Unit 2: Ecosystems

What is an ecosystem? Structure and function of

ecosystem; Energy flow in an ecosystem: food chains,
food webs and ecological succession. Case studies of
the following ecosystems:
a) Forest ecosystem
b) Grassland ecosystem
c) Desert ecosystem
d) Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers,
oceans, estuaries)
 ECOSYSTEM
• ECOLOGY: Study of ecosystems
• ECOSYSTEM: A group of
organisms interacting among
themselves and with the
environment exchanging
energy and matter.
 Biome
• A biome is a community of
plants and animals that have
common characteristics for the
environment they exist in.
• They can be found over a range
of continents.
• Biomes are distinct biological
communities that have formed
in response to a shared
physical climate.
• There are six major categories • Freshwater Biome
of biomes on earth. In these • Marine Biome
five, there are many sub- • Desert Biome
biomes, under which are many • Forest Biome
more well defined ecosystems. • Grassland Biome
• Tundra Biome
 Three major principles of ecosystem
• Nutrient cycling:
– Movement of chemical elements from the environment
into living organisms and from them back into the
environment through organisms live, grow, die and
decompose.
• Energy flow:
– Energy is required to transform inorganic nutrients into
organic tissues of an organism.
– Energy is the driving force to the work of ecosystem.
• Structure
– It refers to the particular pattern of inter-relationships
that exists between organisms in an ecosystem.
 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

ECOSYSTEM

ARTIFICIAL /
NATURAL
TERRESTRIAL MANMADE
AQUATIC CROPLANDS
DAMS ETC.,
 TYPES OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

AQUATIC
ECOSYSTEM

MARINE FRESH WATER

RIVERS, PONDS ,
SEAS AND SEASHORES
LAKE ,STREAMS ETC.,
 STRUCTURE OR COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
• 2 Major components are
there namely ABIOTIC and
BIOTIC
• Structure of an ecosystem
explains relationship
between the A biotic and
biotic components
A biotic components
• The relationship between
the biotic components and
ECOSYSTEM
abiotic components of an
ecosystem is called
Holocoenosis. Biotic components
 Abiotic components
• These are the non living components collectively forming a
community
• They are classified in to chemical and physical components
• Physical components involves energy, climate, raw materials
living space, air, water, soil, sunlight etc.,
• Chemical components involves the essential nutrient sources
which may be organic like proteins lipids carbohydrates or
inorganic like micro (Al Co Zn Cu) or macro nutrients ( C H O P
NSK)
 Biotic Components
• It comprises the living part of
the environment, which includes
the association of a number of
interrelated populations
belonging to different species in
a common environment.
• The populations are that of
animal community, plant
community and microbial
community.
• Biotic community is
distinguished into autotrophs,
heterotrophs and saprotrophs.
 Types of Consumers
• Unlike producers, there are different levels of consumers
Feeding Role Definition

Herbivore Organisms that eats plants or

other producers
Carnivore Organisms that eats other animals

Omnivore Organisms that eats both plants

and animals
Scavenger Organisms that feeds on the
remains of another organism
 Herbivores

• Organisms that eats plants or other producers

 Carnivore

• Organisms that eats other animals

 Omnivore

• Organisms that eat both plants and

animals
 Scavenger

• Organism that feeds on the remains of

another organism
• Terrestrial ecosystem consumers
(e.g) like cattle, deer, rabbit, grass
hopper, etc.
• Aquatic ecosystem consumers (e.g)
protozoans, crustaceans, etc.
• Carnivores are animals, which feed
or prey upon other animals.
• Primary carnivores or Second order
consumers include the animals
which feed on the herbivorous
animals. For e.g., fox, frog,
predatory birds, smaller fishes,
snakes, etc.
• Secondary carnivores or Third
order consumers include the
animals, which feed on the primary
carnivores. For e.g., wolf, peacock,
owl, etc
• Secondary carnivores are
preyed upon by some larger
carnivores.
• Tertiary carnivores or
Quaternary consumers include
the animals, which feed on the
secondary carnivores. For e.g.,
lion, tiger, etc.
• These are not eaten by any
other animals. The larger
carnivores, which cannot be
preyed upon further are called
top carnivores
• Saprotrophs are also called
decomposers or reducers.
• They break down the
complex organic compounds
of dead matter (of plants and
animals).
• Decomposers do not ingest
their food. Instead they
secrete digestive enzymes
into the dead and decaying
plant and animal remains to
digest the organic material.
• Enzymes act upon the
complex organic compounds
of the dead matter.
 Function of an Ecosystem
• It is to allow flow of energy.
• It is of three types namely
primary secondary and
tertiary.
• Primary is to manufacture
starch by photosynthesis.
• Secondary is to distribute
energy in the form of food to
all consumers.
• At tertiary level dead living
systems are decomposed for
cycling.
• Functioning of an • Energy and material flow
ecosystem can be • Food chains
understood by • Food webs
understanding the • Food pyramids
following terms:
 ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
• Energy is the capacity to do work. Solar energy is transformed into chemical
energy by the process of photosynthesis, and is stored in plant tissue and then
transformed into mechanical and heat forms during metabolic activities.
• The energy, in the biological world, flows from the sun to plants and then to all
heterotrophic organisms such as microorganisms, animals and man.
• Thus the energy flow through atmosphere to an ecosystem involves the
radiation from sun was 50% absorbed by the atmosphere itself. From
remaining 50% of radiations a few % absorbed by plants for the process of
photosynthesis
• 6CO2 + 6H2O ----------sunlight ---à C12H22O11 + 6O2
• I law of thermodynamics:
• Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but one form of energy can
be converted in to another form
• i.e. solar energy in to chemical energy
• II law of thermodynamics:
• Whenever energy is transformed there is a loss of energy through the release
of heat
• i.e. the loss of energy takes place by respiration, running , hunting etc., the
reaction during respiration is
• C12H22O11 + 6O2 ---------------à 6CO2 + 6H2O
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION (FLOW MODEL)
 NUTRIENT FLOW (OR) CYCLING (OR)
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE IN AN ECOSYSTEM
• Nutrients are the elements
essential for the growth of
plants and animals.
• Elements needed in huge
quantity are macro (O, C, H,
N, P, Ca)and needed in
minimum are called micro
nutrients( B, Co, Sr, Zn, Cu)
• The cyclic flow of nutrients
between the biotic and a
biotic components is
known as nutrient cycle.
 CARBON CYCLE
• Carbon is the basic component in all living
organisms present in different forms as
food like carbohydrates proteins lipids
etc.
• It is present in atmosphere as CO2 which
was taken up by plants during
photosynthesis and converted to
carbohydrates (food) which moves
through various food chains and finally
the carbon present in the dead matter
returned to the atmosphere as CO2 by
microorganisms.
• Some sources of CO2 are respiration of
animals and plants, combustion of fuels
and volcanic eruptions.
CARBON CYCLE
 NITROGEN CYCLE
• 78% of atmospheric air is nitrogen
• It is present in all biotic components in different forms of
foods as proteins vitamins amino acids etc.,
• The N2 from atmosphere is taken up by the green plants for
biosynthesis of different food and used in metabolism
• The food move through the food chain after death the organic
nitrogen decomposed by several microorganisms like
nitrifying bacteria (nitrobacter, nitrosomonas) ammonifying
bacteria in to nitrites, nitrates, ammonia which are again used
by plants
• Some bacteria's convert nitrates in to molecular nitrogen
called denitrifying bacteria's (pseudomonas , florescence)
which is again released back in to atmosphere and cycle goes
on…
NITROGEN CYCLE
 PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
• Phosphorous is mainly present in the
rocks and fossils and also in all biotic
components in different forms
• Phosphate rocks are excavated by man
to use ti as a fertilizer. Over usage of
which moves through the surface run
off in to the oceans rivers and lost in to
deep sea sediments
• Sea birds eat sea fishes and their
excreta returns phosphates to land
surface.
• Thus the sea birds and man consuming
fish returns the phosphates lost to land
Which the animals and plants use in
their dissolved forms for their bio
synthesis.
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
• Progressive replacement of one community by
another till the development of a stable
community in a particular area is called
ecological succession.
• There are two stages or community. Pioneer
community is one who first group of
organisms to establish their community.
• Seres are the various developmental stages of
a community in an area
• There are two types of succession namely
primary and secondary.
• Primary type starts with gradual
establishment of a biotic community on a
lifeless community. Depending on the area i.e
if in water called hydrarch and if it is in dry
area called xerarch
• Secondary succession involves establishment
of a biotic community in an area where
already other biotic communities exist.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
 Stages of Ecological succession
• Nudation: developing a bare area without any life form
• Invasion: establishment of one more species on a bare area
through migration followed by establishment.
• For example migration of seeds brought about by wind water
etc., these seeds then germinate and establishes their pioneer
communities
• Competition: when no of individuals increases competition
between same and different species arises for food water etc.,
• Reaction: The above steps modify the environment and called
as reaction. which affects certain existing species and
replaced by some other new species which leads to seral
communities
• Stabilization: It leads to the formation of a stable community
which is in equilibrium with the environment.
 Food chain
• The sequence of eating and being eaten in an
ecosystem is known as food chain. In a grass land
Food chain in a pond and forest
 Characteristics of food chain
• a) there is repeated eating in which each group eats the smaller one and
is eaten by the larger one. Thus, it involves a nutritive interaction
between the biotic components of an ecosystem.
• b) the plants and animals which depend successively on one another
form the limbs of a food chain.
• c) there is unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producers and then
to a series of consumers of various types.
• Thus, a food chain is always straight and proceeds in a progressing
straight line
• d) usually 80 to 90% of potential energy is lost as heat at each transfer
on the basis of second law of thermodynamics (transformation of
energy involves loss of unavailable energy).
• e) usually there are 4 or 5 trophic levels. Shorter food chains provide
greater available energy and vice - versa.
• f) omnivores occupy more than one trophic level and, some organisms
occupy different trophic positions in different food chains
 Types of food chain
• There are mainly two types of food
chains operating in nature.
• a) Grazing food chain
• b) Detritus food chain.
• Grazing food chain is generally seen in
ecosystems such as grassland, pond or
lake where a substantial part of the net
primary production is grazed on by
herbivores (cattle and rodents).
• Usually upto 50% of the NPP is grazed
on by these animals in their respective
ecosystems and the remaining 50% goes
to the decomposer organisms as dead
organic matter.
• Thus, in these ecosystems, the food
chain is herbivore based.
 Food web
• Food web can be defined as, "a
network of food chains which
are interconnected at various
trophic levels, so as to form a
number of feeding connections
amongst different organisms of
a biotic community".
• Food webs are indispensable in
ecosystems as they allow an
organism to obtain its food
from more than one type of
organism of the lower trophic
level.
 Ecological Pyramids
• Ecological pyramids can be
defined as,
"a geographical representation
of an ecological parameter
(E.g. number of individuals or
amount of biomass or amount
of energy) present in various
trophic levels of a food chain
with producer forming the
base and top carnivores at the
tip".
 Ecological Pyramids
• Graphical representation of
the trophic structure is done
by drawing ecological
pyramids, where the basal,
mid and top tiers show the
parameter values for
producers, herbivores and
carnivores in the ecosytsem.
• An ecological pyramid may
be upright (tapering towards
the tip), or inverted (widens
towards the tip) or spindle
shaped (broader in the
middle and narrow above
and below).
 Ecological Pyramids
• On the basis of the
parameters used, ecological
pyramids are of three types.
• Pyramid of Numbers
• Pyramid of Biomass
• Pyramid of Energy
• "Pyramid of numbers is the
graphic representation of
number of individuals per
unit area of various trophic
levels stepwise with
producers forming the base
and top carnivores the tip".
Pyramid of Numbers in a Grassland Ecosystem
Pyramid of Numbers in a Aquatic Ecosystem
• In an aquatic habitat the pyramid of biomass is inverted
or spindle shaped where the biomass of trophic level
depends upon the reproductive potential and longivity
of the member.
• Pyramid of energy is a graphic representation
of the amount of energy trapped per unit time
and area in different trophic level of a food
chain with producers forming the base and
the top carnivores at the tip".
 Pyramid of Energy
• Pyramid of energy is always
upright.
• It is so because at each
transfer about 80 - 90% of
the energy available at lower
trophic level is used up to
overcome its entropy and to
perform metabolic activities.
• Only 10% of the energy is
available to next trophic
level (as per Lindemann's ten
percent rule).
 Biomass Pyramid
• Represents the mass (weight) of all the living
organisms within that trophic level
 Forest ecosystem
• In the Forest ecosystem animals are the consumers.
• They influence the flow of energy and cycling of nutrients through
systems as well as structure and composition of forests through their
feeding behaviour and the disturbances that they create.
• In turn their abundance and diversity is influenced by the composition
of the forest and the various disturbances that occur in the forest.
• Animals in an ecosystem form the heterotrophic stratum or brown belt
of an ecosystem.
• The animals in the ecosystem can be classified on the basis of their
feeding habits into:-
• Herbivores are animals that consume plants and get their energy by
eating plants. They form the primary consumers of the ecosystem.
Cow, sheep ,goat ,deer, rabbit, horse, zebra are some of the
herbivorous animals.
• Carnivores or predators are animals that feed on the herbivores or
other animals in order to derive energy and nutrients required for their
diet.
• They form the secondary consumers of the ecosystem. Mammals
like dogs, cats, mongoose, hyennas; birds like hawks, eagle, falcon,
reptiles like crocodile, snake, turtles are examples of carnivorous
animals.
• The tertiary consumers are also carnivores that feed on primary
consumers like herbivores and also feed on secondary consumers.
Lion, tiger are examples of tertiary consumers.
• Scavengers are flesh eaters and eat the dead flesh from left over of
the carnivores. Jackal, vultures are examples of scavengers.
• Parasites are organism consumes blood or tissues of the host
animal without killing the host
• Decomposers break down complex compounds of dead tissues of
producers and
• Consumers absorb some of the decomposition products and
release simple substances consumable by autotrophic organisms.
• Decomposers include earthworms, bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes
etc
 TYPES OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• The forest ecosystem is of 3 types-tropical rain forest, tropical
deciduous forest and temperate coniferous forest.
• Tropical rain forest provides both shelter and food for huge
number of animals which include birds like cuckoo bird, parrot,
swallows humming bird eagles; mammals like orangutans,
monkeys gibbons, tiger, foxes, hippopotamus, jaguar, reptiles like
crocodiles, alligators, anaconda, flying gecko etc.
• Tropical deciduous forest contains animals like deer,elephants,
sambars, cheetahs, wild buffaloes tiger, leopard. Birds, reptiles,
amphibians are also found in abundance.
• Coniferous forests consists of rich and varied animal life which
includes mammals like mouse deer, musk, rat, porcupine, rabbit,
squirrels etc;
• insectivorous birds like grouse, jay cross bill etc and reptiles like
snakes and lizards
 Uses of Forests
• Forests can be described as uncultivated and uninhabited pieces of land
covered by trees and shrubs.
• Forests play a vital role in the life and culture of the people.
• They form an important renewable natural resource.
• India has about 63.5% million hectares of forests and forms 1/5th of the
geographical area of the country.
• Forests are intimately linked with our culture and civilization. Forests are
useful to us in many ways:
• Forests provides timber for the furniture and building
• Forests provides raw material for paper, board and plywood industry
• Forests provides fodder for cattle, sheep, goat and other animals
• Tropical deciduous forest contains animals like deer, elephants, sambars
cheetahs, wild buffaloes tiger, leopard, Birds, reptiles, amphibians are also
found in abundance.
• Coniferous forests consists of rich and varied animal life which includes
mammals like mouse deer, musk, rat, porcupine, rabbit, squirrels etc;
• insectivorous birds like grouse, jay cross bill etc and reptiles like snakes
and lizards
• Forests provides bamboo which is called poor man's
timber
• Forests gives protection to wild life
• Forests helps in balancing the carbon dioxide and
oxygen in the atmosphere. During photosynthesis,
plants release O2 and use CO2 thus, they put check on
the green house effect.
• Forests regulate the earth's temperature and weather
cycle. They enhance local rainfall
• Forests check soil erosion, landslides and also prevent
floods
• Forests protect wild life
• Forests also provide fruits, nuts, gums, rubber, dyes,
fibre, medicines, camphor, essential oils etc.
• Forests are major sources of various animal products
such as honey, wax, tussore, lac etc
 Desert ecosystem
• A desert ecosystem may seems to be barren land and devoid of life
but plants and animals do exist in desert.
• But their number of plants and animals is not as large as that in other
ecosystems.
• A desert ecosystem is a type of arid ecosystem that exists where there
is very little rainfall and the climate is usually extreme in harshness.
• Other arid ecosystems are semi-desert, sub-desert, steppe, and
semiarid or arid grasslands.
• Due to the low moisture content in desert the biological activities are
regulated by ephemeral water availability .
• These ecosystems are either barren or with scanty vegetation
consisting of mainly thorny bushes.
• Deserts are classified as warm (hot) and cold (temperate) deserts
• The hot deserts are the Sahara in Northern Africa, Kalahari in
Southern Africa, Thar in India, Atacama in South America, deserts of
Mexico and Australia.
• The deserts of Iran and Turkey, Gobi desert of Mongolia, some deserts
of Argentina are recognised as temperate or cold deserts
Desert ecosystem
 Plants in Desert Ecosystem
• Plants in the desert ecosystem are generally dwarfed because
of the lack of rainfall.
• The most common plant that is seen in the desert ecosystem is
the cactus.
• More than hundreds of different types of cactus are found in
desert ecosystem and each one has evolved to suit the
particular desert ecosystem to which they are endemic.
• Other plants of desert ecosystem are saltbush and gravillias.
• Plants of the desert ecosystem have evolved with succulent
bodies that can retain the precious moisture needed for
growth and narrow needle like leaves that reduces the lose
moisture easily.
• Other plants spread across the ground or grow under shades
of larger plants
 Animals in Desert Ecosystem
• Animals present in the desert ecosystem include very few
large mammals but camel is one of the prominent animals
found in this environment.
• Other animals found in desert ecosystem includes rats, small
rodents, rabbits, moles and fox like creatures.
• Burrowing creatures, snakes, insects, ants, birds, lizards, and
beetles are regular inhabitants that are found in desert
ecosystem
• Animals and other creatures present in desert ecosystem have
managed to survive in the harsh climate, hot days and freezing
nights, by controlling their body heat.
• It is essential for any desert ecosystem animals to adjust to
the particular aspects of their environment.
• The fragile balance of the desert ecosystem is nowadays
damaged by excess human activity.
 Characteristics of Deserts
i) Most deserts receive some rain every year but not
uniform.
ii) Light green covering of annuals is seen just after rains.
iii) Have scanty vegetation, clear skies, hot days and
extremely cold nights.
iv) Soil is rocky and encrusted with sand or salt.
Long periods without precipitation and extreme
temperature (50 - 60oC) conditions (arid lands) impose
considerable restraints on the flora and fauna which
inhabit there.
Sandy storms are very frequent.
 Grassland Ecosystem
• It occupies about 20% of earth surface. It is a plain land
occupied by grasses.
• In addition some trees and shrubs also present. It is ideal
place for grazing animals.
• Limited grazing improves the net production grasslands.
• Over grazing leads to degradation.
• Soil is very rich in nutrients and organic matter.
• Characterised by low or uneven rainfall.
Types of Grasslands
• Tropical grasslands
• Temperate grasslands
• Polar grasslands
 Tropical grassland
• Found near the borders of tropical rain
forests.
• High temperature and moderate
rainfall.
• It is also known as savanna type.
• Tall grasses,scattered shrubs,stunted
trees.
• Animals- zebras, giraffes, antelope.
 Temperate grassland

• Found in the centers of continent.

• Characterised by very cold winters and hot
summers.
• Intense grazing and summer fires, do not
allow shrubs or trees to grow.
 Polar Grassland

• Found in artic polar regions.

• Characterised by severe cold and strong
winds along with ice and snow.
• In summer annual plants grow.
• Animals- artic wolf, weasel, artic fox.
 Structure and function of grassland ecosystem
• Abiotic components (e.g.,) Nutrients, C, H, O, N, P,
S, etc.
• Biotic components
• 1. Producers e.g., Grasses, herbs and shrubs
• 2. Consumers
• a. Primary consumers (herbivores)
(e.g.) cows, buffalos, deer, sheep, etc.
• b. Secondary consumers (Primary carnivores)
(e.g.) Snakes, lizards, birds, Jackals, fox
• c. Tertiary Consumers (e.g.) Hawks, eagles, etc.
• 3. Decomposers e.g., bacteria and fungi
 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

• Introduction
• Types of aquatic life zone
– Fresh water life Zone (examples : Ponds, Streams,
Lakes, Rivers)
– Salt water life Zones (examples : Oceans,
estuaries)
 Aquatic ecosystems
• Ecosystem is an biological community of an area, of
interacting organisms and their physical and chemical
environment.
• Earth’s surface can be described by a series of
interconnected ecosystems. Ecosystem can be
classified into 2 main categories:
• Terrestrial ecosystems: where organisms and their
environment interacts on landmasses.
• Aquatic ecosystems: where plants, animals and their
physical environment interact in water.
 Types of Aquatic Ecosystems

Fresh water Ecosystem

• Very small proportion of earth’s area that is only 0.8
percent of the earth’s surface is covered by them.
• Primary production in a fresh-water ecosystem is
controlled by light and nutrient availability.
• Fresh water can be defined as the water that contains
a relatively small amount of dissolved chemical
compounds.
• It includes :Standing Water- lakes & ponds and Moving
Water- rivers & streams
 Significance of Different Types of Aquatic Ecosystems

• The study of aquatic

ecosystem helps to
understand the biodiversity
(flora and fauna)of the
aquatic ecosystem and their
interaction with the physical
and chemical environment .
• Aquatic ecosystems are in
danger mainly because of
human activities like:
Overfishing, Transportation,
waste disposal , recreation
and other activities which
might harm the ecosystem
 Estuaries
• Areas where freshwater dumps into ocean. So the water
is neither truly fresh water, since it has salt content, but it is also
not consider salt water because it has a lower level of salt than
the ocean.
• Estuaries are always productive and has rich
biodiversity. Organisms are well adapted to varying levels of
salinity.
• Wetlands- bogs/fens, swamps, marshes: Here the water is
completely or partially shallow.
• Has a rich biodiversity because they receive plenty of sunlight
which supports life.
• Plants include water lilies, mangrove, tamarack and sedges are
commonly found in wetlands. Various species of reptiles and
amphibians are also found in wetlands.
 Structure and function of the
ESTUARINE ecosystem
• Abiotic components
(e.g.,) temperature, pH, Na, K, salts and
various nutrians
• Biotic components
• 1. Producers
• e.g., Phytoplankton, marsh
grasses, sea weeds, and sea grasses

• 2. Consumers
(e.g) Oysters, crabs, sea birds, small
fishes
• 3. Decomposers (e.g., bacteria, fungi
and actinomycetes
 Marine Ecosystem
• About 71% of the earths surface is covered by marine
ecosystem. Marine ecosystem involves: Shorelines, Coral Reefs,
Open Ocean.
• Shorelines : are where oceans and seas meet land. Since its
close to the sea its always prone to hurricanes and
erosion.Habitat fo burrowing animals.
• Coral Reefs: Cover less than 1% of the oceans.Also known as
“Rainforests of sea”. These are clear warm shallow sea’s.Made
up of as a result of accumulation of calcium carbonate
deposited by marine organisms like corals and shellfish.
• Open Ocean: Oceans have a great impact on the biosphere.Its
the source of rainfall. ocean temperatures determine climate
and wind patterns
Structure and function of the OCEAN ecosystem
Abiotic components
(e.g.,) temperature, light, NaCl, K, Ca, and Mg salts
Biotic components
1. Producers
e.g., Phytoplankton(Diatoms, unicellular Algae), marine
plants(sea wheats)
2. Consumers
A. Primary Consumers
(e.g.) Crustaceans, moiluses, fish
B. Secondary Consumers
(e.g) Herring Sahd, mackerel, etc.
C. Tertiary Consumers
(e.g) Cod, Haddock
3. Decomposers (e.g., bacteria, and fungi