can be repaired by placing individuals in

an atmosphere of Unconditional Positive regard – a setting in which they will be accepted
no matter what they say or do.

 For example : Imagine a young girls who is quite independent and self-reliant, and thinks
of herself in the same way. After her older sibling dies in an accident, her parents become
over protective and begin to convey the message that she is vulnerable and must be
sheltered from the outside world.
This treatment is highly incongruent with her self-concept. As a result, she experiences
anxiety and may refuse to admit to herself that as a result of being babied, she is indeed
losing her independence. This may badly distort her self-concept and make her
increasingly helpless.
Q12. Explain the theory given by Maslow.
Ans.

 Another influential Humanistic theory was proposed by ABRAHAM MASLOW (1970).

Maslow’s theory of needs hierarchy suggests that human needs exist in a hierarchy,
ranging from physiological needs on the bottom, through safety needs, social needs,
esteem needs, and finally self-actualization need at the top.

 According to Maslow, lower order needs must be satisfied before we can turn to more
complex, higher-order needs. Thus, a hungry person won’t be very interested in self-
actualizing; and one whose safety need is threatened won’t focus on fulfilling esteem
needs.

 The need hierarchy, however, is only part of Maslow’s theory of personality. Maslow
believes that psychologically heathy individuals are those who have attained high levels of
self-actualization – a state in which they have reached their fullest true potential.

 In essence, much like the fully functioning persons described by Rogers, Self-actualized
people accept themselves for what they are; they recognise their shortcomings as well
their strengths. They are less inhibited and less likely to conform to the society. They are
well aware of the rules imposed by the society, but feel greater freedom to ignore them
than most persons. They seem to retain their childhood wonder and amazement with the
world. For them, life continues to be an exciting adventure rather than a boring routine.

 Self-actualized persons sometimes have peak experiences – instances in which they

have powerful feelings of unity with the universe and feel tremendous waves of power and
wonder. Such experiences appear to be linked with personal growth. After peak
experiences, individuals report feeling more spontaneous, more appreciative of life, and
less concerned with the problems of everyday life.

 Examples of people described as fully self-actualized are Thomas Jefferson, Albert

Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, George Washington Carver, Lata Mangeshkar, etc.
Q13. Discuss the trait theory of personality given by Allport.
Ans.

 GORDON ALLPORT is considered the pioneer of trait approach. According to him,

“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical
systems that determine his unique adjustments to the environment.”

 He proposed that individuals possess a number of traits, which are dynamic in nature.
They determine the behaviour in such a manner that an individual approaches different
situations with similar plans.

 Allport argued that the words people use to describe themselves and others provide a
basis for understanding human personality. He analysed the words of English language to
look for traits which describe a person. Based on these, he categorized traits into cardinal,
central and secondary.

 Cardinal traits are single traits that dominate an individual’s entire personality. They
indicate the goal around which an individual’s entire life seems to revolve.For example :
Mahatma Gandhi (non-violence), Adolf Hitler (Nazism), Alexander the Great (lust for
power).
 Central traits are the five or ten traits that best describe an individual’s personality.
Together they account for the uniqueness of an individual’s personality.For example :
warm, sincere, diligent, hardworking.
 Secondary traits are those which exert relatively specific and weak effects on behaviour.
Traits such as likes and dislikes of an individual.For example : liking mangoes, preferring
ethnic clothes.
 Keeping in mind the influence of situations on the behaviour of an individual, Allport
believed that the way an individual reacts to a given situation depends on his or her traits.
Although people sharing the same traits might express them in different ways.

 An even more important aspect of Allport’s theory of personality is his concept of

Functional Autonomy – the idea that patterns of behaviour that are initially acquired under
one set of circumstances, and which satisfy one set of motives, may later be performed
for very different reasons.
 For example : initially a child may learn to read because this pleases his teachers and
parents and because failure to do so is punished. Later in life, however, the same person
may continue reading because he has come to enjoy this activity and is intrinsically
motivated for it.

Q14. Explain the trait theory given by Cattell.

Ans.

 RAYMOND CATTELL focused on identifying the basic dimensions of personality by

different approach. He used inductive method of scientific inquiry to develop his theory of
personality. He tried to identify the primary traits from a huge array (collection ) of
descriptive adjectives found in English language. He applied a statistical technique known
as factor analysis, to discover the common structures.
1. He identified 16 Source traits – dimensions of personality that underlie many other traits.
They are the basic underlying structures which constitute the building blocks of
personality. They exist at a “deeper” level of personality and are majorly the causes of
behaviour over an extended period of time.
Depending on their origin , source traits can be divided into two subtypes – Constitutional
traits (driven from the biological and physiological conditions of an individual) and
Environmental traits (determined by influences of social and physical environment).
Depending on the modality through which they are expressed , source traits can be
divided into three sub-types – Ability traits (determine the person’s skill and effectiveness
in pursuing a desired goal.For example : intelligence, musical aptitude ), Temperament
traits (relate to other emotional and stylistic qualities of behaviour.For example : doing a
task quickly or slowly ) and Dynamic traits (relate to the motivational elements of human
behavioursuch as ambitious, power-oriented ).
2. Surface Traits are formed by the interaction of a number of source traits. They do not have
a unitary basis and are not consistent overtime.For example : inability to concentrate,
indecisiveness, restlessness, etc., may cluster together to form the surface trait of
neuroticism.
3. Common traits are those that are shared in varying degrees by all members of the same
culture.For example : self-esteem, intelligence and introversion .
4. Unique traits are those that are shared by few or no other people. Unique traits are
especially observed in the areas of interests and attitudes.

 Based on his classification of traits, Cattell developed a widely used personality test called
Sixteen Personality factor Questionnaire (16 PF).

Q 15. Explain the five-factor model of Costa and McCrae.

Ans. PAUL COSTA and ROBERT Mc CRAE have done extensive research on all the possible
personality traits, they found that all the findings indicate a set of five – factors. They are often
called ‘Big Five Factors’. They are as follows :

1. Openness to experience : A dimension ranging from imaginative, witty, and having broad
interests at one end to down-to-earth, simple and having narrow interests at the other.
Those who score high on this factor are creative, curious, open to new ideas and
interested in cultural pursuits. In contrast, low scoring persons are rigid.
2. Conscientiousness : A dimension ranging from well-organized, careful, self-disciplined,
responsible and precise at one end to disorganized, impulsive, careless, and undependable
at the other. High scoring people are achievement oriented, dependable, responsible and
hardworking. Low scoring people are impulsive.
3. Extroversion : A dimension ranging from energetic, enthusiastic, sociable, and talkative at
one end to retiring, sober, reserved, silent and cautious at the other. It characterises
people who are socially active, assertive, outgoing, talkative and fun loving. Low scoring
persons are shy, timid and socially withdrawn.
4. Agreeableness : A dimension ranging from good-natured, cooperative, trusting and
helpful at one end to irritable, suspicious and uncooperative at the other. It represents the
traits of people who are helpful, cooperative, friendly, caring and nurturing. Low scoring
people are hostile and self-centred.
5. Neuroticism/ Emotional Stability : A dimension ranging from poised, calm, composed and
not hypochondriacal at one end to nervous, anxious and hypochondriacal at the other.
People scoring high on this factor are emotionally unstable, anxious, worried and fearful.
Low scoring people are emotionally stable and well adjusted.
The five factor model represents an important theoretical development in the field of personality.
It has been found useful in understanding the personality profile of people across cultures. It is
consistent with the analysis of personality traits found in different languages and it is also
supported by the studies of personality carried out through different methods.

Q16. Explain the Social Cognitive theory of Bandura.

Ans.

 The Social Cognitive Theory is one of the learning theories of personality which
indicates that internal factors – especially many aspects of cognition – play a
crucial role in behaviour. In his theory, ALBERT BANDURA places great emphasis
on the concept of self-system – the cognitive processes by which a person
perceives, evaluates and regulates his or her own behaviour so that it is
appropriate in a given situation.

 According to him, people think about the consequences of their actions, anticipate
future events, and establish goals and plans. They also engage in self-
reinforcement, patting themselves when they attain their goals.

 They have self-set goals and meeting these goals allows them to engage in self-
reinforcement and keep them motivated to accomplish a task.

 Bandura’s theory emphasises on Observational learning – a form of learning in

which individuals acquire both information and new forms of behaviour from
observing others. Such learnings play a key role in a wide range of human activities
and shape their behaviour.

 Bandura states that people have beliefs about themselves that they can perform
some behaviours or task successfully or not, which is called Self efficacy. It plays a
key role in success on many tasks like health, personal happiness and life
satisfaction.
For example : If you sit down to take an exam and expect to do well, your self-
efficacy is high; if you have doubts about your performance, your self-efficacy is
low.
 According to Bandura, there are three factors that influence human behaviour : the
environment (involving physical surroundings and the potential for reinforcement);
the person (including personal/cognitive characteristics rewarded in the past); and
the behaviour (which may or may not be reinforced at the particular time and place).
He called it, the concept of Reciprocal determinism.

 Research findings also indicate that people form general expectations about their
abilities to succeed at many tasks or to exert control over the events in their lives.
Such generalized beliefs are stable overtime, and these can be viewed as an
important aspect of personality.