A Literature Survey of Broken Ice-Structure Interaction Modelling Methods

Ocean Engineering 221 (2021) 108527
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ocean Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng
Review
A literature survey of broken ice-structure interaction modelling methods

for ships and offshore platforms
Mohammed Islam *, Jason Mills, Robert Gash, Wayne Pearson
Ocean Coastal and River Engineering Research Centre, National Research Council, 1 Arctic Avenue, St. John’s, NL, A1B3T5, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Numerical modelling present an alternative to the more industry-accepted full-scale trials and physical model
Ice-structure interactions tests for predicting ice actions on ships and offshore platforms in a broken ice-field. Before a method is developed
Numerical modelling or adopted, it is essential to survey the existing methods that modelled relevant aspects of ice-ship interaction
Dynamic positioning
processes. This work presents an extensive literature survey of various existing ice-structure interaction models,
Empirical and analytical models
primarily in the context of their applications to the simulations of stationkeeping and dynamic positioning (DP)
Real-time simulations
of ships and offshore platforms in broken and managed ice-fields. A brief discussion is presented on various
modelling methods, highlights of their capabilities, limitations, and applicability for real-time or fast simulations.
Most of the computational methods such as finite element method (FEM), discrete element method (DEM),
particle in cell (PIC) method, smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method, and other conventional
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods require high computation resources. They often take a long
calculation time, which is unsuitable for real-time simulations. The suitable methods for such simulations are
perhaps the non-smooth DEM (NDEM), 2-D DEM, empirical, and some hybrid methods. Regardless of the
methods adopted, validations with quality measurements and observations are paramount to the success of the
models.
1. Introduction few decades. Early experiences include the Canmare/Dome drillship

operations (Jolles et al., 1989), the Kulluk drilling campaigns (Wright,
The interest in future oil and gas exploration in deep water arctic 1999) and the Sakhalin 2 phase 1 oil production operations that were
regions is expected to demand customized stationkeeping systems. Of using the floating storage and offloading tanker Okha (Keinonen et al.,
particular interest are dynamic positioning (DP) capabilities for drill- 2000, 2006a, 2006b). For the first time in history, dynamic positioning
ships, offshore supply ships, floating production, storage and off operations in ice were performed in the offshore Sakhalin, May–June
loading (FPSOs), and icebreakers, allowing them to operate under 1999 (Keinonen et al., 2000). In support of compression diving, the CSO
challenging sea ice drift conditions. One of the greatest threats to the DP constructor performed the dynamic positioning operation in ice of a type
systems of ships and offshore installations is the multi-directionality of B ice-class ship with support from two icebreakers acting as an ice
drifting sea ice with a wide variety of types and forms, ranging from management team. Ice management has been an integral part of
isolated first-year floes to compacted multi-year ridges (Metrikin, 2015). exploration and production activities in the Arctic, where stationkeep
This issue is further complicated by the ice-ship interaction process that ing is required. Rohlén (2009) discussed the relationship between ice
depends on many complex and interconnected parameters and charac management and stationkeeping in ice with specific references for some
teristics related to the ice-field, the ship, and the surrounding environ full-scale efforts. Based on the experience in the Arctic Core Expedition
ment (Metrikin, 2014). Analytical and numerical models and their (ACEX2004) and KANUMAS 2008 operations, the author stressed the
validations using measurements are essential and a key to understanding importance and relevance of ice management in stationkeeping of
the problem and designing both the floating and stationkeeping systems. floating structures during oil and gas related activities in the arctic re
The operators have gained limited experience in real-world sta gion. Impacts from unmanaged ice floes and changes in the ice drift
tionkeeping in broken ice-fields (managed and unmanaged) over the last direction were hazardous to the stationkeeping systems during the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mohammed.islam@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca (M. Islam).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2020.108527
Received 3 July 2020; Received in revised form 16 December 2020; Accepted 17 December 2020
Available online 30 December 2020
0029-8018/Crown Copyright © 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Islam et al. Ocean Engineering 221 (2021) 108527
pioneering operations of the CSO Constructor (Keinonen et al., 2000) Reynolds law is usually ignored.
and the Vidar Viking (Keinonen et al., 2006a). Recently, a DP operation The ice-structure interactions encountered during stationkeeping of
was performed by the icebreaking rescue and emergency ship Baltika ships and offshore platforms in the broken ice-field have added
equipped with the Navis Nav DP4000 (DP System) and the Navis complexity. Depending on the local geometrical configuration and
AP4000 Heading control system (autopilot) in the Kara Sea (Navis En relative velocity at the ice-structure contact points, the ice failure and
gineering, 2015). A majority of the researchers and operators above subsequent load release can occur through local crushing, buckling,
identified the need for developing prediction capabilities, simulation bending, shearing, splitting, ridging, rafting, pure displacement, or a
technologies and training facilities for DP operations in heavy managed mixture of two or more of the above failure modes. After breaking from a
and unmanaged dynamic ice conditions. Before developing these tech large floe, the smaller floes may accelerate, rotate, collide, accumulate,
nologies, the current knowledge gap in understanding the magnitude submerge and slide along the hull until they are cleared away. The hy
and nature of ice actions encountered by the DP-controlled drilling and drodynamic interactions between the water-ice-structure may become
production systems operating in broken ice-fields need to be addressed. relevant and significant during the broken ice and structure interactions,
Several Research and Development projects were initiated world particularly for high ice drifts on a stationary structure or for high
wide to improve the understanding of ice-structure interactions and advance speed of the structure through the stationary ice-field. Also, a
enhance the capabilities of the existing stationkeeping systems. HSVA in dramatic change in ice-ship interaction modes in the presence of brash
Germany led a 3-year (2010–2012) R & D project titled “Dynamic ice and small ice floes has been observed, and it is generally recom
Positioning in Ice-covered Waters (DYPIC)” primarily aiming at devel mended that these effects are included in the model.
oping and improving its numerical modelling and physical model testing Several numerical modelling efforts attempted to understand and
capabilities of DP ships (Jenssen et al., 2012; Kerkeni et al., 2014). model the ice interactions on a stationary or DP controlled/moored
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) led a five year stationkeeping floating structure or slowly maneuvering ships in
(2010–2014) R & D project titled “Arctic DP – Safe and Green Dynamic managed or unmanaged broken ice over the last few decades. Kubat and
Positioning Operations of Offshore Ships in an Arctic Environment,” Sayed (2014) provided a brief literature survey on modelling and nu
primarily aiming at developing DP control system technologies for merical simulation methods to investigate ice management related to
proper DP operations in the Arctic environment (Skjetne et al., 2014). ice-structure interactions. The authors noted a substantial increase in
The Centre for Marine Simulation at the Marine Institute (CMS-MI), the publications during 2009–2014 covering diverse subjects such as re
NRC-OCRE and Kongsberg Digital Simulation (KDS) Ltd., has completed quirements for operational ice management systems, ice basin testing of
a 5 year R & D project and developed a statistically reliable numerical DP-controlled ships, reports on field trials, and various numerical
model to predict in real-time the ice actions encountered by sta models to deal with aspects of stationkeeping and ice management.
tionkeeping ships due to the complex and dynamic ice-ship interactions Metrikin (2015) provided a brief literature survey of different calcula
in different managed ice environments. These projects resulted in mul tion methods for predicting ice forces on offshore structures.
tiple numerical tools for modelling the broken ice and floating structure The section presents a survey of publicly available ice – structure
interactions and contributed to the advancement of knowledge and interaction modelling methods categorized into four groups: Analytical
understanding of the intricate ice-structure interactions (Islam et al., Methods, Empirical-Statistical Methods, Numerical Methods, and
2016, 2018). Besides the above endeavour, several other methods have Hybrid Methods. The following sub-sections present a summary of work
been developed for modelling the global ice loads on stationary and on the sub-sets of each group of methods with an emphasis on the
moving ships. Documentation on various numerical methods and their methods, highlights of the capabilities, limitations, and real-time
capabilities and limitations is expected to benefit the current and new applicability.
researchers. This encourages an effort to accumulate all existing
research to better understand the effect of various ice-field parameters 2.1. analytical methods
on the performance of a stationkeeping structure and the ice-structure
interactions modelling endeavours. Analytical methods present mathematical or analytical solutions for
This paper presents a comprehensive literature survey of publicly each primary type of ice failure mode and ice movement events with
available ice-structure interaction prediction models and research. consideration to the mechanics of ice interactions to predict ice actions
Section 2 presented a summary of the detailed literature survey on on structures. An analytical model generally takes into account the three
various existing ice-structure interaction models. In the survey, all primary limiting mechanisms of the ice load transfer to a structure,
methods are conveniently grouped into four categories. A brief discus namely, the limiting driving force, limiting momentum, and limiting
sion is presented for each method, highlighting their capabilities, limi stress. The limiting driving force and limiting momentum are computed
tations, and applicability for practical and real-time simulations. After using analytical/empirical solutions, and the limiting stress is computed
this, the authors present a summary of the methods in the context of by analyzing the salient interactions and the dominant modes of ice
several modelling aspects for practical and real-time simulations of DP failure via closed-form analytical solutions.
ships and broken ice interactions. Finally, the authors present a few Aboulazm (1989) pioneered the development of analytical models
concluding remarks and a comprehensive list of references. for simulating ship interactions with broken ice. The author developed
two analytical methods: a “Micro” model and a “Macro” model, to
2. Literature survey of broken ice – structure interaction models calculate the resistance of a ship in broken ice. The “Micro” model treats
the ice as a collection of discrete elements impacting the ship and was
The accuracy and reliability of a modelling method depend on how stated to be suitable for ships advancing at moderate speeds in waters
accurately the most relevant ice-structure interaction processes are with relatively small concentrations of small ice floes and not suitable
modelled. The design of a traditional ice-structure numerical model for either very slow speeds or very high ice concentrations. The “Macro”
typically addresses the most relevant physical property to the antici model treats the ice as a continuous domain with specified physical and
pated ice-structure interaction modes (typically, a choice is made be mechanical properties, and the ice load, in this case, is estimated based
tween bending and crushing for ice failure). For the sloping ship bow on the motion and drag of the ice fragments as they move away from the
and conical offshore platforms, the bending failure of the ice sheet or ship’s path. The “Macro” model applies to relatively slow speeds in
large floe generally dominates over the other modes of failure (Lubbad moderate concentrations of small ice floes. Another family of the
and Løset, 2011); however, the crushing failure dominates in the vertical analytical model is based on assuming plausible modes of ice failure
sided structure. Hydrodynamic and viscosity effects are generally upon encountering a ship, e.g., breaking of ice wedges and friction due
assumed to be relatively small in low-speed interactions; hence the to ice sliding under the hull. Lubbad and Løset (2011) used this approach
2
to develop efficient simulations of ships transit through the ice. Gürtner contact geometry and line load distribution in various types of a ship–ice
et al. (2012) later used the method to model managed ice forces on collisions.
moored drillships. This approach was also used to develop a model and
simulations of ice interaction with moored structures by Zhou et al. 2.2. empirical-statistical methods
(2013), and Bonnemaire et al. (2014) and (2015). Tan et al. (2013) and
Tan (2014) extended the approach to simulate 6 degrees-of-freedom In empirical-statistical methods, a correlation between the global ice
motion of ships transiting through the ice. Both of these methods did loads and prevalent ice and ship parameters is established using obser
not include the hydrodynamic effects of the broken ice. vations and analyses of full-scale and model-scale measurements. In a
Researchers at the NRC-OCRE developed an ice-hull interaction (IHI) purely statistical method, generally, a multi-variate regression or a
model for real-time simulations of ship maneuvering in level ice (Liu machine learning method is used for the correlation development. In the
et al., 2006, 2008; Liu, 2009; Lau, 2011). The model was built on a semi-empirical method, expressions with coefficients are developed to
detailed analysis of hull-ice interaction mechanics using an analytical correlate the control variable and the response functions. The coefficient
method and its numerical implementation. The model incorporated values are derived from measurements and observations. A similar
multi-failure ice modes and hydrodynamic effects and tracked the method using the popular Design of Experiment (DOE) methods (Islam
development of the broken ice-channel. Ice flexural failure, crushing, and Lye, 2008) is also used to extract the empirical relationship. The
and shear failure were modelled along with the breaking force, buoy DOE method provides a straightforward methodology to encapsulate the
ancy force, and clearing force. The hull was divided into ten or more global response of the ship to phenomenologically defined ice and ship
segments, and the global ice forces were calculated by vectorially adding states.
the forces on the segments. The hull-ice contacts were calculated based Keinonen et al. (1989, 1991, 1996, and 1998) and Keinonen and
on the ship motion and ice edge in time-domain, and the channel was Robbins (1998) developed a pioneering empirical method for predicting
tracked using a simple housekeeping method. A flat-plate model was ice-structure interaction forces due to broken ice using the “equivalent
used for the buoyancy force calculation. Both the viscous and inertial ice thickness” method. This method is based on empirical formulations
effects were incorporated into the clearing force. The adoption of the for estimating the global ice forces from various parameters of the
analytical method yielded a short calculation time that is essential for broken ice-field. Once estimated, the equivalent ice thickness can be
real-time simulator application. Since the forces were calculated at each inserted into the equations for the level ice resistance of a ship. From
new time increment of any prescribed motion, the resulting simulation Keinonen and Robbins (1998), the equivalent thickness, HEQ, for ice
could respond to arbitrary control inputs and hence arbitrary maneuvers breakers resistance analysis is given by the equation:
in ice. The simple physical detail and short computation time make this
method suitable for real-time simulations. The IHI model was validated HEQ = HLI *Cσ *CT * CSAL *CC *CFS + HridgeA + HsnowA (1)
using two Planar Motion Mechanism (PMM) test series carried out with
the Canadian Coast Guard’s Terry Fox and R-Class scale models, Lau where.
(2011).
A group of researchers in the Norwegian University of Science and HLI = level ice thickness,
Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway, investigated several ice- CT = temperature coefficient,
sloping structure interaction processes, primarily focusing on the frac Cσ = ice-strength coefficient,
ture of ice floes using analytical means (Lu 2014; Lu et al. 2012a,b,c, CSAL = salinity coefficient, which is 1 for seawater and 0.75 for
2015a, 2015b, 2016). The researchers identified a knowledge gap freshwater,
regarding the fracture of a finite size ice floe in the context of CFS = ice floe size coefficient
ice-structure interactions and studied several failure modes of a finite CC = ice concentration coefficient,
size ice floe. The failure modes included an ‘open’ ice condition such as HridgeA is an additional ice thickness due to the presence of ice ridges.
(1) in-plane splitting failure; (2) out-of-plane flexural failure; and (3) HsnowA is an additional ice thickness due to the presence of snow.
competition between different failure modes in the context of CT = 1 − 0.0083 (Ta + 30) (1a)
ice-sloping structure interactions. The research group proposed analyt
ical solutions for each failure mode for ice floes of varying sizes and Cσ = 0.63 + σf *0.00074 (1b)
offered validation of using Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) to
study an ice floe’s splitting failure on an engineering scale. The group CFS = 0.75 − Cres * 0.2 + (0.03 + Cres * 0.02)*log(f ) (1c)
used a method of combining both physical model tests and a theoretical
{
model to study the ice force’s spatial and temporal variations on a (Ci *10 − 5)*0.2 Ci > 5
CC = (1d)
sloping structure under the influence of rubble accumulation (Lu 2014). 0 Ci ≤ 5
They found that the presence of rubble accumulation increases the
global ice resistance, and the maximum value of ice resistance occurs in HridgeA = N
Tr
(1e)
a location below the waterline, which signifies the importance of the ice 75
rotating process and rubble accumulation effect. The research also
HsnowA = 0.33*hs (1f)
revealed that an ice floe’s confinement has a much more profound effect
on increasing the force required to split an ice floe in comparison with A list of the parameters, with their units used in the calculation of
the influence of floe geometry. The researchers did not include the equivalent ice thickness expression, is provided below:
crushing failure, which may be more prominent for vertical structures.
Idrissova et al. (2019) used a collision-energy-based method to pre hs = Snow-cover thickness in m,
dict ice loading on ships known as the Popov Method. This method is Ta = Surface temperature in ◦ C,
fundamentally analytical; however, several coefficients related to the σf = Ice flexural strength in kPa,
ship–ice interaction process and the material properties of sea ice are Ci = Ice concentration, 1 = Full concentration, 0 = Open water,
determined empirically. Idrissova et al. (2019) obtained a reasonable f = Ice floe size (diameter) in m,
comparison with full-scale ice-ship interaction loads with specific N = Ice ridge frequency, no of ridges/km,
combinations of the coefficients. Idrissova et al. (2019) recommended Tr = Ice ridge height in m, and
future research is to address numerous unknowns related to the ship–ice
interaction and sea-ice material properties, such as the actual ship–ice Cres is a resistance coefficient depending on the ship’s bow-flare
3
angle, α, the buttock angle, β and the ice floe diameter, f. The expression C = ice concentration
for the resistance coefficient of a rounded hull is given below:
( ) (( ) h = ice thickness (m)
Cres = 1 + 0.0018 * (90 − α)1.6 * 1 + 0.003 * (β − 5)1.5 (1g)
In combination with a synthetic time series, this “equivalent ice ∅ = floe encroachment angle (rad)
thickness” method may be considered adequate for establishing statis (m)
tics for ice loads on a ship-shaped or conical structure. Eik (2011) used Vi = ship speed
s
the “equivalent level ice thickness” method to calculate horizontal
managed ice forces on a moored symmetrical structure. Liferov (2014) The authors compared the models with measured data, which
also used the same method in the Shtokman project. showed good agreement for Fy, but a large scattering for Fx.
Spencer and Molyneux (2009), Woolgara and Colbourne (2010), and Islam et al. (2017) implemented two design of experiment (DOE)
Wang et al. (2010) developed empirical methods based on regression method-based regression methods to develop empirical expressions be
analyses of model tests performed in pack ice conditions. Wright (1999), tween the time-averaged global forces and various ice parameters using
Croasdale and Liferov (2009), Palmer and Croasdale (2013) derived a model test dataset. The analysis provided general insights into the
empirical formulae from full-scale measurements of the global ice forces most influential managed ice-field parameters and combinations of pa
on the Kulluk platform. Woolgara and Colbourne (2010) carried out rameters that significantly affect the global forces of a dynamically
extensive model tests with a moored offshore ship model and used the positioned ship. Through the work, the authors illustrated how such a
data to develop a regression model that included hull-ice frictions, ice problem with a large number of variables could be systematically
floe size, ice drift velocity, ice concentration and limited ship geometries handled to develop an empirical model using a variety of modern sta
as the following: tistical design of experiment tools, which in turn can be used to under
stand the effects of various control parameters and their interactions on
Fx = 100.2 C5.88 ρi g0.5865 h1.5865 L0.898
f B0.102 μ0.265 Vi0.827 (2) the response.
The primary advantage of the empirical methods is their numerical
where efficiency: the ice force model adds almost no computational overhead
Fx = longitudinal force on the moored hull (N) to the real-time simulations for ice-structure interaction scenarios. Be
sides, such methods would have short development and validation ef
C = ice concentration forts and minimal integration complexity. However, this method
provides only one value (average or maximum or standard deviation) of
( )
kg the ice loads for a specific ice-structure scenario. As such, this method
ρi = ice density
m3 does not give interaction data for local force assessment, as it pays no
( m) attention to the individual ice impact event, thus limiting the visuali
g = gravitational constant kg. zation aspect. This is inadequate for simulation of stationkeeping of DP
s2 ship because the dynamic properties of the ice force at each time step of
the simulation are necessary, as the control system must dynamically
h = ice thickness (m)
react to the changes in the imposed global ice forces. There have been
Lf = ship length (m) very few efforts to account for these deficiencies in the literature. Eik
and Aksnes (2010) used a “max-to-mean ratios” method to estimate the
B = ship beam (m) distribution of peak values of the global ice forces by combining an
empirical formulation for the ice resistance of an icebreaking ship with
μ = ice hull friction the max/mean ratios of the global ice forces measured in physical model
tests. Eik and Aksnes (2010) used this method for applications in level
(m)
Vi = ship speed ice conditions and Eik (2011) for managed ice conditions.
s Gash and Millan (2012) have developed a machine-vision analysis
This formulation is based on a comprehensive set of model test data based System Identification (ID) method for extracting useful kinematic
and encompasses the most relevant ice and ship variables that are ex and dynamic information of ice pieces in ice-structure interaction sce
pected to influence pack ice load. However, this formulation is used only narios from videos recorded during physical model testing of sta
for the forward orientation, whereas stationkeeping operations can tionkeeping of DP ship in managed ice conditions. This machine-vision
encounter changing drift angles arising from sudden changes in ice based analysis uses a combination of segmentation, edge intensity, and
encroaching direction. Hence, the model is needed to be generalized to morphological methods to produce accurate segmentation estimates for
apply to a ship of different drift angles, e.g., in terms of FX and FY for the ice pieces. It produced data of the ice-field, such as ice concentration,
surge and sway directions, respectively. number of ice pieces, piece size, position, velocity, rotation, mass, and
Wang et al. (2010) fitted data based on the design of experiments momentum. Gash and Millan (2012) used this method to correlate ice
(DOE) technology and multi-regression (MR) analysis and proposed the concentration with demand thrust for a DP controlled Drillship model
following empirical formulation for estimating pack ice force from and found inconsistent correlation at low concentration. The authors
arbitrary floe encroaching direction: concluded that ice concentration alone is not capable of adequately
( describing the dynamics of the ice-hull interactions; additional ice pa
Fx = − 817.03+1509.2h+1621.2C− 9.7∅− 2128.7hC+0.28h∅− 0.095C∅
) rameters, and their mutual interactions, need to be considered.
− 353.4h2 − 527.0C2 − 0.002∅2 *Vi0.827 (3) Even with the above enhancement, the major shortcoming of the
empirical-statistical method is its lack of details of the floe dynamics;
Fy = 102.11 h1.34 C4.21 ∅1.21 Vi0.827 *Fx (4) this reduces the fidelity of visualization in the simulation. Further, the
representativeness of simulations using such a method is questionable
where because the imposed ice actions do not depend on the actual motion
characteristics of the simulated ship, i.e., the response of the ship to the
Fx = longitudinal force (kN)
ice loads and the coupled ice-ship dynamics are not taken into account.
Fy = transverse force (kN) Furthermore, the method does not consider any dynamic inertial or
4
damping effects from the ice. Therefore, it may be difficult to extend this Each step of the dynamic simulation loop in the DEM typically consists
method beyond the boundaries of the particular scenario that served as of three sub-steps: collision detection, interaction force computation,
the basis for the empirical formulation (Metrikin 2015). A significant and time integration (element motion calculation). The contact detec
improvement of this method is required before it can be considered tion is the most time-consuming process. On a given time step, the
suitable for time-domain simulations of DP ships in ice operations. contact forces and external forces acting on each block are solved
(Fig. 1). The DEM simulates the ice element dynamics by implementing
2.3. Computational/numerical methods several contact algorithms (Canelas et al. 2015, 2016). The interaction
forces can include the normal and tangential forces, gravity, hydrostatic,
Computational methods, often known as numerical methods, are hydrodynamic, and aerodynamic forces. Ice-ice and ice-structure colli
primarily based on the fundamental laws of physics. Computational sions are typically modelled as linear spring-damper systems, whereas
methods have been proven to be useful for solving complex interaction Coulombic friction is considered for tangential sliding. Newton’s second
processes; hence researchers have applied them for ice-structure inter law is used to determine the accelerations, and a numerical integration
action problems over the last few decades. In contrast to the empirical- scheme of choice is used to update the velocities and positions of each
statistical and analytical studies, the literature of numerical modelling block. The motions of an element are calculated based on the force and
efforts for ice-structure interactions in broken ice is extensive. Such a momentum on each element. For each time step, these three processes
model naturally produces the time series of the ice-structure interaction are repeated.
responses of a stationkeeping ship and can be coupled with its DP control Different researchers have used DEM to model ice interaction with
system in a closed-loop. Therefore, these can be readily used in the fixed or moored floating structures. Løset (1994a,b) used a 2-dimen
simulations for performance assessment of the ship in ice as well as for sional DEM method to simulate the dynamics and interaction forces
testing the robustness of DP control systems (Metrikin 2015). between distinct unbreakable ice floes (circular, variable sizes) and a
There are multiple categories of numerical models based on a variety pile in a broken ice-field. Hansen and Løset (1999a,b) used a similar
of tactics and targeting different aspects of ship-ice interaction research. model to examine ice action against moored offshore units. The same
Two fundamentally different simulation methods are frequently con method was used by Karulina (2010, 2011) to simulate a tanker moored
sulted that deal with the broken ice characteristics and granular prop to a production platform, by Karulin and Karulina (2013) to simulate a
erties of ice. The first method considers ice as discrete particles, semisubmersible in broken ice and by Karulin and Karulina (2014) to
elements, or the assembly of discrete elements. Each element/particle simulate a multi-leg platform in broken ice. Richard and McKenna
(or the assembly of elements) has the properties of ice, and the in (2013) modelled the dynamics of a broken ice-field and the displace
teractions between other elements, structures, or medium represent the ments of a stationkeeping ship in the horizontal plane using a
behaviour of ice. This method can be generally called the discrete two-dimensional DEM.
element method (DEM). The Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) The commercial DEM code, DECICE, which is owned by Oceanic
method is also a particle-based method, which has recently been used for Consulting Corporation based in Newfoundland Canada, is frequently
numerical modelling of ice and structure interactions. The second used by the researchers at the NRC-OCRE and at Memorial University of
method considers ice as a continuum material such as the finite element Newfoundland (MUN) to study a variety of problems related to ice-
method (FEM), Finite Difference Method (FDM), Finite Volume Method structure interactions in level and broken ice-fields. Since the 1990s,
(FVM) and also the Particle-in-Cell (PIC) method. These methods have this software has been used extensively for simulating the behaviour of
been widely applied in simulating the behaviour of structures and fluids. turret-moored tankers in pack ice (Murray and Spencer, 1997), the
Recently, these methods attracted many researchers to go beyond their manoeuvring of ships in ice (Lau, 2006; Lau and Simões Ré, 2006; Lau
traditional applications and use them to address unique ice failure et al., 2011; Zhan et al., 2010; Zhan and Molyneux, 2012), and pack ice
problems, such as ice crushing, discontinuity or large deformation. This forces on floating offshore oil and gas exploration systems (Liu et al.,
section surveys the latest applications of these numerical methods that 2010).
are most relevant in terms of modelling ice forces on floating structures Ji et al. (2013) used a DEM based software to simulate the interaction
and stationkeeping in broken ice. between drifting ice floes and a moving ship. The authors used
2.3.1. Discrete element method (DEM)

Discrete Element Method (DEM) simulations, as initially formulated
by Cundall and Strack (1979), have been applied to modelling
ice-structure interaction related problems since the mid-1980s. Typical
DEM simulations consist of a few hundred, up to a few thousand,
interacting ice blocks. Each element can have its material properties:
density, elasticity, flexural and compressive strengths. The geometric
shapes, such as 3-dimensional disks, spheres, or polyhedral elements,
can represent the ice element (Lu et al., 2014). Tuhkuri and Polojärvi
(2018) provided a review of the use of DEM in studying ice–structure
interaction, with emphasis on the lessons learned about the behaviour of
sea ice as a discontinuous medium. The review emphasized the engi
neering applications of the method, more than on the development of
the method itself. According to the authors, the use of DEM appears most
beneficial in cases where modelling of discrete ice blocks is required.
Two types of ice models are typically used. Firstly, modelling an ice
floe as one elementary element, which can be defined by different
geometric forms and is a solid with volume, mass, elastic modulus. The
elements are unbreakable; hence, the crushing or flexural bending fail
ure mechanisms are not modelled. Secondly, individual elements can be Fig. 1. Two polygonal discrete elements in contact. Here, the overlap area
bound together to model an inhomogeneous or breakable level ice sheet (grey) is used to define contact force with normal and tangential components,
or a large ice floe (Katsuragi et al., 1997). The gluing strength is and the length of the line-of-contact to define a plastic limit for the contact force
generally related to the crushing and flexural bending strength of ice. (Tukkuri and PoloJarvi, 2018)
5
three-dimensional (3-D) dilated disk elements to model the pancake ice floe-ice depending on the loading conditions, the structure type and the
floes with considering the buoyancy, drag force, and additional mass ice feature dimensions and thickness.
induced by the current. Ji et al. (2015) investigated the interaction be
tween ice cover and conical offshore structures using DEM and deter 2.3.2. Non-smooth DEM (NDEM) or physically based modelling (PBM)
mined the dynamic ice forces under different structure parameters and The Non-Smooth DEM (NDEM) may be considered as a branch of the
ice conditions. The authors modelled the ice cover by dispersing a series classical DEM, in which efficient contact detection and force calculation
of bonded spherical elements with the parallel bonding model to algorithms are used and which is developed for fast and “accurate
investigate the influences of ice velocity, ice thickness, and conical angle enough” modelling of physical phenomena. This modelling method is
on ice forces. also known as physically-based modelling (Radjaï and Richefeu, 2009;
Zhou and Peng (2014) developed a numerical method to simulate the Hedman, 2011; and Metrikin and Løset, 2013). In this method, com
ice-induced forces acting on the ship and the performance of a dynam mercial and/or publicly available open-source physics engines are
ically controlled ship operating in level ice in which the interaction generally used to detect the contacts among all simulated bodies,
between the ship and the ice was considered by adopting a 2-D DEM. calculate the contact forces, and time-integrate the dynamical systems of
Subsequently, Dai and Peng (2015a) developed a numerical model of DP equations. Although this method is relatively new in ice research and
ship operating in a pack ice-field using a two-dimensional DEM. Dai and engineering, it has already been used by several researchers in various
Peng (2015b) analyzed and presented selected simulation results of institutions in the world, particularly for developing real-time simula
different DP ship – ice interaction scenarios. tors for ice-structure interaction modelling.
Prasanna and Hissette (2018) presented a simulation tool for simu The PBM or NDEM method for ice-structure interaction modelling
lating the transit of ships through brash ice channels, based on the DEM. was pioneered by Konno and Mizuki (2006a,b) and was developed
The authors achieved a consistent behaviour of the ice particles near the further in their subsequent publications (2007; Konno and Yoshimoto,
structure; see Fig. 2. However, ice forces on the structure exhibited some 2008; Konno, 2009; Konno and Saitoh, 2010; Konno et al., 2011a,b;
discrepancies. The cause for high ice forces is identified to be de Konno et al., 2013; Ishibashi et al., 2014; Uto et al., 2015). Sawamura
ficiencies in modelling the behaviour of far-field ice particles in the and Kioka (2016) and the research group’s previous works referred
current tool. The simulation tends to overestimate the particle motions directly to this method and used similar concepts for simulating the
in far-field due to the deficiencies in the implemented friction model rotation, sliding, and submergence of ice floes along the hull of a ship
(Cundall-Strack Friction). after the floes break off from level ice (Sawamura, 2012, 2014; Sawa
In recent years, the DEM has been extended to the analysis of con mura et al., 2015; Sawamura and Tachibana, 2011). Similar methods
tinuum media (the so-called bonded DEM). Celigueta et al. (2017) were used by Lubbad and Løset (2011) and Berglund (2012) to simulate
implemented a bonded DEM to study multi-fracture and failure of solids a ship in level ice, by Gürtner et al. (2012) and Amdahl et al. (2014) to
involving geomaterials and concrete. Jou et al. (2019) investigated simulate a moored drillship in managed ice, and by Metrikin et al. (2013
broken ice interactions with moving structures representing and 2015) to simulate DP in managed ice.
ice-breaking ships and cones by using a local bonded DEM. Through Metrikin et al. (2012) studied four open source physics engines (AgX
several bonded DEM simulations, the authors provided some insights on Multiphysics, Open Dynamics Engine, PhysX and Vortex) in terms of
the most frequently encountered ice-infested scenarios, the main char integration performance and contact detection accuracy, documentation
acteristics of ice-breaking ships and the predicted failure modes of quality and the level of technical support for possible applications in the
Fig. 2. Ice particles behaviour near bow-front and side view, ballast condition (Prasanna and Hissette, 2018).
6
real-time simulation of stationkeeping of a floater in broken ice condi geometries subject to ice sheet loading through different incidence an
tions. Metrikin (2014) developed a software package for simulation of gles. Huisman et al. (2016) developed a numerical model to predict the
stationkeeping of a ship in discontinuous ice using multiple physics interaction between floating objects and the surrounding level ice, only
engines. Gürtner et al. (2012) used a real-time simulation system to modelling the icebreaking due to bending.
investigate ice loading and moored drillship responses in drifting Lubbad et al. (2018) introduced a numerical simulator, SAMS
managed ice. Different levels of ice management were represented in (Simulator for Arctic Marine Structures), for structures in various ice
terms of ice concentration, floe size distribution, and ice thickness. The conditions such as level ice, broken ice and ice ridges. SAMS is primarily
results were compared with model scale experiments for a ship transit based on the NDEM with an implicit time-stepping scheme and an
ing in level ice. improved contact model, enabling general visco-elastic contacts. SAMS
Metrikin and Loset (2013) simulated a model test conducted in a considers the contact crushing force and the force penetration gradient,
towing tank that calculated the surge force in pack ice. Statoil and leading to more accurate contact force predictions, as illustrated in Berg
Multiconsult Inc. jointly developed a numerical model based on the et al. (2018). Also, SAMS adopts an analytical framework that supple
NDEM method called SIBIS, which is an acronym for “Simulation of ments the NDEM method with analytical closed-form solutions to
Interaction between Broken Ice and Structures.” It was initially devel simulate the fracture of sea ice. The different modules described above
oped to create a numerical environment for efficient simulations of were developed over many years by several researchers at NTNU. At that
floating structures in discontinuous (i.e., broken) ice conditions in the stage, many attempts were also made to validate each module against
time domain (Metrikin et al., 2015a). The numerical model estimates available full-scale and lab-scale data (Lu et al., 2015a, 2015b; Lu et al.,
local and global ice actions on ships and offshore structures and the 2016c; Tsarau and Løset, 2015; Tsarau et al., 2014). Van den Berg et al.
corresponding structural response in the time domain (Metrikin et al., (2018) showed that the proposed time-stepping scheme predicts well the
2015b). Serre et al. (2019) further developed the SIBIS to improve sheltering effects, directionality, and order of magnitude of ice loads on
simulation capabilities of broken ice interaction with offshore structures a 4-legged, vertical-walled structure in ice tank tests. Tsarau et al.
to represent better the brash ice effects on the ice floes and the (2018) simulated several available experimental case studies from the
dynamicity of the load signal. The authors illustrated the software ca field and ice tanks using SAMS for validation purposes. Berg et al.
pabilities by carrying out several benchmark test simulations and (2019a, 2019b) investigated the effect of floe shape on the load expe
post-simulation exercise of two interaction events recorded during rienced by vertical-sided structures using a 2D non-smooth DEM
full-scale stationkeeping trials with a moored ship in drifting ice cover. (NDEM), which is an adapted version of the Simulator for Arctic Marine
Fig. 3 presents a realistic vessel in broken ice-fields simulations carried Structures (SAMS) model.
out in SIBIS where the ice-fields were divided into two parts: a near-field Hasegawa et al. (2019) proposed a numerical simulation method by
area of managed ice and a far-field area where the floes were unman a non-smooth discrete element method and used a fixed joint function
aged (Metrikin et al. 2015a). available in the Bullet physics engine to model breakable ice elements
The physics-engine based discrete element method is also utilized in consisting of small square rigid bodies to represent ice failure. The au
a new ice simulation tool developed in France for simulating ice- thors showed that the breakable ice elements reasonably reduce peak
structure interactions of Arctic offshore platforms (Septseault et al., loads to the experimental results, and ice-ice friction was one of the most
2014,2015; Dudal et al., 2015). Technip, in collaboration with Cervval important tuning parameters for modelling ice failure in their model. In
and Bureau Veritas (BV) developed the ice-modelling simulation pro a recent endeavour, the National Research Council Canada developed an
gram called Ice-STAR (Cambos 2014). The numerical tool has been NDEM based numerical simulation model leveraging the Bullet physics
developed further recently to incorporate a multi-agent technology with engine to model rigid and breakable ice elements consisting of randomly
the possibility to combine in a common framework multiple phenomena shaped polygons to represent managed and unmanaged ice-fields. The
from various natures and heterogeneous scales, i.e., drag, friction, ice authors implemented new algorithms for modelling buoyancy and
sheet bending failure, local crushing and rubble stack up (Cahay et al., developed techniques to simulate ice-DP ship interactions in an infinite
2017). This is now known as the Ice-Mass (www.ice-mas.com). Cahay loop (Pearson et al., 2019).
et al. (2017) presented the overall functionalities of Ice-MAS and the Several challenges in using the commercial/open source physics
different possibilities to model a semi-submersible floater with different engine can be identified based on the experience of various researchers.
Fig. 3. SIBIS simulation setup for a ship in managed ice-field (Metrikin et al., 2015a).
7
Besides the limitations of modelling various ice failure modes such as realistic floe shape for future studies.
crushing, bending, and splitting, both static and dynamic frictions need Several research activities on the ice failure modes modelling are
correct modelling. It is believed to be the most significant contributor to available in the public domain. Gagnon (2011) proposed to model ice
energy dissipation during icebreaking/clearing, ice rafting, and ice with the general-purpose commercial software, LS-Dyna, using a hard
ridging events. The fluid modelling capabilities are another crucial “crushable foam” type of constitutive material model. This model was
aspect when choosing an engine for the numerical simulation of the used to calculate the impact force due to the ice indentation in a bergy
floater-ice interaction. Moreover, the maneuvering characteristics of the bit collision with a ship. The author and his research group developed
slowly moving hull needs to be modelled correctly, which are often the “crushable foam” model to simulate the ice pressure in the crushing
ignored in the physics engine based modelling. process of the ice. The simulation results showed the cyclic saw-tooth
force events and pressure distributions that are roughly characteristic
2.3.3. Finite element method (FEM) of observed local ice crushing failure behaviour. Applications and vali
In the Finite Element Method (FEM) simulation of the interaction dation of this method are published in the works by Gagnon and
between ice and structures, the ice is described as a continuum material Derradji-Aouat (2006) Gagnon and Wang (2012a), and in Gagnon and
based on a constitutive model taking on the challenge to reliably Wang (2012b). Gao et al. (2014) used a similar method to study the
simulate the complicated ice mechanical properties and ice failure iceberg geometry effect on the collision process with a fixed structure.
mechanisms following continuum mechanics. FEM is one of the most Nisja (2014) used four material models available in LS-Dyna to inves
powerful numerical methods, and the industry has widely applied it in tigate the force-displacement history of brittle failure in sea ice and
simulating the behaviour of structures. The application of FEM to the concluded that all material models had resulted in the right order of
broken ice and structure interaction problems is significantly increased magnitude, and was optimistic about finding an existing material model
in recent times. Recent efforts by several ice experts in applying this that can give satisfactory results for interaction between ice and struc
numerical method to the ice-structure interaction problems are dis tures. Except for the work of Wang and Derradji-Aouat (2011), no val
cussed below through a survey of FEM based ice models. idations or calibrations of FEM simulations against full-scale data have
The majority of researchers favouring the FEM method to model ice- been reported for the case of a structure in drifting sea ice.
structure interactions in broken ice conditions use either LS-Dyna or Several researchers in Europe and Asia investigated the use of
ANSYS as their modelling tool. Both packages provide Arbitrary bonded particles to provide a reasonable representation of various ice
Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) technology to simulate better the multi- failures modes of quasi-brittle sea ice (allowing for fracture, crushing
medium interactions, such as the hydrodynamic effects to the solid and flexural bending failure). Often termed as the Cohesive Element
body motions. Wang and Derradji-Aouat (2010, 2011), Millan and Wang Method (CEM), the cohesive fracture laws and cohesive finite elements
(2011), Kim et al. (2013), Lee et al. (2013), and Kim et al. (2014) have are used to formulate the nonlinear dynamic ice-structure interactions.
reported applications of the FEM to the problem of simulating a ship in In this method, the ice sheet is modelled using bulk elements which are
broken ice-fields. These researchers employed the commercial FEM connected by zero-thickness cohesive elements. The cohesive elements
package LS-Dyna and the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) method are deleted once their energy to resist crack formation is fully consumed,
to calculate the hydrodynamic forces and ice-structure interaction forces while the bulk elements retained in the system account for crushing and
on a ship in broken ice numerically. However, the ice pieces were progressive rubbling of the ice fragments. Although the method is
considered unbreakable in those studies. Lobanov (2011) developed an physics-based, leading to the better potential for acceptability, a
alternative FEM method, which considered the material behaviours of coherent guideline for the numerical inputs is still lacking (Zhang et al.,
both the ice and the floater, in addition to the ALE formulation, using the 2019b). Another FEM based model is the extended FEM (XFEM), which
ANSYS package. is a relatively new method to model crack initiation and propagation in
Wang and Derradji-Aouat (2011) simulated a downward breaking materials. XFEM is theoretically a mesh-independent method, which
conical structure, Kulluk, in pack ice condition using an explicit FEM. allows the crack to propagate through the element without remeshing.
The authors studied the effect of floe concentration and floe shapes on This is achieved by enriching the solution space for solutions to differ
the forces on the structure. For the high concentration (80%), numerical ential equations with discontinuous functions. In Abaqus/Standard
results showed a slightly higher average value due to ice accumulation; 2017, XFEM is an available method allowing the modelling of crack
see Fig. 4. The authors recommended using deformable and more growth using either a cohesive segment method or linear elastic fracture
Fig. 4. 80% Concentration at 38.6 s (top-left), 63.2 s (top-right), and 99.3 s (bottom-left) and result (bottom-right), taken from Wang and Derradji-Aouat (2011).
8
mechanics (LEFM). Lu et al. (2012) investigated the CZM, to simulate both the fracturing
Hilding et al. (2008) provided an overview of the CEM for ice and upcoming fragmentation of level ice. Lu et al. (2012) tested the
modelling, including recent improvements made by the authors. Konuk traditional finite element method with element erosion methods, the
et al. (2009a,b,c) developed a framework incorporating dynamic crack cohesive element method (CEM), the discrete element method (DEM)
propagation and continuum mechanics for modelling ice-structure with cohesive contacts, and the extended finite element method (XFEM)
interaction processes using the CEM. The authors presented a number in simulating the ice-sloping structure interactions. Feng et al. (2016)
of case studies to demonstrate the application of CEM for modelling developed a 3D finite element model with the use of the CEM in LS-Dyna
ice-structure interaction processes (Konuk and Yu, 2010). Gürtner for simulating ice-structure interaction.
(2009) developed a Computational Cohesive Element Model (CCEM) In relatively recent research, Xu et al. (2019) proposed a
method using finite element discretization in combination with cohesive three-dimensional constitutive ice model with nonlinear viscoelastic
elements and the cohesive zone model (CZM) for fracture. The author and plastic components. The authors implemented the material model in
implemented the model into the finite element program, LS-Dyna, to the commercial software LS-DYNA as a user-defined material and veri
study some aspects of dynamic ice-structure interaction and analyze the fied the viscoelastic-plastic and brittle behaviour of ice through a series
dynamics of a structure resulting from ice loading as a coupled of experiments. Zhang et al. (2019b) investigated various shapes of the
non-linear dynamical system. Daiyan and Sand (2011) utilized the CZM bulk constitutive law and found that the softening response had a
to model ice fracture and fluid-structure interaction (FSI) to model a considerable influence on the corresponding ice-induced forces for
more realistic boundary condition of a drifting ice sheet and imple simulations involving the crushing failure of the ice sheet. The authors
mented the models in LS-Dyna to simulate the problems related to recommended to carefully model the post-yield aspect of the bulk
ice-sloping structure interactions. constitutive law to predict the ice-induced forces accurately. Li et al.
Fig. 5. Comparison of Ice Movements around the Ship Between the numerical simulation and the model test observations (Wang et al., 2020).
9
(2020) proposed a novel method to model ship-ice interaction to be to simulate several representative ice basin test conditions. The resulting
applied to ship scale simulations. XFEM with LEFM is used to identify pressure (mean normal stress) distributions and positions of the ship are
and characterize the bending cracks and simplified the crushing process. shown at an interval in Fig. 6. The distributions show that high pressures
The hydrodynamic effect is neglected, and the water is modelled as an occur around the bow as may be expected. The packing of the floes
elastic foundation. The XEFM-based simulation provides insights into causes the distributions to show some irregularity or tree branch-like
the observed failure mode. Wang et al. (2020) Used FEM-based Arbi patterns, as was reported in previous studies (e.g., Sayed et al., 2016).
trary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) method and penalty function offered in The results indicate that surge direction thrust and moments are in good
LS-DYNA to simulate the navigation of an ice-area bulk carrier in broken agreement. Sayed et al. (2018) illustrated how to assess acceptable ice
ice-fields where the ice material was defined as elastic. The authors conditions for ship stationkeeping in pack ice using the PIC-based
confirmed that the movements of ice floes in the simulation were methods. Islam et al. (2019) used the PIC-based Ice Dynamics Model
consistent with those in the model test, as shown in Fig. 5. The authors (IDM) to simulate a representative full-scale scenario of the dynamic
also achieved less than 15% percentage deviation of the numerical ice positioning of an ice management ship. This work indicates that nu
resistance from the ice resistance in the model test. The authors rec merical simulations can predict the full-scale stationkeeping scenarios
ommended improving this method by incorporating ice failure modes with reasonable accuracy.
and using an improved hydrodynamic model for more realistic model
ling of the three-phase ship–ice–water coupling. 2.3.5. Smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) method
Among all these numerical methods, the element erosion method Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method is a mesh-free
turns out to be the most efficient method. The CEM can capture a sta Lagrangian particle method in which the state of a system is repre
bilized icebreaking force, but the whole structure appears to be softened sented by a set of particles, which possess individual material properties
with increasing cohesive element density. The DEM with cohesive and move according to the given conservation equations. Field proper
contact alleviates us from the structural softening problem, but it is so ties such as velocity and stress are evaluated at the particle positions,
computationally expensive that only limited simulations and conclu and no finite differences or grids are necessary. Similar to PIC-based
sions are made. The XFEM needs to be tested with various applications methods, the most attractive feature of the SPH method is its ability to
and validation using full-scale ice-structure interaction data. handle problems with considerable deformations. This method offers a
The majority of the FEM applications to ice problems have been natural advantage over traditional grid-based methods for problems,
focused on modelling ice properties to simulate better the failure modes, especially related to fracture, collapse, or fragmentation. For an accurate
such as the use of exotic material modelling for spalling or fracture SPH simulation, uniformly sized particles are required throughout the
failures. These failures directly affect the local forces on structures, model, and as such, if high accuracy is required in such simulations, long
while the focus for the floating structures is global responses. Expanding run time can be a problem.
the application to modelling the ice floes, structure, and the fluid SPH is a powerful tool for the simulation of systems characterized by
domain in a fine mesh to predict the global ice forces on floating the rheology of Mohr-Coulomb type. It has essential advantages
structures accurately, maybe by the computational expense. Performing compared to standard finite differences methods when applied to
this simulation in real-time for applications of DP in broken ice simu problems involving both frictional solid surfaces and free surfaces. This
lation is beyond the possible range of current hardware capability. type of rheological behaviour can be found in ice-broken fields and in
numerous problems in the field of quasi-static granular flows (Gutfraind
2.3.4. Particle-in-cell (PIC) method and Savage 1997). The spalling of ice, for instance, is an ice-structure
The Particle-in-cell (PIC) method solves the stresses, velocities, and interaction event that can be reproduced by an SPH simulation. Kee
deformation distributions of an ice-field by solving equations of con gan et al. (2013) investigated the hailstone impact on the leading edge of
servation of mass and linear momentum together with constitutive a wind turbine’s blade. Pan et al. (2012) developed a new SPH model for
equations that represent ice properties. Those properties are introduced coupled ice-sheet and ice-shelf dynamics. The authors studied
through a failure envelope that incorporates the tensile, shear and ice-sheet/ice-shelf behaviour and the dynamics of the grounding line in
compressive strengths. Solving those equations gives the evolution of which the ice is modelled as a viscous Newtonian fluid. Typically, ice
the distributions of stresses, deformation, thickness, concentration (or sheets are modelled as a non-Newtonian fluid, accounting for the
coverage) and velocities of the ice cover. The method takes advantage of changes in the mechanical properties of the ice. Implementation of
both Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions to address large deformations non-Newtonian rheology in the SPH model is the subject of ongoing
more naturally, thereby avoiding the mesh lock-up problems encoun research.
tered in the FEM (Sayed et al., 2012, 2014, 2015). Three-dimensional Das et al. (2014) modelled the sea ice in four-point bending for
simulations can be used to investigate the details of ice failure and flexural strength testing using the SPH method to predict the force,
clearing near the structure, or depth-averaged simulations can be used displacement, and failure time of an ice piece and found a good com
where the primary concern is the deformation of the ice cover over the parison with the available literature. Das and Ehlers (2015) simulated
vast area.
PIC-based software was developed at the NRC-OCRE and adapted to
simulate ice management and stationkeeping problems over the last two
decades. Some applications of the PIC-based method in simulating ice-
structure interactions include but are not limited to, the work on ice
forces on bridge piers (Barker et al., 2000a, 2002), ice forces on fixed
offshore structures (Kamesaki et al., 2000; Vachon et al., 2012; Barker
and Sayed, 2012; Barker et al., 2014), ice forces on moored and
thruster-assisted drillships including the Kulluk drillship (Barker et al.,
2000b; Sayed and Barker, 2011; Sayed et al., 2012, 2014, 2015), and ice
forces on a newly designed floating structure (Iyerusalimskiy et al.,
2012).
In a recent endeavour, Sayed et al. (2017) carried out a comparison
study between results from ice basin tests and numerical simulations.
The study examined the Dynamic Positioning (DP) of a ship in managed Fig. 6. Pressure distribution in ice cover after 800 s from the start of a PIC
ice conditions at a scale of 1:40. The PIC-based numerical tool was used simulation, Sayed et al. (2017).
10
bending and crushing failure of sea ice on a local scale using SPH. ice-structure interaction modelling method. The physical processes
Ryszard (2017) presents a smoothed particle hydrodynamics model for modelled may need enhancement to provide more realistic simulations.
modelling sea ice dynamic phenomena occurring on geophysical scales. The research group is currently implementing additional functions for
Cabrera (2017) used an open-source SPH implementation for solving a future development, including the flexural floe edge failure, rafting, floe
single-phase granular flow that represents brash ice behaviour as it in splitting, and ridge building.
teracts with a moving cylinder. The author compared the model pre
dictions with experimental data obtained from a cylinder resistance test
conducted in the HSVA ice tank facilities. In the comparison, the gran 2.4. Hybrid numerical methods
ular behaviour of the brash ice was captured correctly, and the velocity
field visual comparison was regarded as reasonably good; see Fig. 7. Researchers have been developing methods to integrate multiple
Zhang et al. (2019) integrated the Drucker-Prager yield criterion-based numerical methods, tightly-coupled or loosely-coupled, to handle the
softening elastoplastic model into the Smoothed Particle Hydrody high complexity of ice-structure interaction phenomena. One such
namics (SPH) method to simulate the ice failure process and ice-ship example is the coupling of DEM with the FEM method. The classical
interactions. After satisfactory validation against standard bench DEMs are suited for problems governed by limit energy and perhaps
marking tests, the authors employed the extended SPH method to limit force mechanisms but not for the problems where the limit stress is
simulate level ice interacting with sloping structure and essential. Researchers overcome this shortcoming by combining DEM
three-dimensional ice-ship interaction in level ice. with the FEM, where the latter is used to simulate the fracture of ice
floes. A FEM-DEM model was developed in-house by the Department of
2.3.6. GPU event mechanics (GEM) method Applied Mechanics at Aalto University in Finland (Paavilainen et al.,
A research group at the Memorial University of Newfoundland, 2009, 2011; Paavilainen and Tuhkuri, 2012, 2013; Paavilainen, 2013;
Canada, developed a GPU-Event-Mechanics (GEM) modelling method to Polojärvi and Tuhkuri, 2009; 2010; 2013; 2014; Polojärvi, 2013; Ranta
simulate broken ice actions on ships (Daley et al. 2012, 2014; Alawneh et al., 2014).
2014; Alawneh et al., 2015). The main idea of this method is to treat ice Paavilainen et al. (2009, 2011) used a combined FEM-DEM to
as a set of discrete objects with specific properties and to model the describe an ice-structure interaction. Vroegrijk (2015) used a hybrid
system mechanics mainly as a set of discrete contact and failure events. CFD-DEM model to predict the added resistance due to brash ice and
A set of simulation domains, each containing hundreds of discrete and compared the results with measured data. The American Bureau of
interacting ice floes, is modelled. The model focuses on the event Shipping (ABS) has recently invested in developing a graphic processing
sequence rather than on the continuum mechanics of a single event. This unit (GPU) based on a Discrete Element Method (DEM) model for
method is called the Ice Event Mechanics Modelling (IEMM) method, developing practical and advanced tools to assess the ice forces on
which builds a system solution from a large set of discrete events offshore structures (Liu et al., 2016). This arrangement processes the
occurring between a broad set of discrete objects. Each event forms a computations in parallel and solves the DEM model with millions of
step in developing the results and creates the initial conditions for the particles for complicated ice-structure interaction problems, e.g., ice
next event. The event sequence is a nonlinear process and does not lend simultaneously loading on multiple legs and ice loading on a large CSDU
itself to an easy analytical description. A simple ship is modelled as it (Liu et al., 2016). Liu et al. (2016) presented details of the developing
navigates through the domains. Each ship-ice collision is modelled, as is ABS GPU-DEM tool, status of the verification program, plans for the
every ice-ice contact; see Fig. 8. It is claimed that the GEM methodology current and future developments, and applications.
allows the simulations to be performed much faster than real-time, Gutfraind and Savage (1998) presented computer simulations of the
which may be attributed to the simplicity of the ice-ice and wind-driven motion of fractured ice in a wedge-shaped channel by
combining DEM with SPH to model the ice blocks (or floes), and to solve
Fig. 7. Physical measurements and SPH modelling of a vertical cylinder and brash ice channel interactions (Cabrera, 2017).
11
Fig. 8. GEM simulation image in 35% coverage (Daley et al., 2012).
continuum equations for flow of fractured ice, respectively. Duchting bulk carrier in the brash ice channel. The authors compared the nu
(2018) investigated a FEM, an SPH, and a combined FEM – SPH method merical results with the measurements carried out at the HSVA ice tank.
to deal with the physical effects of crushed ice that formed during a The authors showed that the CFD-DEM coupling numerical method took
compression test. The author compared the results of a FEM-SPH a full account of the effect of ship-water and the interaction between
simulation to the results of a simulation without SPH with the mea fluid and particles with an average error within 6% for all cases studied.
surements of ultimate strength and the behaviour of an ice specimen in More research is required to model the brash ice more accurately and to
compression. The author claimed to have proven the ability of the improve numerical efficiency. Huang et al. (2020) used CFD and DEM to
FEM-SPH method to model the transformation of the material and to simulate the ship-wave-ice interaction in Arctic ice conditions. The au
handle large deformation with more realistic interface pressure and thors applied FVM based CFD to obtain fluid solutions for the floes and
stress distribution; see Fig. 9. incorporated it with the DEM to govern ice motions and account for
Mintu and Molyneux (2018) presented a method of coupling an ship-ice/ice-ice collisions. The authors compared the model predictions
open-sourced SPH with three-dimensional DEM code to model several using model basin measurements and carried out a series of simulations
scenarios of ships and offshore structures interacting with pack ice, are performed to investigate how the resistance is influenced by ship
taking into account the hydrodynamic effects. The effect of modelling speed, ice concentration, ice thickness and floe diameter. This work
ice pieces a rigid body on the responses was not discussed, and no appears to be the first work that includes ship-generated waves and
validation of the predictions was offered. Li et al. (2019) used analyti ice-piece interactions, see Fig. 10. This method accounts for the relevant
cally derived differential equations and Finite Difference Method (FDM) hydrodynamics of the ice pieces; however, the ice pieces were modelled
to numerically solve the ice failure, including icebreaking patterns and as rigid bodies; hence the wave-ice interactions may require further
ice bearing capacity of ships going through level ice. Lemström et al. validation and improvement to incorporate the relevant ice failure
(2019, 2020) used two-dimensional combined FEM-DEM simulations to modes. The computational complexity of the majority of the above
investigate the effect of water depth and ice thickness on peak ice load models renders them unusable for real-time applications such as a
magnitudes on a wide, inclined, offshore structure in shallow water. The control system, decision-support, and training simulators.
authors carried out a probabilistic analysis on the extensive amount of
simulation results to evaluate the probability of rubble pile grounding,
the rubble pile geometries, and the load transmission from the intact ice 2.5. Summary of broken ice – structure interaction models
sheet to the structure through the ice rubble pile.
Luo et al. (2020) presented a CFD-DEM coupling numerical method Table 1 summarizes all notable methodologies and methods, to the
to study the ship resistance of a certain type of ice-strengthened Panama authors’ best knowledge, developed and utilized by various research
organizations to model the ice-structure interaction scenarios. The
Fig. 9. Solid-ice interface pressure predicted by different simulation method (Duchting, 2018).
12
Fig. 10. The CFD-DEM modelling of broken ice-field interactions with ship generated waves (Huang et al., 2020).
Table 1
Summary of capabilities of various ice-structure interactions modelling methods.
Category Method Researcher/Organizations Numerical Ease of Modelling of Visualization Need to Modelling
Efficiency Integration Physical Validate DoF
Processes
Numerical- Discrete DEM-2D MUN, C-Core-Canada, High Low Low Low High 2D
Element Method Simple Krylov-Russia
(DEM) DEM-2D DECICE2D (Oceanic), High Low Moderate Low High 2D
Helsinki-Finland
DEM-3D DICICE3D (Oceanic), Moderate Low High Moderate Moderate 3D
Helsinki-Finland
NDEM Kogakuin University, Moderate Moderate High Moderate Moderate 3D
Japan, NTNU-Norway, BV-
France,
GPU-GEM MUN-Canada High Moderate Low Low High 2D
DEM-Bonded No Info Low No Info High Moderate Moderate 3D
Particles
Numerical-Finite LS-Dyna ALE NRC-OCRE and MUN Low Low High Moderate Moderate 3D
Element Method Model Canada, PNU-Korea
(FEM) ANSYS, LS- PNU-Korea Low Low High Moderate Moderate 3D
DYNA
FEM-CEF No Info Low Low High Moderate Moderate 3D
Numerical-Particle PIC NRC-OCRE, Canada Low Low High High Low 3D
(Meshless) Method SPH McGill-Canada Low Low High High Low 3D
Analytical Method Analytical NRC-OCRE, Canada, NTNU- High High Moderate Low Kow 2D
Norway,
Empirical-Statistical Regression MUN, NRC-OCRE, Canada High High Low Low High 1D
Method Equivalent Canada, NTNU-Norway High High Low Low Moderate 1D
Level ice
Empirical NRC-OCRE, Canada High High Low Low High 1D
Hybrid Method NDEM-FEM NTNU-Norway Low Moderate No Info Moderate Moderate 3D
NDEM- NTNU, Statoil-Norway Moderate Moderate High High Low 3D
Analytical
Empirical- NTNU - Norway, NRC- High High Low Low High 1D
Statistical OCRE, Canada
FEM-SPH PNU, Korea, NU-USA, Low Low High High High 3D
TUHH, Germany
FEM-DEM Helsinki-Finland Low Low High High High 3D
CFD-DEM Lloyd Register-UK, Low Low High High High 3D
Helsinki-Finland
capabilities (low or moderate or high) of each of the methods in the • Validation requirements
following categories are also presented in the table. The capabilities and • Simulation dimensions, 3D/2D/1D
limitations of each of the methods are provided based on the authors’
best judgement. Note, not all the methods listed can model ice-structure interaction
with the relevant reliability and accuracy. The empirical and statistical
• Real-time calculation/numerical efficiency; methods often show high numerical efficiency and ease of integration;
• Implementation and integration complexity; however, they do not model the relevant physical processes accurately.
• Closeness to the actual physical processes of ice-structure Hence these methods should not be considered where closeness to
interactions; physical processes is the most important. The FEM, PIC, Classic DEM 3D,
• Realistic visualization information CFD, and SPH do not possess high numerical efficiency and are often
13
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A Literature Survey of Broken Ice-Structure Interaction Modelling Methods

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Ocean Engineering 221 (2021) 108527

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A literature survey of broken ice-structure interaction modelling methods

1. Introduction few decades. Early experiences include the Canmare/Dome drillship

2.3.1. Discrete element method (DEM)

Fig. 8. GEM simulation image in 35% coverage (Daley et al., 2012).

deemed unsuitable where the real-time prediction capability is required. References

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