MODULE-1

Calculus
INTRODUCTION – POLAR CURVES
We usually represent the position of a point P(x,y) in the Cartesian system and accordingly
(x,y) are called Cartesian coordinates.
In this topic we discuss another important system to represent a point in a plane know as the
polar system.
POLAR COORDINATES :
Let OX be the initial line , If there is any point on the plane P(r, ) with the radius of vector
OP=r and angle XOP denoted by  measured in the anticlockwise direction is called the
vectorial angle.
i.e XOP=  and r=f() be a polar cure at the point P(r, ) , where the coordinates P(r, )
is called
as the POLAR COORDINATES.

Relation between the Cartesian coordinates (x , y) and the polar coordinates (r , )

Let (x , y)and (r , ) respectively represent the Cartesian and polar coordinates of any point P
in the plane where origin O is taken as the pole and the x-axis is taken as the initial line.

Form the figure we have OQ=x, PQ=y.

Also from the right angled triangle OQP
We have,
i.e x = r cos ------(1)

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 i.e y = r sin ------(2)

Further by squaring and adding 1 and 2 we get,

-------------(3)
Also by dividing 2 by 1 we get,

𝑦
 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1( 𝑥 ) ---------- (4)

The relations 1 and 2 determine the Cartesian coordinates in terms of polar coordinates ,
whereas relations 3 and 4 determine the polar coordinates .
THEOREM : ANGLE BETWEEN RADIUS VECTOR AND TANGENT
PROOF :

Let P(r , ) be any point on the curve r=f() i.e XOP=  and OP=r
Let PL be the tangent to the curve at P subtending an angle  with the positive direction of
the initial line (x- axis) and  be the angle between the radius vector OP and the tangent PL.
i.e OPL = 
From the figure we have, = + 
[ note: exterior angle = sum of the interior opposite angles]
tan =tan(+ )

------ (1)

Let (x,y) be the Cartesian coordinates of P so that we have,

x = r cos y = r sin

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 Since r is a functions of , we can as well regard these as parametric equations in terms of .
We also know from the geometric meaning of the derivative that

since x and y are functions of 𝜃

where, r’= dr/d

Dividing both numerator and the denominator by r’cos we have,

---- (2)
Comparing equations 1 and 2 we have ,

Equivalently we can write in the form,

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 𝜃 𝜃
NOTE : 1. 1+cos 𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 2) 2. 1-cos 𝜃 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( 2)
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
3. sin𝜃 = 2 sin ( 2).cos(2) 4. cos 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 2) - 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( 2)
𝜋 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛θ
5. cot( 4 + θ)= 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛θ

Problems:
Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent for the following polar curves

1. r= a(1-cos 𝜃 )
Take logarithms on both side
log r = log [a(1-cos 𝜃 )]
logr = log a + log(1-cos 𝜃 ) since log(mn)=logm+logn

Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

1 𝑑𝑟 1
. = o + 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.-(-sin 𝜃 )
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
i.e . = 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝜃 𝜃
2 sin ( ).cos( )
cot φ = 2
𝜃
2
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )
2
1 𝑑𝑟
since 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃= cot φ
𝜃
∴ cot φ =cot( 2)
𝜃
Thus φ=2
1
2. 𝑟 = 1+ e cos 𝜃

Take logarithms on both side

1
log 𝑟 = log [1+ e cos 𝜃 ]
𝑚
log 1- logr = log[1+ e cos 𝜃 ]since log( 𝑛 )=logm – logn

Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

1 𝑑𝑟 1
- 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃 = 1+𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. −𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1 𝑑𝑟 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
i.e 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃 = 1+𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
cot φ =1+𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ( This cannot be simplified)

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 1+𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∴ tan φ = 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1+𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Thus φ= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

3. 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 (cosm𝜃+ sinm𝜃 )
Take logarithms on both side
log (𝑟 𝑚 )= log[𝑎𝑚 (cosm𝜃+ sinm𝜃 )]
i.e mlogr =m log a + log(cosm𝜃+ sinm𝜃) since log(𝑚𝑛 )= nlogm
Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get
1 𝑑𝑟 1
m . =o+ . (−𝑚sinm𝜃 + 𝑚cosm𝜃)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 (cosm𝜃+ sinm𝜃)

𝑚 𝑑𝑟 𝑚(cosm𝜃−sinm𝜃)
. =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 (cosm𝜃+ sinm𝜃)

1 𝑑𝑟 (cosm𝜃−sinm𝜃)
. =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 (cosm𝜃+ sinm𝜃)

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃[1− ] [1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚𝜃]
cot φ= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃[1+ ] [1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚𝜃]
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃
𝜋
cot φ = cot( 4 + 𝑚θ)
𝜋
Thus φ = 4 + 𝑚θ
𝜋
4. r= a(1+cos 𝜃 ) at 𝜃 =3
Take logarithms on both side
log r = log [a(1+cos 𝜃 )]
logr = log a + log(1+cos 𝜃 ) since log(mn)=logm+logn

Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

1 𝑑𝑟 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
. =o+
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1 𝑑𝑟 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
i.e . =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝜃 𝜃
-2 sin ( ).cos( ) 1 𝑑𝑟 𝜃
cot φ = 2
𝜃
2
since 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃= cot φ cot φ = -tan( 2)
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ( )
2

𝜋 𝜃
cot φ = cot( 2 + 2 )
𝜋 𝜃 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
∴ φ = (2 + 2) at 𝜃 =3 φ = (2 + 6 ) or φ = 3

2𝜋
Thus φ = 3

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 𝜃 2𝜋
5 . r 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 2) = a at 𝜃 = 3

Take logarithms on both side

𝜃
log r + 2 log{cos ( 2)} = log a

Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 −sin⁡( )
2
. + 𝜃 =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 cos⁡( )
2

𝜃
cot φ – tan(2)=0
𝜃
i.e cot φ = tan( 2)
𝜋 𝜃
cot φ = cot( 2 − 2)
𝜋 𝜃 2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
∴ φ=( − ) at 𝜃 = φ=( − ) or φ =
2 2 3 2 3 6

𝜋
Thus φ = 6
𝜋
6. r = a(1+sin𝜃) 𝜃 =2

Take logarithms on both side

log r = log a + log (1+sin𝜃)

Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

1 𝑑𝑟 cos𝜃
. =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1+sin𝜃

cos𝜃
i.e cot φ = 1+sin𝜃
𝜋
𝜋 cos 0
At 𝜃 =2 , cot φ= 2
𝜋 = =0
1+sin 1+1
2

cot φ= 0
𝜋
Thus φ = 2

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 Angle between two polar curves

Basically we know that the angle of intersection of any two curves is

equal to the angle between the tangent drawn at the
point of intersection of the two curves.
Let r= f1 (𝜃) and r= f2 (𝜃) be two curves intersecting at the point P
Let P T1 and P T2 be the tangents drawn to the curves at the point P.
It can be seen from the figure that φ1 is the angle between the radius vector OP and the
tangent P T1 and φ2 is the angle made by the radius vector OP with P T2 . It can be clearly
seen that the angle between the two tangents is equal to φ2 - φ1 .

The acute angle of the intersection of the curves is equal to| φ2 - φ1 |

𝜋
IF | φ2- φ1| = 2 then we say that the two curves intersect orthogonally.
𝜋 𝜋
Further if φ2 - φ1 = 2 then φ2 = 2 + φ1
𝜋
Thus tan φ2 = tan( 2 + φ1 )
1
= -cot φ1 = - (tan φ )
1

(or) tan φ1 * tan φ2 = -1

This result serves as an alternative condition for the orthogonality of two polar curves.
Show that the following pairs of curves intersects each other orthogonally
1. r= a(1+cos 𝜃 ) and r= b(1-cos 𝜃 )
Sol: consider r= a(1+cos 𝜃 ) ; r= b(1-cos 𝜃 )
Take logarithms on both side Take logarithms on both side
logr = log a + log(1+cos 𝜃 ) logr = log b + log(1-cos 𝜃 )
Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

1 𝑑𝑟 1 1 𝑑𝑟 1
.
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
= o + 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 .( −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) .
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
= o + 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 .( 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 1 𝑑𝑟 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
i.e 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃 = 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 i.e 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃 = 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
-2 sin ( ).cos( ) 2 sin ( ).cos( )
cot φ1 = 2
𝜃
2
cot φ2 = 2
𝜃
2
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ( ) 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )
2 2

𝜃 𝜃
cot φ1 = -tan( 2) cot φ2 = cot( 2)
𝜋 𝜃
cot φ1 = cot( 2 + 2)
𝜋 𝜃 𝜃
∴ φ1 = ( 2 + 2) ∴ φ2 = ( 2 )
𝜃 𝜋 𝜃 𝜋
∴ Angle of intersection = |φ2 − φ1 | = |2 − 2 − 2|= 2

Thus the curves intersect each other orthogonally.

2. r= a(1+sin𝜃 ) and r= a(1-sin 𝜃 )
Sol: consider r= a(1+sin𝜃 ) ; r= a(1-sin 𝜃 )
Take logarithms on both side Take logarithms on both side
logr = log a + log(1+sin 𝜃 ) logr = log a + log(1-sin 𝜃 ) )
Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

1 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 𝑑𝑟 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
. = o + 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 . = o + 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝜃

1 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 𝑑𝑟 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
i.e 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃 =1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 . =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
cot φ1 =1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 cot φ2 =1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝟏+𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
tan φ1 = tan φ2 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

𝟏+𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃

∴ tan φ1 . tan φ2 = * −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃= -1
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

Thus the curves intersect each other orthogonally.

3. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (cos𝑛𝜃) and 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 (s𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃)
Sol: consider; 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (cos𝑛𝜃) ; 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 (s𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃)
Take logarithms on both side Take logarithms on both side
nlogr = nlog a + log(cos𝑛𝜃) nlogr = nlog b + log(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃)
Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

𝑛 𝑑𝑟 −𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 𝑛 𝑑𝑟 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃
. =o+ . =o+
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 cos𝑛𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃

1 𝑑𝑟 1 𝑑𝑟
i.e 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜃 . =cot 𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 𝜋
cot φ1 = cot( 2 + nθ) cot φ2 = cot nθ

𝜋
φ1 = 2 + nθ φ2 = nθ
𝜋 𝜋
∴ Angle of intersection = |φ2 − φ1 | = |𝑛𝜃 − 2 − 𝑛𝜃|= 2

Thus the curves intersect each other orthogonally.

4. Show that the following pair of curves intersect orthogonally: 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑒 𝜃 and 𝑟𝑒 𝜃 = 𝑏
Sol:

log 𝑟 = log 𝑎 + log 𝑒 𝜃

log r = log a + 𝜃
1 dr
=1
r dθ
cot ϕ1 = 1
log 𝑟 + log 𝑒 𝜃 = log 𝑏
log r + 𝜃 = log 𝑏
1 dr
= −1
r dθ
cot ϕ2 = −1
Since cot 𝜙1 . cot 𝜙2 = −1 , both intersect orthogonally
5.Find the angle of intersection of the pair of curves: 𝑟 = sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃, 𝑟 = 2 sin 𝜃
Sol:
log 𝑟 = log (sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃)
1 𝑑𝑟 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
= =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃
Divide both nr and dr by cos𝜃 only in the RHS part
1 𝑑𝑟 1 − tan 𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 + tan 𝜃
𝜋
cot 𝜙1 = tan ( − 𝜃)
4
𝜋
cot 𝜙1 = cot ( + 𝜃)
4
𝜋
𝜙1 = + 𝜃
4
log 𝑟 = log(2 sin 𝜃)

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 1 𝑑𝑟 2 cos 𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 2 sin 𝜃
cot 𝜙2 = cot 𝜃
𝜙2 = 𝜃
𝜋
∴ The angle of intersection of the pair of curves is given by |𝜙1 − 𝜙2 | =
4

6.Find the angle of intersection of the pair of curves: 𝑟 2 sin 2𝜃 = 4, 𝑟 2 = 16 sin 2𝜃

Sol:
2 log 𝑟 + log sin 2𝜃 = log 4
2 𝑑𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃
+ =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 sin 2𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 cos 2𝜃
=−
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 sin 2𝜃
cot 𝜙1 = − cot 2𝜃 = cot (𝜋 − 2𝜃)
𝜙1 = 𝜋 − 2𝜃
2 log 𝑟 = log 16 + log(sin 2𝜃)
2 𝑑𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃
=0+
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 sin 2𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 cos 2𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 sin 2𝜃
cot 𝜙2 = cot 2𝜃
𝜙2 = 2𝜃
4 1 1 𝜋
To find: 𝜃 By data, = 16 sin 2𝜃 ⟹ = sin2 2𝜃 ⟹ = sin 2𝜃 ⟹ 𝜃 = 12
sin 2𝜃 4 2

∴ The angle of intersection of the pair of curves is given by

𝜋 2𝜋
|𝜙1 − 𝜙2 | = 𝜋 − 4𝜃 = 𝜋 − =
3 3

Pedal Equation of a polar curve:

If 𝑝 is the perpendicular distance from the pole to the tangent of the polar curve, then the
equation of the curve in terms of 𝑝 and 𝑟 is called pedal equation or 𝑝 − 𝑟 equation.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒅𝒓 𝟐
𝑝 − 𝑟 equation is 𝒑 = 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓 or = 𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟒 (𝒅𝜽)
𝒑𝟐

THEOREM: Length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent

or
1 1 1 𝑑𝑟
Prove with usual notations 𝑝2=𝑟 2 +𝑟 4 (𝑑𝜃)2

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 or
1 𝑑𝑢 1
Prove that for the curve r=f(𝜃) , = 𝑢2 + (𝑑𝜃)2 where u=𝑟
𝑝2

Let O be the pole and OL be the initial line. Let P(r, 𝜃) be any point on the curve
and hence we have OP=r and LOP=𝜃.Draw ON=P(say) perpendicular from the pole
onto the tangent at P and let  be the angle made by the radius vector with the tangent.
From the figure OMP=900 and LOP=𝜃
𝑂𝑁
Now, From the right angled triangle OMP sin= 𝑂𝑃

𝑃
sin=𝑟 or p = r sin 

{this expression is the basic expression for the length of the perpendicular .
We proceed to present the expression for p in terms of 𝜃 in two standard forms}
We have,

1𝑑𝑟
p = r sin -------(1) and cot=𝑟𝑑𝜃 -------------(2)

Squaring equation(1) and taking the reciprocal we get,

1 1 1 1 1
= . (0r) = . cosec2 
𝑝2 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ 𝑝2 𝑟2

1 1
i.e, = . cosec2 
𝑝2 𝑟2

Now using (2) we get ,

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟
𝑝2
= 𝑟2
[1 + ( )2 ]
𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃

(or)

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 1 1 1 𝑑𝑟
= + (𝑑𝜃)2-----------------------(3)
𝑝2 𝑟2 𝑟4

Further , Let 1/r = u

Differentiating w.r.t 𝜃 we get
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑢
- 2 (𝑑𝜃) = 𝑑𝜃
𝑟
1 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑢
4( ) = (𝑑𝜃 )2 by squaring
𝑑𝜃
𝑟
1 𝑑𝑢
Thus 3 becomes = 𝑢2 + (𝑑𝜃)2 .
𝑝2

Find the Pedal equations for the following

𝜃
1. r 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 2) = a

Take logarithms on both side

𝜃
log r + 2 log{cos ( 2)} = log a

Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 −sin⁡( )
2
. + 𝜃 =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 cos⁡( )
2

𝜃
cot φ – tan(2)=0
𝜃
i.e cot φ = tan( 2)
𝜋 𝜃
cot φ = cot( 2 − 2)
𝜋 𝜃
∴ φ = (2 − 2 )

Consider , p=r sin φ and substituting the value of φ we have,

𝜋 𝜃
p=r sin (2 − 2 )
𝜃
i.e p=r cos ( 2)
𝜃 𝜃
Now we have r 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 2 ) = a ----------(1) p = r cos ( 2)
𝑝 𝜃
i.e = cos ( 2) -------------(2)
𝑟

𝑝2
Hence, (1) as a consequence of (2) we get , 𝑟 2 ( 𝑟 2 )= 𝑎

Thus 𝑝2 = 𝑎 is the required pedal equation.

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 2. r= a(1-cos 𝜃 )
Take logarithms on both side
log r = log [a(1-cos 𝜃 )]
logr = log a + log(1-cos 𝜃 ) since log(mn)=logm+logn

Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

1 𝑑𝑟 1
. = o + 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.-(-sin 𝜃 )
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
i.e . = 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝜃 𝜃
2 sin ( ).cos( )
cot φ = 2
𝜃
2
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )
2
1 𝑑𝑟
since 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃= cot φ
𝜃
∴ cot φ =cot( 2)
𝜃
Thus φ=2

Consider , p=r sin φ and substituting the value of φ we have,

𝜃
p=r sin ( 2)
𝜃 𝜃
Now we have 𝑟 = 2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) ----------(1) p = r sin ( )
2 2
𝑝 𝜃
i.e = sin ( 2) -------------(2)
𝑟

𝑝
Hence, (1) as a consequence of (2) we get , 𝑟 2 = 2𝑎 (𝑟 )

𝑟3
Thus 𝑝 = 2𝑎 is the required pedal equation.

3. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (cos𝑛𝜃)
Sol: consider; 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (cos𝑛𝜃)
Take logarithms on both side
nlogr = nlog a + log(cos𝑛𝜃)
Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get

𝑛 𝑑𝑟 −𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃
. =o+
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 cos𝑛𝜃

1 𝑑𝑟
i.e 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛𝜃

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 𝜋
cot φ = cot( 2 + nθ)

𝜋
φ= 2 + nθ

Consider , p=r sin φ and substituting the value of φ we have,

𝜋
p=r sin ( 2 + nθ)

i.e p=r cos (nθ)

Now we have 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (cos𝑛𝜃) ----------(1) p = r cos (nθ)
𝑝
i.e = cos (nθ) -------------(2)
𝑟
𝑝
Hence, (1) as a consequence of (2) we get , 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑟 )

Thus 𝑟 𝑛+1= p 𝑎𝑛 is the required pedal equation.

4.⁡⁡𝑟 = 2(1 + cos 𝜃)
Solution:
log 𝑟 = log 2 + log(1 + cos 𝜃)
1 𝑑𝑟 − sin 𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 + cos 𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
− 2sin cos
2 2
cot 𝜙 = 𝜃
2 cos2
2

𝜃
= −tan 2
𝜋 𝜃
= cot (2 + 2)

𝜋 𝜃
𝜙= +
2 2
Pedal equation is given by
𝑝 = 𝑟 sin 𝜙
𝜋 𝜃
= 𝑟 sin (2 + 2)
𝜃
= 𝑟 cos 2
𝜃
𝑝2 = 𝑟 2 cos2 2
𝑟
𝑝2 = 𝑟 2 (4)

4𝑝2 = 𝑟 3
This is the required pedal equation.

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 5. 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 (cos 𝑚𝜃 + sin 𝑚𝜃)
m log 𝑟 = m log 𝑎 + log(cos 𝑚𝜃 + sin 𝑚𝜃)
𝑚 𝑑𝑟 𝑚 (cos 𝑚𝜃−sin 𝑚𝜃)
= (cos 𝑚𝜃+sin 𝑚𝜃)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

1 𝑑𝑟 1−tan 𝑚𝜃
= 1+tan 𝑚𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝜋
cot 𝜙 = tan (4 − 𝑚𝜃)
𝜋
cot 𝜙 = cot ( 4 + 𝑚𝜃)
𝜋
𝜙= + 𝑚𝜃
4
Pedal equation is given by
𝑝 = 𝑟 sin 𝜙
𝜋
= 𝑟 sin (4 + 𝑚𝜃)
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑟(sin 4 cos 𝑚𝜃 + cos 4 sin 𝑚𝜃)
𝑟
= (cos 𝑚𝜃 + sin 𝑚𝜃)
√2

𝑟 𝑟𝑚
𝑝= ( )
√2 𝑎𝑚

𝑟 𝑚+1
𝑝=
√2 𝑎𝑚

This is the required pedal equation.

6. 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃
2 log 𝑟 = 2 log 𝑎 + 2 log sin 𝜃
log 𝑟 = log 𝑎 + log sin 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 cos 𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 sin 𝜃
cot 𝜙 = cot 𝜃
𝜙=𝜃
Pedal equation is given by
𝑝 = 𝑟 sin 𝜙
= 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑟
= 𝑟 (𝑎)

𝑎𝑝 = 𝑟 2

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 This is the required pedal equation.

7. 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑚𝜃
Sol: log 𝑟 = log 𝑎 + log 𝑒 𝑚𝜃
log 𝑟 = log 𝑎 + 𝑚𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟
=𝑚
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

cot 𝜙 = 𝑚
Pedal equation is given by
1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
= 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 4 (𝑑𝜃)
𝑝2

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
= 𝑟 2 (1 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃) )
𝑝2

1
= 𝑟 2 (1 + cot 2 𝜙)
1
= 𝑟 2 (1 + 𝑚2 )

𝑟 2 = 𝑝2 (1 + 𝑚2 )
This is the required pedal equation.
2𝑎
8. = (1+cos 𝜃 )
𝑟

Sol: log2a - log r = log((1+cos 𝜃)

Differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃 . We get
𝜃 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) -2 sin ( ).cos( )
2 2
- 𝑟 . 𝑑𝜃 = = 𝜃
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ( )
2
𝜃
cot φ = tan( 2)
𝜋 𝜃
i.e cot φ = cot(2 − 2)
𝜋 𝜃
Thus φ = (2 − 2)

Consider , p=r sin φ and substituting the value of φ we have,

𝜋 𝜃
p=r sin (2 − 2)
𝜃
i.e p = r cos (2)
2𝑎 𝜃
Now we have = (1+cos 𝜃 ) ----------(1) p= r cos ( 2) ---------------(2)
𝑟

We have to eliminate 𝜃 from (1) and (2){ it will be convenient for elimination if we can have
similar functions of 𝜃 in the RHS of the two equations}

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 2𝑎 𝜃 𝑎 𝜃
(1) can be write in the form =2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 2 ) or 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 2 )
𝑟
𝑝 𝜃
Also from (2) 𝑟 = cos ( 2)

𝑎 𝑝 𝑎 𝑝2
Hence we get , 𝑟 = (𝑟 ⁡)2 or 𝑟 = 𝑟 2 or 𝑝2 =ar

Thus 𝑝2 =ar is the required pedal equation.

9. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑏 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜃
Sol:⁡n log 𝑟 = log(𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑏 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃)
𝑛 𝑑𝑟 𝑛 (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃−bn sin 𝑛𝜃)
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃+𝑏 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃

1 𝑑𝑟 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃−bn sin 𝑛𝜃

= 𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃+𝑏𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃−bn sin 𝑛𝜃

cot 𝜙 = 𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃+𝑏𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃

Pedal equation is given by

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
= 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 4 (𝑑𝜃)
𝑝2

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
= 𝑟 2 (1 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃) )
𝑝2

1
= 𝑟 2 (1 + cot 2 𝜙)

1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃−bn sin 𝑛𝜃 2

= 𝑟 2 [1 + (𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃+𝑏𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃) ]

1 1 𝑎2𝑛 +𝑏2𝑛
= 𝑟 2 (𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃+𝑏𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃)2
𝑝2

1 𝑎2𝑛 +𝑏 2𝑛
=
𝑝2 𝑟 2𝑛+2

𝑟 2𝑛+2 = 𝑝2 (𝑎2𝑛 + 𝑏 2𝑛 )
This is the required pedal equation.

CURVATURE AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE :

If we transverse in a ghat section where the road is not straight, we often see caution boards “
sharp bend ahead” etc which gives an indication of the difference in the amount of bending of
a road at various points which is nothing but curvature at various points and we discuss the
same in a mathematical way. This aspect is discussed for Cartesian and polar form of curves.

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 The reciprocal of the curvature of a curve at any point p is called the radius of curvature at p
𝑑𝑠
and is denoted by 𝜌 and defined by 𝜌 = 𝑑𝜓.

Cartesian form
(1 + y12 )3⁄2
ρ=
y2

Polar form
(r 2 + r12 )3⁄2
ρ=
r 2 + 2r12 − r r2
Problems on Radius of Curvature
10.Find the radius of curvature for 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 = 2 at (1, 1)
𝑥4 + 𝑦4 = 2
Differentiate successively w.r.t x
𝑑𝑦
4𝑥 3 + 4𝑦 3 𝑦 ′ = 0 where 𝑦 ′ = 𝑑𝑥

4(𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 𝑦 ′ ) = 0
𝑥3 + 𝑦3𝑦′ = 0
Again Differentiate successively w.r.t x
3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 (𝑦 ′ )2 + 𝑦 3 𝑦" = 0
At (1, 1),
1 + 𝑦 ′ = 0 ⟹ 𝑦 ′ = −1
3 + 3 + 𝑦" = 0 ⟹ 𝑦" = −6
The radius of curvature is given by
3
(1 + 𝑦12 )3⁄2 (1 + 1)2 2√2 √2
𝜌= = =− =−
𝑦2 −6 6 3
11. Find the radius of curvature of the Folium of De-Cartes 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 3𝑎𝑥𝑦 at the point
3a 3a
( 2 , 2 ).

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 Sol: 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 3𝑎𝑥𝑦
Differentiate with respect to 𝑥
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑦 ′ = 𝑎(𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦)
3𝑎 3𝑎
At( 2 , ),
2

9𝑎2 9𝑎2 ′ 3𝑎 3𝑎
+ 𝑦 = 𝑎 ( 𝑦′ + )
4 4 2 2
9𝑎2 ′ 3𝑎2 ′ 3𝑎2 9𝑎2
𝑦 − 𝑦 = −
4 2 2 4
3𝑎2 ′ 3𝑎2
𝑦 =−
4 4
𝑦 ′ = −1
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑦 ′ = 𝑎(𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦)
Differentiate again with respect to 𝑥
2𝑥 + 2𝑦(𝑦 ′ )2 + 𝑦 2 𝑦" = 𝑎 (𝑥𝑦" + 2𝑦′)
3𝑎 3𝑎
At ( 2 , ),
2

3a 3a 3a 2 3a
2 ( ) + 2 ( ) + ( ) y" = a ( y" − 2)
2 2 2 2
3𝑎2
𝑦" = −8𝑎
4

−32
𝑦" =
3𝑎
3⁄2 3
(1+𝑦12 ) 22 3𝑎√2
The radius of curvature is given by 𝜌 = = (−32) 3𝑎 = −
𝑦2 16

𝑥
12. Find the radius of curvature of the catenary 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐 at (𝑐, 0).
𝑥
Sol: 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐 ,
𝑥
Differentiate w.r.t. x 𝑦1 = sinh 𝑐 ,
1 𝑥
Again Differentiate w.r.t. x 𝑦2 = 𝑐 cosh 𝑐

𝐴𝑡 (𝑐, 0),
1
𝑦 = 𝑐 cosh 1 𝑦1 = sinh 1 , 𝑦2 = 𝑐 cosh 1
3⁄2
(1+𝑦12 )
The radius of curvature is 𝜌 = 𝑦2

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 3⁄2
(1+sinh2 1)
𝜌 = 1 [∵ cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1 ]
cosh 1
𝑐

𝑦2
𝜌 = 𝑐 cosh2 1 = [∵ 𝑦 = 𝑐 cosh 1]
𝑐

𝑎2 (𝑎−𝑥)
13. Find the radius of curvature for 𝑦 2 = where the curve meets the x-axis.
𝑥

𝑎3
Sol: 𝑦 2 = − 𝑎2 ------- (1)
𝑥

Differentiate (1) w.r.to x

𝑎3
2y𝑦1 = − 𝑥 2

𝑎3
𝑦1 = − 2𝑦𝑥 2 , does not exist at 𝑦 = 0.

Differentiate (1) w.r.to 𝑦

𝑎3 𝑑𝑥
2𝑦 = − 2
𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 2 𝑦
=− 3
𝑑𝑦 𝑎
Again Differentiate w.r.to 𝑦
𝑑2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2
= − 3 (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 )
𝑑𝑦 𝑎 𝑑𝑦
At 𝑦 = 0,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥 2𝑥 2
= 0, =− 3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑎
The radius of curvature is
3⁄2
(1+𝑥12 ) (1+0)3⁄2 −𝑎3
𝜌= = 2𝑥2
=
𝑥2 − 3 2𝑥 2
𝑎

14. Find the radius of curvature of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 at (𝑎𝑡 2 , 2𝑎𝑡)
Sol: 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
Differentiate w.r.to 𝑥
2𝑦𝑦1 = 4𝑎 ,
𝑦𝑦1 = 2𝑎
Again Differentiate w.r.to 𝑥
𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑦12 = 0
𝑎𝑡 (𝑎𝑡 2 , 2𝑎𝑡),

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 1
2𝑎𝑡𝑦1 = 2𝑎 𝑦1 = ,
𝑡
1 1
2𝑎𝑡 𝑦2 + 𝑡 2 = 0 𝑦2 = − 2𝑎𝑡 3

The radius of curvature is

1 3⁄2
(1 + 𝑦12 )3⁄2 (1 + 𝑡 2 ) 3
𝜌= = = −2𝑎(1 + 𝑡 2 )2
𝑦2 1
(− )
2𝑎𝑡 3

15. Find the radius of curvature of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 − 𝑎) at (𝑎, 0).

Sol: 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 − 𝑎) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑎𝑥 3
Differentiating successively,
𝑦1 = 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑎𝑥 2 ,
Again Differentiate w.r.to 𝑥
𝑦2 = 12𝑥 2 − 6𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑡 (𝑎, 0), 𝑦1 = 𝑎3 ,
𝑦2 = 6𝑎2
The radius of curvature is
3
(1 + 𝑦12 )3⁄2 (1 + 𝑎6 )2
𝜌= =
𝑦2 6𝑎2
Problems on Radius of Curvature
𝜌2
16. For the cardioid 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃) , show that is a constant.
𝑟

Sol: 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃)

Differentiating successively,
𝑟1 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 , 𝑟2 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 = 𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)2 + 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃
= 𝑎2 (2 − 2 cos 𝜃)
= 2𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)
= 2𝑎𝑟
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟12 − 𝑟𝑟2 = 𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)2 + 2𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − 𝑎2 cos 𝜃 + 𝑎2 cos 2 𝜃
= 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃 − 2𝑎2 cos 𝜃 + 2𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 − 𝑎2 cos 𝜃 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 = 3𝑎2 − 3𝑎2 cos 𝜃
= 3𝑎𝑟
The radius of curvature is
3⁄2
(r2 +r2 )
ρ = r2 +2r21−r r
1 2

3
(2𝑎𝑟)2
= 3𝑎𝑟
2
⁡⁡⁡= 3 √2𝑎𝑟

𝜌2 8𝑎
= is a constant.
𝑟 9

17. If 𝜌1, 𝜌2 be the radii of curvature at the extremities of any chord of the cardioid
2
𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) which passes through the pole, show that 𝜌1 2 + 𝜌2 2 = 16𝑎 ⁄9

Sol: 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃)

Differentiating successively,
𝑟1 = −𝑎 sin 𝜃 , 𝑟2 = −𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 = 𝑎2 (1 + cos 𝜃)2 + 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃
= 𝑎2 (2 + 2 cos 𝜃)
= 2𝑎2 (1 + cos 𝜃)
= 2𝑎𝑟
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟12 − 𝑟𝑟2 = 𝑎2 (1 + cos 𝜃)2 + 2𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑎2 cos 𝜃 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃
= 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃 + 2𝑎2 cos 𝜃 + 2𝑎2 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑎2 cos 𝜃 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃
= 3𝑎2 + 3𝑎2 cos 𝜃
= 3𝑎𝑟
3⁄2 3
(𝑟 2 +𝑟 2 ) (2𝑎𝑟)2 2𝑎𝑟√2𝑎𝑟
𝜌 = 𝑟 2 +2𝑟21−𝑟 𝑟 = =
1 2 3𝑎𝑟 3𝑎𝑟

2 8𝑎𝑟
𝜌 = 3 √2𝑎𝑟 = 𝜌2 = 9

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 Let POP’ be the polar chord (chord passing through the pole)
Of the cardioid 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃). Let 𝜌1 and 𝜌2 be the radii
of curvatures at the point P and P’ corresponding to the
vectorial angles 𝜃 and (𝜋 + 𝜃) respectively
8𝑎2
At (𝑟, 𝜃), 𝜌12 = (1 + cos 𝜃) ________(1)
9

8𝑎2
At (𝑟, 𝜋 + 𝜃), 𝜌22 = (1 − cos 𝜃) ________ (2)
9

8𝑎2 8𝑎2 8𝑎2

(1) +(2) 𝜌12 + 𝜌22 = (1 + cos 𝜃) + (1 − cos 𝜃) = (1 + cos 𝜃+1 − cos 𝜃)
9 9 9

𝑎2
∴ 𝜌12 + 𝜌22 = 16
9
18. Find the radius of curvature of the curve 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 sec 2𝜃
Sol: 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 sec 2𝜃
Differentiate w.r.to 𝑟
2𝑟𝑟1 = 2𝑎2 sec 2𝜃 tan 2𝜃
= 2𝑟 2 tan 2𝜃
𝑟1 = 𝑟 tan 2𝜃
Differentiate again w.r.to 𝑟
𝑟2 = 2𝑟 sec 2 2𝜃 + 𝑟1 tan 2𝜃
𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 tan2 2𝜃
= 𝑟 2 sec 2 2𝜃
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟12 − 𝑟𝑟2
= 𝑟 2 + 2𝑟 2 tan2 2𝜃 − 2𝑟 2 sec 2 2𝜃 − 𝑟 2 tan2 2𝜃
= 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 tan2 2𝜃 − 2𝑟 2 sec 2 2𝜃
= 𝑟 2 sec 2 2𝜃 − 2𝑟 2 sec 2 2𝜃
= −𝑟 2 sec 2 2𝜃
The radius of curvature is
3⁄2
(r2 +r2 )
ρ = r2 +2r21−r r
1 2

𝑟 3 sec3 2𝜃
= − 𝑟 2 sec2 2𝜃

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

 𝑟2
= −𝑟 sec 2𝜃 = −𝑟 (𝑎2 )

𝑟3
= 𝑎2 (Ignore sign)

19.Find the radius of curvature of the curve 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃

Sol: 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃
Differentiate w.r.to 𝜃
𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 𝑟1 = −𝑛𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑛 𝑟1 = −𝑟𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃
𝑟𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃
𝑟1 = − ⟹ 𝑟1 = −𝑟 tan 𝑛𝜃
𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃

Differentiate again w.r.to 𝜃

𝑟2 = −𝑟𝑛 sec 2 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑟1 tan 𝑛𝜃
= −𝑟𝑛 sec 2 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑟 tan2 𝑛𝜃
𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 tan2 𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟 2 sec 2 𝑛𝜃
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟12 − 𝑟𝑟2 = 𝑟 2 + 2𝑟 2 tan2 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑛𝑟 2 sec 2 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑟 2 tan2 𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 tan2 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑛𝑟 2 sec 2 𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟 2 sec 2 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑛𝑟 2 sec 2 𝑛𝜃
= (1 + 𝑛) 𝑟 2 sec 2 𝑛𝜃
The radius of curvature is
3⁄2
(r2 +r2 )
ρ = r2 +2r21−r r
1 2

𝑟 3 sec3 𝑛𝜃
= (1+𝑛) 𝑟 2 sec2 𝑛𝜃

𝑟 𝑟 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑛+1 sec 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛+1 (𝑟 𝑛 )

1 𝑎𝑛
= 𝑛+1 (𝑟 𝑛−1 )

Formula :

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11

CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11
CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11
CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11
CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11
CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11
CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11
CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS-21MAT11