ELECTRICITY

When you turn on your computer, television and most other appliances in your home the electricity you
use is almost certainly going to come from the mains supply. This electrical energy usually enters our
homes through an underground cable. The cable is connected to an electricity meter, which measures
the amount of electrical energy used. From here, the cable is connected to a consumer unit or a fuse
box, which contains fuses or circuit breakers for the various circuits in your home. Fuses and circuit
breakers are safety devices which shut off the electricity in a circuit if the current in them becomes too
large .

Most of the wires that leave the fuse box are connected to ring main circuits that are hidden in the walls
or floors around each room. Individual pieces of electrical equipment are connected to these circuits
using plugs.

In this unit, you will need to use ampere (A) as the unit of current, coulomb (C) as the unit of charge,
joule (J) as the unit of energy, ohm (Ω) as the unit of resistance, second (s) as the unit of time, volt (V) as
the unit of voltage and watt (W) as the unit of power.

Ring main circuits usually consist of three wires - the live wire, the neutral wire and the earth wire.

The live wire provides the path along which the electrical energy from the power station travels. The
neutral wire completes the circuit.

The earth wire usually has no current in it. It is there to protect you if an appliance develops a fault It
provides a path for current to escape without passing through the user.

The mains electricity supplied to homes in the UK, China, India and many other countries is between 220
V and 240 V. This is a much higher voltage than the cells and batteries used in mobile electrical
appliances. If you come into direct contact with mains electricity you could receive a severe electric
shock, which might even be fatal. To prevent this the outer part of a plug, called the casing, is made
from plastic, which is a good insulator.

Connections to the circuits are made via three brass pins, as the metal brass is an excellent conductor of
electricity. Figure below shows the inside of a 3-pin plug used in the UK, but similar principles apply to all
kinds of plug all over the world.

SAFETY FEATURE
FUSE
Many plugs contain a fuse. The fuse is usually in the form of a cylinder or cartridge, which contains a thin
piece of wire made from a metal that has a low melting point. If there is too large a current in the circuit
the fuse wire becomes very hot and melts. The fuse 'blows'. The circuit is now incomplete so there is no
current. This prevents you getting a shock and reduces the possibility of an electrical fire. Once the fault
causing the increase in current has been corrected, the blown fuse must be replaced with a new one of
the same size before the appliance can be used again.
There are several sizes of fuses. The most common for domestic appliances in the UK are 3 A, 5 A and 13
A. The correct fuse for a circuit is the one that allows the correct current but blows if the current is a
little larger. If the correct current in a circuit is 2 A then it should be protected with a 3 A fuse. If the
correct current is 4 A then a 5 A fuse should be used. It is possible to calculate the correct size of fuse for
an appliance but nowadays manufacturers provide appliances already fitted with the correct size of fuse.

Modern safety devices, such as those you might find in your consumer unit, are often in the form of trip
switches or circuit breakers. If too large a current flows in a circuit a switch automatically opens making
the circuit incomplete. Once the fault in the circuit has been corrected, the switch is reset, usually by
pressing a reset button. There is no need for the switch or circuit breaker to be replaced, as there is
when fuses are used.

EARTH WIRE AND DOUBLE INSULATION

Many appliances have a metal casing. This should be connected to the earth wire so that if the live wire
becomes damaged or breaks and comes into contact with the casing the earth wire provides a low-
resistance path for the current. This current is likely to be large enough to blow the fuse and turn the
circuit off. Without the earth wire anyone touching the casing of the faulty appliance would receive a
severe electric shock as the current passed through them to earth.
Some modern appliances now use casings made from an insulator such as plastic rather than from
metal. If all the electrical parts of an appliance are insulated in this way, so that they cannot be touched
by the user, the appliance is said to have double insulation. Appliances that have double insulation use a
two-wire flex. There is no need for an earth wire.

Some modern appliances now use casings made from an insulator such as plastic rather than from
metal. If all the electrical parts of an appliance are insulated in this way, so that they cannot be touched
by the user, the appliance is said to have double insulation. Appliances that have double insulation use a
two-wire flex. There is no need for an earth wire.
SWITCHES
Switches in mains circuits should always be placed in the live wire so that when the switch is open no
electrical energy can reach an appliance. If the switch is placed in the neutral wire, electrical energy can
still enter a faulty appliance, and could possibly cause an electric shock
THE HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT

The wiring in a house is designed to let current pass through it easily. As a result, the wires do not
become warm when appliances are being used. We say that the wires have a low resistance. However,
in some appliances, for example, kettles or toasters, we want wires (more usually called heating
elements) to become warm. The wires of a heating element are designed to have a high resistance so
that as the current passes through them energy is transferred and the element heats up. We use this
heating effect of current in many different ways in our homes.

Other common appliances that make use of the heating effect of electricity include kettles, dishwashers,
electric cookers, washing machines, electric fires and hairdryers.

When current passes through the very thin wire (filament) of a traditional light bulb it becomes very hot
and glows (shines) white. The bulb is transferring electrical energy to heat and light energy.
ELECTRICAL POWER
Figure below shows a 50 W halogen light bulb. You can also buy 70 W light bulbs. Both bulbs transfer
electrical energy to heat and light. The 70 W bulb will be brighter because it transfers 70 J of electrical
energy every second. The dimmer 50 W halogen bulb shown transfers only 50 J of energy every second.
A 70 W bulb has a higher power rating.

Power is measured in joules per second or watts (W).

Devices that transfer lots of energy very quickly have their power rating expressed in kilo watts (kW).

1 kW= 1000W

The power (P) of an appliance is related to the voltage (V) across it and the current (I) flowing through it.
The equation is:

power, P (watts) = current, I (amps) × voltage, V (volts)

 P=I×V

1) A 230 V television takes a current of 3 A. Calculate the power of the television.

2) Calculate the correct fuse that should be used for a 230 V, 1 kW electric hairdryer.

CALCULATING THE TOTAL ENERGY TRANSFERRED BY AN APPLIANCE

The power of an appliance (P) tells you how much energy it transfers each second. This means that the
total energy (E) transferred by an appliance is equal to its power multiplied by the length of time (in
seconds) the appliance is being used.

Calculate the energy transferred by

a) 60 W bulb that is turned on for 20 s, and

b) 5 min.

ALTERNATING CURRENT AND DIRECT CURRENT

If we could see the current or voltage from the mains it would appear to be very strange. Its value
increases and then decreases and then does the same again but in the opposite direction. If we could
draw these changes as a graph they would look like a wave.

This happens because of the way in which the electricity is generated at the power station. A current or
voltage that behaves like this is called an alternating current (a.c.) or alternating voltage. This is very
different to the currents and voltages we get from batteries and cells.

Cells and batteries provide currents and voltages that are always in the same direction and have the
same value. This is called direct current (d.c .) or direct voltage. If we drew this as a graph it would be a
straight horizontal line.
 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN CIRCUITS
CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric current is a flow of charge. In metal wires the charges are carried by very small particles
called electrons.

Electrons flow easily through all metals. We therefore describe metals as being good conductors of
electricity. Electrons do not flow easily through plastics - they are poor conductors of electricity. A very
poor conductor is known as an insulator and is often used in situations where we want to prevent the
flow of charge - for example, in the casing of a plug.

In metals, some electrons are free to move between the atoms. Under normal circumstances this
movement is random - that is, the number of electrons flowing in any one direction is roughly equal to
the number flowing in the opposite direction. There is therefore no overall flow of charge.

If, however, a cell or battery is connected across the conductor, more of the electrons now flow in the
direction away from the negative terminal and towards the positive terminal than in the opposite
direction. We say 'there is now a net flow of charge'. This flow of charge is what we call an electric
current.

In insulators, all the electrons are held tightly in position and are unable to move from atom to atom.
Charges are therefore unable to move through insulators.

MEASURING CURRENT

We measure the size of the current in a circuit using an ammeter. The ammeter is connected in series
with the part of the circuit we are interested in.
The size of an electric current indicates the rate at which the charge flows. The charge carried by one
electron is very small and would not be a very useful measure of charge in everyday life. It would be a
little like asking how far away the Moon is from the Earth ... and getting the answer in mm!

To avoid this problem we measure electric charge (Q) in much bigger units called coulombs (C). One
coulomb of charge is equal to the charge carried by approximately six million, million, million (6 x 10^18)
electrons.

We measure electric current (I) in amperes or amps (A). If there is a current of 1 A in a wire it means that
1 C of charge is passing along the wire each second.

Current(I) = charge(Q) per unit time(t)

I = Q/t
Q=I×t
1)
a) Calculate the charge flowing through a wire in 10 s if the current is 5 A.
b) How many electrons flow through the wire in this time?

VOLTAGE
We often use cells or batteries to move charges around circuits. We can imagine them as being
'electron pumps'. They transfer energy to the charges. The amount of energy given to the charges by a
cell or battery is measured in volts M and is usually indicated on the side of the battery or cell.

If we connect a 1.5 V cell into a circuit (Figure 7.6) and current flows, 1.5 J of energy is given to each
coulomb of charge that passes through the cell.

If two 1.5 V cells are connected in series (Figure 7. 7) so that they are pumping (pushing) in the same
direction, each coulomb of charge will receive 3 J of energy.

The volt is a joule per coulomb.

E=Q×V
V = E/Q
V=R× I
Voltage is the product of resistance and current
As the charges flow around a circuit the energy they carry is transferred by the components they pass
through. For example, when current passes through a bulb, energy is transferred to the surroundings as
heat and light. When a current passes through the speaker of a radio, most of the energy is transferred
as sound.

In the external part of a circuit (outside the cell or battery) the voltage across each component tells us
how much energy it is transferring. If the voltage across a component is 1 V this means that the
component is transferring 1 J of energy each time 1 C of charge passes through it.

We can describe the relationship between the energy transferred, charge and voltage using the
equation:

energy transferred, E (Joules) = charge, Q (coulombs) x voltage, V (volts)

E=Q×V
 1. The voltage across a light bulb is 12 V. Calculate the electrical energy transferred when 50 C of
charge passes through it.
2. The voltage across a heater is 230 V. There is a current of 5 A through the heater for 5 mins.
Calculate the total amount of energy transferred during this time.

MEASURING VOLTAGES
We measure voltages using a voltmeter. This is connected across (in parallel with) the component we
are investigating. A voltmeter connected across a cell or battery will measure the energy given to each
coulomb of charge that passes through it. A voltmeter connected across a component will measure the
electrical energy transferred when each coulomb of charge passes through it.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
When the button on the torch shown in Figure 7.9 is pressed, the circuit is complete - that is, there are
no gaps. Charges are able to flow around the circuit and the torch bulb glows. When the button is
released the circuit becomes incomplete. Charges cease to flow and the bulb goes out.
We sometimes put a small bulb or lamp in a circuit to show us if a circuit is 'turned on'. When there is a
current in the circuit the bulb glows or shines. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) also glow when there is a
current in a circuit but they require far less energy than bulbs. This is why many appliances such as TVs,
DVD players and routers use small LEDs to show when the appliance is working or on standby.

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

There are two main types of electrical circuit. There are those circuits where there are no branches or
junctions and there is only one path the current can follow. These simple 'single loop' circuits are called
series circuits. Circuits that have branches or junctions and more than one path that the current can
follow are called parallel circuits.
Series circuits and parallel circuits behave differently. This makes them useful in different situations. In a
series circuit containing bulbs:

• One switch placed anywhere in the circuit can turn all the bulbs on and off.

• If any one of the bulbs breaks, it causes a gap in the circuit and all of the other bulbs will 'stop
working'.

• The energy supplied by the cell is 'shared' between all the bulbs, so the more bulbs you add to a series
circuit the less bright they all become.

In a parallel circuit containing bulbs:

• Switches can be placed in different parts of the circuit to switch each bulb on and off individually, or all
together.

• If one bulb breaks, only the bulbs on the same branch of the circuit will be affected.

• Each branch of the circuit receives the same voltage, so if more bulbs are added to a circuit in parallel
they all keep the same brightness.

Decorative lights are often wired in series. Each bulb only needs a low voltage, so even when the voltage
from the mains supply is 'shared' out between them each bulb still gets enough energy to produce light.
Unfortunately, if the filament in one of the bulbs breaks then all the other bulbs will go out.
 The lights in your home are wired in parallel. We know this because lights can be switched on and off
separately, and the brightness of each light does not change when other lights are on or off. Also, if a
bulb breaks or is removed, you can still use the other lights.

CURRENT IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

In a series circuit the current is the same in all parts; current is not used up.

The size of the current in a series circuit depends on the voltage supplied to it, and the number and type
of the other components in the circuit. If a second identical cell is added in series the voltage will double
and so the current will also double.

Advantages Disadvantages
We know that the series circuits do not get We know that in the series circuit, all the
heated easily. Therefore, any dry or flammable appliances are connected one after another.
object placed near the series circuit will not In case if there is any fault or break at one of
catch the fire in case of overheating of the the appliances, the appliances connected
circuit. after that will be cut off from the supply.

CURRENT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

In a parallel circuit the currents will not be the same in different parts of the circuit. The types of
components in each of the different parts will affect the currents .

In a parallel circuit the number of electrons that flow into a junction each second must be equal to the
number that leave each second. This means that the currents entering a junction must always be equal
to those that leave. For example, in Figure below the current that enters junction P is 0.6 A. The current
that leaves is 0.4 A+ 0.2 A = 0.6 A.

Advantages Disadvantages
We know that the voltage remains constant in the To construct the parallel connection, we
parallel connection. Therefore, each component in
need lots of wires.
the circuit gets the same amount of voltage.
We can connect or disconnect a new electric We cannot meet the requirement when the
appliance in the circuit without affecting the other exact same amount of current is required
components in the circuit. to pass through the element.
If there is a fault in one of the electric appliances, In parallel circuits, we cannot increase the
the current is able to pass through different paths voltage since the resistance decreases in
of the circuit. the parallel circuit.