1.

1 recognize cell structures as seen with a light microscope and electron microscope

1.2 describe the functions of the cell structures

Organelle Function of Organelle

nucleus The nucleus controls cell activities by regulating gene expression and contains the
cell's genetic material (DNA). It functions as the command center of the cell, housing
DNA that directs cellular growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
chromosomes Chromosomes are thread-like structures located within the nucleus that contain
tightly packed DNA. They carry genes that encode instructions for protein synthesis,
determining inherited traits and guiding cellular functions.
cell The cell membrane is a selectively permeable barrier surrounding the cell, controlling
membrane the movement of substances in and out of the cell. It maintains homeostasis by
allowing essential nutrients in, removing waste, and facilitating cell communication.
mitochondria Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration, producing ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) – the cell’s main energy source. They convert glucose and oxygen into
ATP, enabling cells to perform energy-requiring activities.
endoplasmic The ER is a network of membranous tubules involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
reticulum The rough ER has ribosomes attached and aids in protein synthesis, while the smooth
ER is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification processes.
ribosomes. Ribosomes are small organelles either floating freely in the cytoplasm or attached to
the rough ER, where they synthesize proteins by translating mRNA into polypeptide
chains. They play a crucial role in gene expression and protein formation for cellular
structure and function.
1.2 describe the structure of a DNA and RNA molecules

A DNA molecule is made up of two strands that coil around each other to form a double helix shape.
Each strand consists of nucleotides, which are the basic units of DNA, made up of a phosphate group, a
sugar molecule (deoxyribose), and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, or
guanine). The two strands are linked by complementary bases through hydrogen bonds; adenine pairs
with thymine (A-T), and cytosine pairs with guanine (C-G). These hydrogen bonds between
complementary base pairs hold the two strands of the DNA molecule together.

1.6 know the differences between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
Double helical structure Mono-Helical Structure
Deoxyribose sugar Ribose Sugar
Contains Thymine Contains Uracil
Only in the nucleus Nucleus and Cytoplasm
1.4 describe DNA replication as the separation of DNA strands and the formation of a new strand by
complementary base pairing of nucleotides, including the role of DNA polymerase:

DNA replication begins when the enzyme, DNA helicase unwinds and unzips the double helix, breaking
the hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases. Each original strand serves as a template for
forming a new strand. Complementary base pairing occurs as free nucleotides in the nucleus pair with
the exposed bases on each template strand. The enzyme DNA polymerase then catalyzes the formation
of the new DNA strand by adding nucleotides in the correct sequence according to complementary base
pairing. Another enzyme, DNA ligase, joins the two new strands to form a double helix, which are
identical to the original strand.

1.5 understand that a gene is a length of DNA containing a sequence of bases that code for a specific
protein.

A gene is a specific length of DNA that contains a sequence of bases coding for a particular protein.
The order of bases within this gene determines the order of amino acids in the protein being
synthesized. Each set of three DNA bases, known as a triplet codon, codes for one specific amino acid.
This sequence of codons in a gene ultimately determines the structure and function of the resulting
protein.

1.7 understand that a DNA mutation involves a change in the sequence of bases that could lead to a
change in the amino acid sequence and phenotype of an individual

A DNA mutation is a change in the sequence of bases within a gene. This alteration can lead to a change
in the amino acid sequence of the protein that the gene codes for, hence a mutation may cause the
protein to function improperly or not at all, which can affect the phenotype (observable characteristics)
of an individual. Some mutations may be neutral, while others can lead to significant effects on health or
development.

1.8 describe protein synthesis

During transcription, a specific gene sequence in the DNA is used as a template to form mRNA
(messenger RNA) in the nucleus. The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to the DNA, unwinding the double
helix, and synthesizes a complementary mRNA strand by pairing RNA nucleotides with DNA bases. This
mRNA strand contains codons that code for the final protein. After transcription, the mRNA exits the
nucleus and moves to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where it will control the process of protein
synthesis.

In the translation stage, the mRNA leaves the nucleus goes to the ribosomes. At the ribosome, tRNA
(transfer RNA) molecules, each carrying a specific amino acid, bind to the mRNA codons through
complementary anticodons. Each tRNA aligns its amino acid according to the mRNA sequence, matching
each codon on the mRNA with the appropriate amino acid. As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, it
facilitates the joining of amino acids carried by the tRNA to form a polypeptide chain. This polypeptide
chain then folds into a specific shape to become a functional protein.
1.9 outline principles of genetic engineering

Making Human Insulin: The desired gene is cut out and isolated using restriction enzymes, forming
sticky ends, and a bacterial plasmid is cut with the same restriction enzymes to form complementary
sticky ends, which are then joined together with DNA ligase to form recombinant DNA. This is then
inserted into a bacterial cell which is then placed in a fermenter to reproduce quickly in controlled
conditions to make large quantities of insulin.

Making Genetically modified plants: The desired gene is cut out and isolated using restriction enzymes,
forming sticky ends, and a bacterial plasmid (agrobacterium) is cut with the same restriction enzymes to
form complementary sticky ends, which are then joined together with DNA ligase to form recombinant
DNA. The recombinant DNA is then transformed into the genome of Agrobacterium which is then
incorporated into chromosomes in plant cells. These plant cells are cultured, producing a transgenic
plant in which new traits are expressed.

1.10 understand that mitosis occurs during growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproduction

1.11 Know the four main stages of mitosis; prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

Mitosis is a process of cell division that results in the production of two genetically identical diploid
daughter cells. It consists of four main stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

During prophase, the chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, each consisting of two sister
chromatids joined at the centromere. The nuclear envelope begins to break down, and the mitotic spindle
starts to form from the centrosomes, which move to opposite poles of the cell.

In metaphase, the chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane, known as the metaphase plate. The
spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes, ensuring that each sister chromatid will be
pulled toward opposite poles during the next stage.

During anaphase, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibers and move toward opposite
poles of the cell. This separation ensures that each daughter cell will receive an identical set of
chromosomes.

Finally, in telophase, the chromosomes reach the poles and begin to decondense back into chromatin.
The nuclear envelope re-forms around each set of chromosomes, resulting in two distinct nuclei within
the cell. Following telophase, the cell undergoes cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, ultimately
producing two genetically identical diploid daughter cells.
1.12 know that there are different types of stem cells, including embryonic and adult stem cells that
have the ability to develop into other body cells

Embryonic stem cells are derived from early-stage embryos and are considered pluripotent. This
versatility makes them particularly valuable for research and therapeutic applications.

Adult stem cells, also known as somatic stem cells, are found in various tissues of the body and are
typically multipotent, meaning they can differentiate into a limited range of cell types related to their
tissue of origin.

1.13 describe the advantages, disadvantages and ethics in the research and use of embryonic and
adult stem cells

Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs): These are pluripotent stem cells derived from early-stage embryos,
capable of differentiating into almost any cell type in the body.

Advantages:

1. High Differentiation Potential: ESCs can form virtually any cell type, offering extensive
applications in regenerative medicine.

2. Potential for Treating Various Conditions: ESCs hold promise in treating conditions like spinal
cord injuries, Parkinson’s disease, and diabetes by replacing damaged tissues.

3. Research Benefits: Studying ESCs advances understanding of human development, cell

differentiation, and genetic diseases.

Disadvantages:

1. Risk of Immune Rejection: Cells derived from ESCs may be rejected by the recipient's immune
system.

2. Tumor Formation: ESCs may form tumors (teratomas) if transplanted without adequate control.

3. Complex Culturing Requirements: ESCs are difficult to culture and require precise conditions to
maintain pluripotency.

Ethical Considerations:

1. Embryo Destruction: Harvesting ESCs destroys an embryo, raising concerns about the moral
status of early human life.

2. Consent and Donor Rights: Ethical issues arise around the consent required from embryo
donors.

3. Alternative Research: Some argue for prioritising adult stem cell research, which does not
involve embryo destruction.
Adult Stem Cells (ASCs): These are multipotent stem cells found in specific tissues of adults, capable of
differentiating into a limited range of cell types.

Advantages:

1. Lower Risk of Immune Rejection: ASCs can be sourced from the patient’s own body, minimizing
immune response risks.

2. Ethically Uncontroversial: Since obtaining ASCs does not harm the donor or involve embryos, it
poses fewer ethical issues.

3. Application in Tissue Repair: ASCs are effective in repairing specific tissues, such as bone
marrow stem cells for blood-related disorders.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited Differentiation Potential: ASCs are usually multipotent, meaning they can only
differentiate into specific cell types, limiting their application range.

2. Lower Abundance: ASCs are rare in tissues, making their isolation and expansion challenging.

3. Reduced Efficacy with Age: ASCs tend to decline in regenerative capacity as the donor ages,
limiting their utility for older patients.

Ethical Considerations:

1. Informed Consent: Ethical protocols require informed consent from adult stem cell donors,
particularly for research purposes.

2. Fair Access and Equity: With limited cell availability, ensuring fair access to treatments derived
from ASCs is a challenge.

3. Research Prioritization: Some argue that limited funding should focus on ASCs as they avoid
embryo-related ethical concerns.

1.14 understand that cells are grouped into tissues and that tissues are organised into organs
1.15 describe the structure of bone, muscle (voluntary, involuntary and cardiac, as observed under a
light microscope), blood, nervous tissue and epithelium (squamous and ciliated, with reference to cells
lining the cheek and trachea)

Voluntary (Skeletal) Muscle: Composed of long, cylindrical fibers with multiple peripheral nuclei and a
striated appearance due to alternating actin and myosin filaments. This muscle tissue allows for
movement under conscious control.

Involuntary (Smooth) Muscle: Made of spindle-shaped cells with a single, centrally located nucleus.
Lacks striations and controls involuntary movements, like in the intestines.

Cardiac Muscle: Found only in the heart, it has striated, branched fibers with a single central nucleus.
Unique intercalated discs connect cells, facilitating synchronized contractions.

Squamous Epithelium: Thin, flat cells forming smooth, low-friction surfaces, such as those lining blood
vessels and cheek cells.

Ciliated Epithelium: Columnar epithelial cells with hair-like cilia on their surface, commonly found lining
the respiratory tract, including the trachea.

1.16 describe the structure of cells specialised for reproduction, e.g. egg (ovum) and sperm and relate
their structure to function
3.1 know simple definitions of diffusion, osmosis and active transport

Diffusion: Diffusion is the passive movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration across a partially permeable membrane.

Osmosis: Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable
membrane from an area of lower water potential to an area of higher water potential.

Active Transport: Active transport is the movement of molecules across a partially permeable membrane
from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration, requiring energy (typically from
ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradient.

3.3 understand the factors that affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells to
include the effects of surface area to volume ratio, temperature and concentration gradient

Surface Area to Volume Ratio: A larger surface area relative to volume allows for more efficient
exchange of materials. Cells with a high surface area to volume ratio (such as those with extensions like
microvilli) can absorb nutrients and expel wastes more effectively.

Temperature: Temperature affects the kinetic energy of molecules; higher temperatures increase
molecular movement, leading to faster diffusion rates. However, extreme temperatures can denature
proteins and disrupt cellular processes.

Concentration Gradient: The concentration gradient is the difference in concentration of a substance

between two areas. A steeper concentration gradient (a larger difference in concentration) results in a
faster rate of movement.

4.1 describe the structure and function of the main parts of the skeleton: (pg 126-127 HB)

Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton consists of the vertebral column, ribcage, and skull.

The vertebral column (spine) provides structural support, protects the spinal cord, and allows for
flexibility and movement. The ribcage protects vital organs such as the heart and lungs while facilitating
breathing through the expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity. The skull encases and protects
the brain and houses the structures for the face.

Appendicular Skeleton: The appendicular skeleton includes the scapula (shoulder blade), clavicle
(collarbone), pelvis, and limbs (arms and legs).
The scapula and clavicle connect the upper limbs to the torso, allowing for a wide range of motion. The
pelvis supports the weight of the upper body and protects pelvic organs, while the limbs enable
movement and interaction with the environment.

Structure of a Long Bone: A long bone consists of a shaft (diaphysis) and two ends (epiphyses).

The outer layer is made of compact bone, providing strength and structure. Inside the bone, there is
spongy bone, which is lighter and contains red marrow for blood cell production. The epiphyses are the
ends of the bone and are typically covered by articular cartilage, facilitating smooth movement at joints.

4.2 explain the functions of joints

Elbow Joint: The elbow is a hinge joint that allows for flexion and extension of the forearm. It serves as
the insertion point for the bicep.

Shoulder Joint: The shoulder is a ball-and-socket joint that allows for a wide range of movements in all
planes.

Cartilaginous Intervertebral Joint: Intervertebral joints are cartilaginous joints that allow limited
movement and provide cushioning between the vertebrae.

4.3 describe the structure of a synovial joint

Articular Cartilage: Smooth cartilage that covers

the ends of bones, reducing friction during
movement.

Joint Capsule: A fibrous capsule that surrounds

the joint, providing stability and containing
synovial fluid.

Synovial Fluid: A lubricating fluid produced by

the synovial membrane that reduces friction
and nourishes the articular cartilage.

Ligaments: Strong connective tissues that

connect bones and provide additional stability
to the joint.
4.4 explain the relationship between voluntary muscles and bones to bring about movement

Voluntary muscles, such as the biceps and triceps in the upper arm, work in antagonistic pairs to
facilitate movement. When the biceps contract, they pull on the radius, causing flexion at the elbow.
Conversely, when the triceps contract, they pull on the humerus and ulna, causing extension of the arm.

4.5 understand the dietary factors controlling the healthy development of muscle and bone

Calcium: Essential for bone strength and density, found in dairy products and leafy greens.

Vitamin D: Facilitates calcium absorption and is obtained from sunlight exposure and fatty fish.

Protein: Important for muscle repair and growth, found in meat, fish, eggs, legumes, and dairy.

Other Nutrients: Magnesium, phosphorus, and vitamins A and C also play roles in bone health and
muscle function.

4.6 understand the causes and symptoms of osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a condition characterized by decreased bone density and increased fragility, leading to a
higher risk of fractures.

Causes: aging, hormonal changes (especially post-menopause), lack of calcium and vitamin D, sedentary
lifestyle, smoking, and excessive alcohol consumption.

Symptoms: Osteoporosis often has no early symptoms, but as the condition progresses, it may lead to
symptoms such as bone pain, a decrease in height, and an increased frequency of fractures, particularly
in high pressure points, such as the hip, spine, and wrist.

5.1 know the structure of neurones: sensory, motor and relay

Sensory Neurones: These neurones transmit sensory information from receptors to the central nervous
system (CNS).

Motor Neurones: Motor neurones transmit signals from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands).

Relay Neurones: Also known as interneurones, relay neurones connect sensory and motor neurones
within the CNS.

5.2 know the basic plan of the central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain processes information
and coordinates responses, while the spinal cord acts as a conduit for signals between the brain and the
rest of the body. The CNS is protected by the skull and vertebral column.

5.3 know the main areas of the brain and their functions

Part of Brain Responsible for:

Cerebrum higher brain functions such as reasoning, problem-solving, and emotions.
Cerebellum voluntary movements, balance, and posture.
Midbrain visual and auditory reflexes, movement and alertness.
Pituitary Gland various hormonal functions, regulates other endocrine glands.
Hypothalamus body temperature, hunger, thirst, and circadian rhythms (homeostasis), links
nervous system to endocrine system

5.4 know the structure and functions of the spinal cord and the structure of a reflex arc

Spinal Cord: The spinal cord is a long, tubular structure that extends from the base of the brain down the
vertebral column. It is protected by vertebrae and consists of grey matter (containing cell bodies) and
white matter (containing myelinated axons). The spinal cord relays messages between the brain and the
rest of the body and is involved in reflex actions.

Reflex Arc: A reflex arc is a simple neural pathway that mediates a reflex action. It typically involves a
sensory neurone, a relay neurone (interneurone), and a motor neurone. When a stimulus is detected, the
sensory neurone sends an impulse to the spinal cord (via the dorsal root), where it synapses with the
relay neurone, emerging from the ventral root, which in turn activates the motor neurone to elicit a rapid
response.

5.5 understand that the body contains receptors that can detect specialized stimuli

Receptor Type Location

Light Receptors Retina (rods and cones)
Temperature Receptors (Thermoreceptors) Skin and Hypothalamus
Pressure/Pain Receptors Skin and Internal Organs
Taste Receptors Tongue

5.6 describe the pathway taken by a nerve impulse to cause a response to a stimulus

Receptors in a sense organ detects a stimulus, generating an electrical impulse that travels along a
sensory neurone to a relay neurone via the dorsal root in the spinal cord of the CNS. Relay neurons
connect motor neurons, which emerge from the ventral root from the CNS. The motor neurons sends
electrical impulses to an effector, which produces a response.
5.7 practical: investigate the number and position of sensory receptors, such as touch and temperature
receptors in the skin

Temperature: Take a thermometer from the water bath kept at 45 °C and wipe it dry with a paper
towel. Touch it on the back of the subject’s hand in different places. Record whether the subject feels
any warmth in addition to the touch, or whether only touch can be felt. When only touch is sensed,
record the temperature reading on the thermometer. Repeat using the thermometer kept in iced water.
Dry the thermometer and touch it on the back of the subject’s hand in different places. Record whether
the subject feels cold in addition to the touch, or whether only the touch can be felt. When only touch is
sensed, record the temperature reading on the thermometer.

5.8 understand how nerve impulses are initiated, the direction of movement of an impulse along a
neurone and transmission across a synapse

Nerve impulses are initiated when a neuron receives a chemical stimulus. The impulse moves along the
neurone from the cell body along the axon, to the axon terminal. At the synapse, the impulse triggers
the release of neurotransmitters, which cross the synaptic cleft, carrying the impulse along with it,
binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neurone, generating a new action potential.

5.9 understand the action of hormones from the pituitary and the role of hormones in growth and
development

The pituitary gland produces several hormones that regulate body functions:

• ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) regulates water balance by increasing water reabsorption in the
kidneys.

• Gonadotrophic hormones stimulate reproductive organs; in females, they control ovulation and
menstrual cycle, and in males, they regulate sperm production.

The adrenal gland releases adrenaline, which increases heart rate and blood flow, preparing the body
for 'fight or flight' responses.

The thyroid gland produces thyroxine, which controls metabolism and is crucial for growth and
development.

The islets of Langerhans in the pancreas secrete:

• Insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels by facilitating cellular glucose uptake.

• Glucagon, which raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the conversion of glycogen to glucose
in the liver.

The gonads (ovaries and testes) produce sex hormones, which are responsible for sexual development,
reproductive functions, and secondary sexual characteristics.
5.10 understand the differences between the nervous and hormonal systems

Hormonal System Nervous System

Transmits information through chemical means Transmits information through electrical means
Slow acting, long lasting effects Fast acting, short lasting effects
Travels through the vascular system Travels through the nervous system

5.11 explain the structures and functions of the eye

Accomodation
Structural Unit Focused on a distant object Focused on a nearby object
Cilliary Muscles Relaxed Contracted
Suspensory Ligaments Slacken Pulled tight
Lens becomes thinner Becomes thicker
Refractive Power decreases increases

Iris Reflex
Structural Unit High Light Intensity Low Light Intensity
Circular Muscles Contract Relax
Radial Muscles Relax Contract
Change in Pupil constrict dilate

Stereoscopic Vision: Stereoscopic vision refers to the ability of human eyes to see the surroundings
through a three-dimensional view with two eyes. The slightly different visual input from each eye is
combined by the brain, allowing depth perception and improved distance judgment.

5.12 understand eye defects and their treatment

Defect Symptom Cause Treatment

Hyperopia Blurry vision when eyeball is too short or convex lenses
observing nearby the lens too flat,
objects images focus behind
the retina
Myopia Blurry vision when eyeball is too long or concave lenses
observing distant the lens too thick, so
objects images focus in front of
the retina
Astigmatism I Blurred distance and Irregular corneal cylindrical lenses or
near vision curvature on one side LASIK
Astigmatism II Irregular corneal corneal regularization
curvature on both side (T-PTK)
Cataracts Cloudy vison protein breakdown surgical lens
forming cloudy patches replacement
Corneal Damage Blurred vision, eye Abrasions or severe Corneal transplant
pain/stinging etc… trauma and irritation
5.13 explain the structure and function of the ear in balance and hearing

Region Structure Function

Outer ear Pinna Catch sound waves and direct
them into the auditory canal
Auditory Canal Channels sound waves towards
the tympanic membrane,
amplifies sound waves
Tympanic Membrane Vibrates to transmit and amplify
sound waves
Middle Ear Ear ossicles (MIS) Amplify sound waves and
channel them towards the oval
window
Inner ear Eustachian Tube Balances air pressure between
the two ears
Oval window Sound waves from the middle
ear enter through here
Cochlea Actively plays a role in the sense
of hearing and auditory
transduction, contains sensory
hairs which convert mechanical
vibrations into electrical
impulses to be interpreted by
the brain.
Round window Sound waves from the inner ear
leave through here
Vestibulocochlear nerve Carries electrical impulses to
the brain
Semicircular Canals Detects angular accelerations
(lateral, anterior and posterior) during head movements in a 3D
space, containing equilibrium
receptors that respond to
rotational head movements

5.14 understand how prolonged exposure to high noise levels affects the functioning of the

ear and hearing

Extended exposure to loud sounds damages the hair cells in the cochlea, causing hearing loss and
potentially leading to tinnitus. Damage to these hair cells is often permanent, reducing hearing
sensitivity.
5.15 practical: investigate the range of frequency audible to the human ear

This experiment requires a frequency generator to produce pure tones across a wide frequency
spectrum, a speaker or headphones to play the sounds, a sound level meter to ensure volume
consistency, and a silent room to prevent interference from external sounds. The setup begins with
calibrating the speaker or headphones using the sound level meter, ensuring that sounds are played at a
consistent volume across all frequencies. Participants are positioned in the quiet room and instructed to
signal when they hear a sound. Starting with the lowest frequency, such as 20 Hz, sounds are played at
small intervals, for example, every 500 Hz, up to the highest audible frequency. Each tone is played at a
comfortable volume, such as 40–60 dB, to avoid discomfort. The participant signals detection of each
sound, and these frequencies are recorded. After testing, the lowest and highest detectable frequencies
for each participant are noted, showing the frequency range audible to the ears.

5.16 understand the meaning of the term 'drug' and distinguish between legal and illegal drugs

A drug is a substance that alters physiological processes in the body. Legal drugs like paracetamol work
by inhibiting pain signals in the nervous system. Illegal drugs include:

• Heroin: A depressant that slows brain activity.

• Cannabis: Impairs memory and mental health with prolonged use.

• Cocaine: A stimulant that increases heart rate and blood pressure.

5.17 describe the damaging effects of alcohol

Nervous System: Alcohol impairs coordination, decision-making, and memory. Chronic use can lead to
addiction and mental health problems.

Liver: Alcohol is metabolized by the liver, but long-term use can cause liver damage, such as fatty liver,
alcoholic hepatitis, and cirrhosis.

Behavioral Effects: Excessive drinking causes aggressive behavior, poor decision-making, and may lead to
dependency.
5.18 & 5.19 describe the causes, symptoms and treatments various brain diseases

Disease Cause Symptom Treatment

Schizophrenia unknown delusions, combination of
hallucinations, psychotherapy and
disorganized speech, atypical anti-
trouble with thinking psychotics
Depression Low levels of dopamine Feelings of sadness, antidepressant
From traumatic events tearfulness, emptiness medications or
or hopelessness psychotherapy
Alzheimer’s Disease The accumulation of Memory problems, Cholinesterase
abnormal tau and beta- agitation, trouble inhibitors:
amyloid proteins, low sleeping, and Galantamine,
levels of acetylcholine hallucinations rivastigmine, and
donepezil
Vascular Dementia decreased blood flow Hallucinations or NO CURE. blood
which damages brain delusions, depression, pressure medicines,
tissue agitation, and anger blood thinners to
slow progress
Parkinson’s Disease Low levels of dopamine Tremors, muscle Carbidopa-levodopa
resulting from the stiffness and slowness of
death of dopamine movement
producing nerve cells
6.1 explain the importance of a balanced diet

A balanced diet is a diet consisting of the right proportions of every type of nutrient (carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, etc.) in suitably sized portions.

Nutrient Molecule Function Source Symptoms of

Deficiency
Carbohydrates Provide energy for grains, bread, and headaches, fatigue,
cellular respiration potatoes weakness
Fats Long term energy store, dairy, nuts, and dry, scaly skin, brittle
part of cell membranes oils nails and hair
(myelin sheath)
Proteins Cellular repair and meat, beans, and Kwashiorkor
production nuts
Vitamin A Responsible for the Found in carrots Night blindness
activation of rhodopsin and leafy
(which is sensitive to UV vegetables
light) strengthens
immune system
Vitamin C strengthens connective citrus fruits Scurvy
tissue (collagen
synthesis), acts as an
antioxidant
Vitamin D Assist in the absorption fortified dairy and rickets (children)
of calcium, regulate the through sunlight osteomalacia (adults)
amount of phosphorus
Iron Required for the red meat and anemia
formation of leafy greens
haemoglobin and
myoglobin
Calcium build bones and keep dairy products Hypocalcemia
teeth healthy
Fibre (non starch Assists in peristalsis fresh fruits, raw Constipation, IBS,
polysaccharide) vegetables diverticulitis, heart
disease and some
cancers (including
bowel)

6.2 understand variations in diet related to age, pregnancy, climate and occupation

Group Need
Children More protein for growth
Adults Less energy in general
Pregnant women iron and folic acid to support fetal development
Elderly Extra protein and calories to avoid wastage
Cold climate Higher carbohydrate intake
Active Occupations Higher carbohydrate intake
6.5 know the structures of the human alimentary canal

Structure Function
Mouth Begins digestion with chewing and salivary enzyme (amylase) activity
Oesophagus Moves bolus to the stomach via peristalsis.
Stomach Secretes acid and protease enzymes to digest proteins, mechanically digests to
form chyme
Small Intestine Major site for digestion and nutrient absorption; enzymes break down food
molecules. Acidic chyme is neutralized by bile here.
Large Intestine Absorbs water, forming faeces
Pancreas Produces digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase, protease) that are secreted into the
small intestine.
Liver Production of bile, which breaks down and emulsifies large lipid molecules
Gall Bladder stores and releases bile

6.6 explain how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis

Peristalsis refers to the rhythmic, wave-like muscle contractions that propel food along the gut. Dietary
fibre adds bulk to food, aiding peristalsis by stimulating bowel movements and preventing constipation,
thus ensuring efficient food passage.

6.7 understand the role of digestive enzymes including:

Digestive Enzyme Site of Production Function

Amylase and Maltase salivary glands and pancreas starch to glucose
Proteases (Pepsin and Trypsin) Stomach, pancreas (rspctv) proteins to amino acids
Lipases pancreas lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

6.9 understand how the structure of the villus helps absorption of the products of

digestion in the small intestine

Villi are small, finger-like projections lining the small intestine, increasing surface area for nutrient
absorption. Each villus is one cell thick, to reduce the diffusion distance, and has a network of capillaries
to transport absorbed nutrients into the bloodstream and a lacteal for fat absorption, maximizing
efficiency in nutrient uptake. The continuous movement of blood through the cappilarries establishes a
high concentration gradient for the absorption of soluble nutrients.
6.10 All about teeth

Teeth Type Function Factors that affect growth

Incisors Cutting food Nutritional deficiencies, Poor
Canines Tearing food dental hygiene, genetics
Molars and Premolars Grinding and crushing food

6.11 understand BMI & Obesity

BMI is a measure of body fat calculated by dividing weight (kg) by height (m²).

In average people: High BMI levels increase the risk of obesity-related conditions like type 2 diabetes.
High cholesterol can lead to atherosclerosis, where arteries harden, increasing the risk of heart disease.

6.12 explain the importance of hygienic methods of food preparation, cooking, storage and
Preservation

Hygienic food practices, such as thorough cooking, proper storage (refrigeration/freezing), and
preserving techniques (canning, pasteurization), prevent contamination, spoilage, and the growth of
harmful bacteria, ensuring food safety.

7.1 know that the process of respiration releases energy in living organisms

Respiration is a biochemical process in living organisms that releases energy from glucose. It is essential
for cellular activities, growth, and maintenance.
7.2 practical: investigate the difference between inspired and expired air for carbon

dioxide concentration

Gas Inspired air Expired air

Oxygen (O2) 21% 16%

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.04% 4%

Nitrogen (N2) 78% 78%

Other gases (water

vapour, argon, trace 0.96% 2%
gases)

• When we breathe in, the air is drawn through boiling tube A, when we breathe out, the air is
blown into boiling tube B. The lime water in boiling tube A will remain clear, but the limewater
in boiling tube B will become cloudy

• This shows us that the percentage of carbon dioxide in exhaled air is higher than in inhaled air
Reason for Differences Between Inspired & Expired Air Table

Inspired Expired
Gas Reason for Difference
air air

Oxygen is removed from the blood by respiring cells so blood

returning to the lungs has a lower oxygen concentration than the
Oxygen 21% 16%
air in the alveoli which means oxygen diffuses into the blood in the
lungs

Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses into blood

Carbon from respiring cells; the blood transports the carbon dioxide to the
0.04% 4%
dioxide lungs where it diffuses into the alveoli as it is in a higher
concentration in the blood than in the air in the alveoli

Water Water evaporates from the moist lining of the alveoli into the
Lower Higher
vapour expired air as a result of the warmth of the body

Nitrogen gas is very stable and so cannot be used by the body, for
Nitrogen 78% 78% this reason, its concentration does not change in inspired or
expired air

7.3 Aerobic Respiration Equations

• Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (38ATP)

7.4 know the word equation for anaerobic respiration

• Glucose → Lactic Acid

• C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3

7.5 explain the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Idk what to put here bru Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic Respiration

Oxygen Requirement None Required
Energy Yield Lower energy yield (2 ATP) Higher energy yield (36-38 ATP)
End Products Lactic acid/ ethanol + CO2 Carbon Dioxide and water
Location Cytoplasm Mitochondria
Time taken Fast process Slow process
7.6 understand the role of ATP in energy transfer

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) stores energy in its phosphate bonds and releases energy upon breaking
one of these bonds to form ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a free phosphate group. This phosphate
release provides energy for various cellular processes. ATP can be regenerated by adding a phosphate
group to ADP.

8.1 know the structure of the thorax

8.2 explain the role of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm in ventilation

Inspiration: The internal intercostal muscles relax while the external intercostal muscles contract, lifting
the ribcage up and out, while the diaphragm contracts and flattens, increasing thoracic volume and
decreasing pressure, drawing air into the lungs.

Expiration: The internal intercostal muscles contract while the external intercostal muscles relax, pushing
the ribcage down and in, while the diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome shaped, decreasing thoracic
volume and increasing pressure, drawing air out of the lungs.
8.3 explain how the lungs are adapted for gas exchange by diffusion

The lungs have various adaptations that enhance diffusion for efficient gas exchange, such as a Moist
surface for gases to easily dissolve, with a large surface area provided by millions of alveoli, which each
have one cell thick walls that decrease the diffusion distance between the bloodstream and alveolus,
and a rich capillary network surrounding it, as the continuous movement of blood in the cappillary
establishes a high concentration gradient.

8.4 understand the terms lung capacity, vital capacity, and tidal volume

Lung Capacity: The maximum volume of air the lungs can hold.

Vital Capacity: The maximum volume of air that can be inspired and expired in one (forced) breath

Tidal Volume: The volume of air moved in or out with each normal breath.

8.5 practical: investigate the effect of exercise on the rate of breathing and measure lung

capacity

Begin by measuring each participant’s baseline breathing rate and lung capacity at rest. For lung
capacity, a spirometer is used; participants exhale fully into the device, and the volume of air is
measured. The resting breathing rate is recorded by counting the number of breaths taken in one
minute. Next, participants engage in a moderate exercise, such as jogging or jumping jacks, for a set
period. Immediately after the exercise, measure the breathing rate again to observe any changes, noting
the increase in breaths per minute due to exercise. Following this, measure the lung capacity again using
the same method to check if exercise influenced the volume of air exhaled in a single breath. Repeat the
experiment and calculate average values. Compare the averages of the pre- and post-exercise breathing
rates and lung capacities.

8.5 describe the regulation of carbon dioxide content in the blood

The regulation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) involves chemoreceptors located in the aorta and carotid
arteries. These chemoreceptors detect increases in blood CO₂ levels, signaling the medulla in the brain
to increase breathing rate, enhancing CO₂ expulsion, therefore controlling the level of blood CO₂.

8.6 understand the term aerobic exercise

Aerobic exercise refers to physical activity that increases the body’s demand for oxygen over an
extended period, enhancing heart and lung function while promoting endurance.
8.7 understand the long-term benefits of exercise on the cardiovascular system

Regular exercise has lasting benefits for the cardiovascular system by strengthening the heart muscle,
improving blood flow, reducing blood pressure, and lowering the risk of cardiovascular diseases,
including heart attacks and strokes.

8.9 understand the pulse rate as a measure of heart rate and explain why resting pulse

can be used as a measure of physical fitness

Pulse rate, reflecting the heart rate, can be measured at various points, such as the wrist or neck. A
lower resting pulse rate often indicates better cardiovascular fitness, as a well-conditioned heart
requires fewer beats per minute to maintain efficient blood circulation.

8.10 explain why the heart rate changes during exercise and the influence of adrenaline

Adrenaline affects the body by preparing it for action in response to stress or danger. It increases heart
rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure, and also causes the release of glucose from the liver to provide
a quick source of energy.

During exercise, the heart rate increases to supply more oxygen and nutrients to the muscles and
remove carbon dioxide more efficiently. Adrenaline, a hormone released by the adrenal glands, further
increases heart rate by stimulating the heart and preparing the body for “fight or flight,” thus enhancing
oxygen delivery and energy availability during strenuous activity.

8.11 practical: investigate the effect of exercise on the pulse rate

Start by measuring each participant's resting pulse rate. Have them sit quietly for a few minutes, then
use either a heart rate monitor or manually count the pulse at the wrist or neck for 60 seconds. Record
the resting pulse rate to serve as a baseline. Next, instruct the participants to engage in a short period of
moderate exercise, such as jogging or jumping jacks, for a set time, typically around 3-5 minutes.
Immediately after exercise, measure and record their pulse rate, taking additional pulse measurements
at 1-minute intervals during the recovery phase until the pulse rate returns to resting levels. Repeat the
experiment to calculate average values for all variables. To interpret results, compare the resting pulse
rate, post-exercise pulse rate, and recovery rates.
8.12 understand how an oxygen debt arises and how it is repaid after exercise

Oxygen debt is the volume of oxygen required to fully oxidize all the lactic acid produced after a period
of intense exercise, where anaerobic respiration occurs. Oxygen debt is repaid as the body requires extra
oxygen to break down lactic acid, and does so by increasing post-exercise breathing and heart rates.

8.13 understand the damage to the respiratory and cardiovascular system caused by smoking

Smoking causes damage to both the respiratory and cardiovascular systems by reducing lung function
and elasticity due to tar and toxic chemicals. It also causes the narrowing of arteries, which increases
blood pressure and the risk of cardiovascular diseases. It can also increase the risk of cancers, chronic
bronchitis, and emphysema.

Bronchitis: Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes, which carry air to and from
the lungs. It often causes coughing and the production of thickened mucus

Emphysema: Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath. In people with
emphysema, the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. Over time, the inner walls of the air sacs
weaken and rupture — creating larger air spaces, decreasing surface area.

9.1 know the composition of the blood

Part Function
Erythrocytes Specialized for oxygen transport:
Biconcave shape for a large surface area.
Lack of nucleus, maximizing space for hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin presence to bind with oxygen and carry it to tissues
Phagocytes Engulf pathogens through phagocytosis.
Lymphocytes Produce antibodies against unfamiliar antigens for immune defense.
Platelets Cell fragments involved in blood clotting
Plasma Fluid component that carries various dissolved substances (such as CO₂)

9.2 understand the role of plasma in the transport of various substances

Substance Direction
Carbon Dioxide Tissues to lungs
Digested Food Ex: glucose and amino acids to body cells
Urea liver to kidneys
Hormones Target organs
Heat Energy Throughout the body
9.3 know the role of tissue fluid and explain how this arises as a result of pressure

differences and its subsequent drainage into the lymphatic system

Tissue fluid arises from plasma forced out of capillaries due to high blood pressure at the arterial end. It
surrounds cells, allowing for the exchange of nutrients and waste. Excess tissue fluid drains into the
lymphatic system, returning to the bloodstream and preventing fluid buildup.

9.5 understand the role of ABO blood groups and their importance in blood transfusions

The ABO blood group system categorizes blood based on the presence of specific antigens on red blood
cells. Blood transfusions require compatible blood types to avoid immune reactions, where antibodies in
the recipient’s blood may attack incompatible red blood cells.

Blood Group Antigens on Cells Antibodies in Plasma Can be given to

A A Anti B A and AB
B B Anti A B and AB
AB AB neither AB
O none Anti A and Anti B A AB B O

9.6 understand the role of white blood cells including phagocytosis and antibody

production (details of plasma cells are not required)

Phagocytosis: Phagocytes carry out phagocytosis by ingesting pathogens, as they have a sensitive cell
surface membrane that can detect chemicals produced by pathogenic cells. Once they encounter the
pathogenic cell, they will engulf it and release digestive enzymes to digest it.

Antibody Synthesis: Once a foreign antigen is detected, lymphocytes produce antibodies, which are
proteins with a shape that is specific to the antigens on the surface of the foreign cell. These antibodies
can then attack the foreign cell, marking them for destruction and causing them to clump together,
making it easier for phagocytes to destroy it.

9.7 describe the importance of blood clotting and the role of enzymes

Blood clotting is essential to prevent blood loss and entry of pathogens through wounds. Enzymes
convert fibrinogen into fibrin, forming a mesh that traps platelets and red blood cells, creating a clot to
seal the wound.
9.8 compare the structures of arteries, veins and capillaries, and understand their roles

Vascular Bundle Walls and lumen size? Type of blood Direction of blood flow
Arteries Thick walls made of Oxygenated (aside Away from the heart
smooth, elastic muscle from the pulmonary
(Arterioles) – smaller tissue, built to and umbilical artery)
lumen, less pressure withstand high blood
pressures, with a small
lumen to maintain it.
Veins Thinner walls with Deoxygenated (aside To the heart
valves to prevent from the pulmonary
(Venuoles) – smaller backflow, a larger and umbilical vein)
lumen, less pressure lumen which has a
larger volume
Capillaries Thin walls (one cell Both, depending on Toward veins
thick), lumen is one cell location
thick as well

9.9 know the general plan of the circulatory system to include the blood vessels to and

from the heart, the lungs, the liver and the kidneys

Organ Role played in Vascular System Connection to Vascular System

Heart Pumps blood through systemic and pulmonary circuits. Carotid veins and arteries
Lungs Site of gas exchange, oxygenating blood Pulmonary artery and vein
Liver Processes nutrients and detoxifies blood Hepatic artery and vein
Kidneys Filter waste, maintain water and ion balance Renal artery and vein
9.10 know the structure of the heart and the cardiac cycle

The cardiac cycle refers to the pattern of contraction and relaxation of the heart during one complete
heartbeat. Contraction of the heart muscle is known as systole and relaxation of the heart muscle is
called diastole.

Deoxygenated blood coming from the body flows through the vena cava and into the right atrium, which
contracts causing the blood to be forced through the tricuspid atrioventricular valve into the right
ventricle. The ventricle then contracts and the blood and is pushed through the semilunar valve into
the pulmonary artery. From here, the blood travels to the lungs and moves through the capillaries past
the alveoli where gas exchange takes place. Oxygenated blood returns via the pulmonary vein to the left
atrium. The atrium contracts and forces the blood through the bicuspid atrioventricular valve into
the left ventricle. The ventricle contracts and the blood is then forced through the semilunar valve and
out through the aorta, where it is transported through the entire body.
9.11 describe the causes, prevention and treatment of heart disease

Heart disease is caused by the narrowing or blockage of coronary arteries, often due to:

• Diet high in saturated fats, leading to cholesterol build-up and plaque formation in arteries.
• Lack of exercise, increasing the risk of obesity and high blood pressure.

Prevention and Treatment:

• Diet and exercise: Maintaining a balanced diet and regular exercise reduces heart disease risk.
• Stents: Small tubes inserted into narrowed arteries to keep them open and improve blood flow.
• Artificial hearts: Mechanical devices that temporarily or permanently replace heart function.
• Transplants: Replacing a diseased heart with a healthy donor heart, used in severe cases.

9.12 understand the problems associated with heart transplants

• Immune rejection: The body may recognize the new heart as foreign and attack it
• Limited donor availability: There is often a shortage of compatible donors
• Immunosuppressive drugs: Patients must take these lifelong to prevent rejection

9.13 describe the use of statins and plant stanol esters

Statins: Medications that reduce cholesterol levels by inhibiting its production in the liver, lowering heart
disease risk.

Plant stanol esters: Compounds that reduce cholesterol absorption in the intestine, also lowering the
risk of circulatory diseases.

9.14 understand the role of beta-blockers in the treatment of circulatory disorders

Beta-blockers are medications that reduce the heart rate and blood pressure by blocking adrenaline’s
effects. They help manage conditions like heart failure and angina (chest pain due to restricted blood
flow).

9.15 explain the terms systolic and diastolic blood pressure

Systolic blood pressure: The pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts (higher number in a blood
pressure reading).

Diastolic blood pressure: The pressure in the arteries when the heart is relaxed between beats (lower
number).
9.16 describe the causes, prevention and treatment of hypertension

Hypertension (high blood pressure) is caused by factors like obesity, stress, high salt intake, and lack of
physical activity. It increases the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Prevention: Regular exercise, a healthy diet low in salt, managing stress, and maintaining a healthy
weight.

Treatment: Lifestyle changes, medications like ACE inhibitors, and beta-blockers.

9.17 understand the role of ACE inhibitors in the treatment of high blood pressure

ACE inhibitors are drugs that relax blood vessels by blocking the formation of angiotensin II, a hormone
that causes blood vessels to constrict.

Renin, an enzyme is produced by the kidney when a drop in blood pressure is detected. When in the
bloodstream, renin cuts a plasma protein angiotensinogen into angiotensin I. ACE inhibitors stop the ACE
enzyme from converting angiotensin I to angiotensin II. This helps lower blood pressure and reduce
heart strain.

Normal Blood pressure is 100-140/60-90 mmHg!

9.18 describe how monoclonal antibodies are produced

Firstly, an antigen is injected into a mouse to stimulate an immune response. The mouse naturally
produces lymphocytes, which produce antibodies specific to the antigen. B-lymphocyte producing cells
are removed during a small operation. These cells are fused with human cancerous white blood cells
called myeloma cells to form hybridoma cells which divide indefinitely. These hybridoma cells are then
cultured and so divide and produce millions of monoclonal antibodies specific to the original antigen.

9.19 understand how monoclonal antibodies work to detect and treat diseases such as cancer

Detecting diseases: They can bind to specific antigens on cells or pathogens, allowing for targeted
testing.

Treating diseases: They can be designed to deliver drugs directly to cancer cells, minimizing damage to
healthy cells or to stimulate the immune system to attack cancer cells.

10.1 know the structure and functions of the skin

Skin Structure: Comprises the epidermis (outer protective layer), dermis (containing nerves, blood
vessels, and glands), and subcutaneous layer (fat storage).

Sweat Glands: Sweat glands produce sweat, which evaporates from the skin surface, cooling the body
down.
Vasoconstriction: Narrowing of blood vessels near the skin surface reduces blood flow, conserving heat
in cold conditions.

Vasodilation: Widening of blood vessels near the skin surface increases blood flow, allowing heat to
escape and cooling the body in hot conditions.

Shivering: Involuntary muscle contractions generate heat through muscle activity when body
temperature drops.

10.2 Excretion

Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste from the body.

- Urea: A waste product from protein breakdown, excreted by the kidneys in urine.
- Carbon dioxide: Produced during respiration and excreted via the lungs.
- Water: Excess water is removed by the kidneys and as sweat, helping regulate fluid balance.

10.3 know the structure and functions of the renal system

The renal system filters blood to remove waste products, regulates water and electrolyte balance, and
excretes urine.

10.4 explain why the composition of urine may vary

Diet: High salt intake can increase sodium in urine; high protein intake can increase urea.

Hydration levels: Increased water intake dilutes urine, making it lighter in color.

Exercise: Sweating reduces urine output as the body retains water for thermoregulation.

Health conditions: Diseases like diabetes may cause the presence of glucose in urine.
10.5 describe the role of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in osmoregulation

Hypothalamus: Detects changes in blood water concentration.

Pituitary Gland: Releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in response to signals from the hypothalamus,
controlling water reabsorption in the kidneys.

10.6 explain the role of ADH in regulating the water content of the blood

Different amounts of ADH are released into the bloodstream according to the concentration of water in
the blood plasma. ADH is released by the pituitary gland when the blood is too concentrated and it
causes the kidney tubules to become more permeable. This allows more water to be reabsorbed back
into the blood during selective reabsorption.

The opposite occurs when a large volume of water is consumed, but not released. In this case, less ADH
will be released, which results in less water being reabsorbed and a dilute and larger volume of urine will
be produced.

10.7 understand the roles of insulin and glucagon in maintaining blood glucose levels

Insulin, a hormone, is released by the pancreas when specialized cells, called Islets of Langerhans, detect
high blood glucose levels, prompting cells to take up glucose and the liver to store glucose as glycogen,
reducing blood sugar. On the other hand, Glucagon, another hormone is released by the pancreas when
the Islets of Langerhans detect a drop in blood glucose levels, causing the liver to break down glycogen
into glucose and release it into the bloodstream, raising blood sugar.

10.8 understand the concept of homeostasis and the role of negative feedback

Homeostasis is the regulation of internal conditions inside cells or organisms, to create the optimum
conditions for biological function.

Negative Feedback: A mechanism that counteracts changes in a condition (e.g., temperature, blood
glucose) to maintain stability.

• Temperature Control: Negative feedback adjusts processes like sweating and shivering to
stabilize body temperature.

• Blood Glucose Control: Insulin and glucagon release in response to blood glucose levels,
maintaining balance.
10.9 describe the advantages and disadvantages of kidney transplants and dialysis

Advantage/disadvantages Kidney Transplant Kidney Dialyisis

Risk levels High risk, requires intensive Low risk, no surgery needed
surgery
Time period usable Long term Short term
Side effects Chance of organ rejection, Fatigue, low BP
forever immunocompromised
availability Few donors available More available

10.10 practical: investigate diffusion using a partially-permeable membrane such as Visking tubing

10.11 describe the functions of the liver

• Bile Production: Produces bile to aid in fat digestion.

• Regulation of Blood Sugar: Stores glucose as glycogen and releases it as needed.
• Urea Formation: Converts excess amino acids into urea, a waste product excreted by the
kidneys.
• Detoxification: Breaks down harmful substances, including alcohol.

11.1 know that the process of fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete

to produce a zygote

Fertilisation is the fusion of a haploid male gamete (sperm) and a haploid female gamete (ovum),
resulting in the formation of a diploid zygote, which contains a complete set of chromosomes from both
parents.

11.2 describe how a zygote divides to form an embryo

After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes multiple rounds of mitotic division (cleavage), eventually
forming a cluster of cells. These cells continue to divide and differentiate, forming an embryo that later
implants into the uterine wall for further development.

11.3 know the stages of meiosis allowing the production of haploid gametes and its

significance in bringing about variation in a species

Meiosis is a form of cell division which produces four non-identical, haploid sex cells or gametes. Meiosis
introduces genetic variation through:

• Crossing Over: Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes.

• Independent Assortment: Random distribution of chromosomes to gametes. This genetic

variation increases diversity within a species, enhancing survival potential.
11.4 know the structure and function of the male and female reproductive systems

Male Reproductive System: Includes testes (sperm production and testosterone secretion), epididymis
(sperm maturation), vas deferens (sperm transport), prostate gland, and seminal vesicles (semen
production)

Female Reproductive System: Includes ovaries (ovum production and hormone secretion), fallopian
tubes (egg transport and fertilisation site), uterus (embryo implantation and development), and vaginal
birth canal and semen reception).
11.5 understand the roles of oestrogen, progesterone, FSH and LH in the menstrual cycle

• Oestrogen: Stimulates the growth of the uterine lining and triggers LH production.

• Progesterone: Maintains the uterine lining for potential embryo implantation.

• FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone): Stimulates the development of ovarian follicles and
oestrogen production.

• LH (Luteinising Hormone): Triggers ovulation and stimulates progesterone production by the

corpus luteum.
11.6 explain the role of these elements in pregnancy

Element Function Produced by:

Progesterone Maintains the uterine lining and prevents muscle Corpus luteum (10 weeks)
contractions in the uterus, supporting pregnancy. Placenta (10+ weeks)
Placenta Facilitates nutrient and waste exchange between Divides by mitosis, growing to
mother and fetus and produces hormones like fulfill the growing embryos
progesterone. needs
Amniotic Fluid Cushions the fetus, providing protection against maternal plasma, then fetal
physical impact and infection. urination
Umbilical Cord Connects the fetus to the placenta, transporting PVC PIPE !!!!!!
nutrients, oxygen, and waste products. /s
11.7 know the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary sexual

characteristics

Oestrogen: Promotes the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, including breast
development, widening of hips, and the start of menstrual cycles.

Testosterone: Drives the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial and body
hair, deepening of the voice, and muscle growth.

11.8 describe the birth process and explain the advantages of breast feeding

Birth Process: Involves dilation of the cervix, contractions pushing the baby through the birth canal, and
delivery of the baby followed by the placenta.

Advantages of Breastfeeding: Provides essential antibodies, promotes bonding, supports proper infant
nutrition, and is economical and convenient.

11.9 describe an outline of growth and

development to maturity, to include growth
curves for humans

Human growth follows a growth curve, showing

rapid growth during infancy, a slower growth
phase during childhood, and a growth spurt
during puberty, stabilising as the individual
reaches maturity.
11.10 describe the methods of contraception

Method description Adv/Disadv Efficacy

Hormonal Pills, patches, and injectionsEffective but may 99%+
Methods containing hormones to cause side effects like
prevent ovulation. weight gain and mood
changes.
Barrier Condoms and diaphragms that Prevents STDs, but 72-82%
Methods prevent sperm from reaching may have a higher
the egg. failure rate.
Natural Tracking ovulation cycles and No side effects but If perfectly followed: 91-
Methods abstaining during fertile requires precise 99%
periods. monitoring and is less If NOT perfectly followed:
reliable. 76%
IUDs Prevent fertilisation or Long-term, low- 99%+
implantation. maintenance, but may
cause initial
discomfort.
Sterilization Permanent prevention methods Permanent and highly Nearly 100%
like vasectomy and tubal effective, but
ligation. irreversible.

11.12 escribe the process of IVF and how it can improve the chances of pregnancy

IVF involves giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the maturation of several eggs. The eggs are
collected from the mother and fertilised by sperm from the father in a dish in the laboratory. The
fertilised eggs develop into embryos. At the stage when they are tiny balls of cells one or two embryos
are inserted into the mother's uterus (womb)

12.1 understand the general course of a disease as: infection, incubation and symptoms

Diseases progress through three main stages: infection, incubation, and symptoms. Infection occurs
when pathogens enter the body, followed by the incubation period, during which the pathogens
multiply and adapt to the host environment. Finally, symptoms appear as the body reacts to the
infection, attempting to counteract the pathogens and causing observable effects such as fever, fatigue,
or inflammation.

12.2 know that diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms

Diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms that invade and harm the host. These pathogens
include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites.
12.3 describe the structure and reproduction of viruses

Viruses are composed of genetic material (DNA or RNA) encased in a protein coat known as a capsid.
They lack cellular structures and rely on a host cell to reproduce. Once inside a host, a virus injects its
genetic material, hijacking the cell's machinery to create more viral particles, which then infect other
cells.

12.4 describe methods of transmission, treatment and prevention of the spread of Ebola

and HIV (human immuno-deficiency virus), the virus that causes AIDS

Pathogen Transmission Treatment Prevention

Ebola Ebola spreads through contact with Avoid people and
bodily fluids, causing severe fever, habitats where
internal bleeding, and often high ebolaviruses may be
mortality. present and handling
or eating bushmeat.
HIV HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), ARVs Abstinence, never
the cause of AIDS (acquired sharing needles, and
immunodeficiency syndrome), using condoms
compromises the immune system properly during sexual
and spreads through blood, sexual intercourse
contact, and from mother to child.

After HIV enters a cell, it releases its RNA, which is then converted into DNA by an enzyme called reverse
transcriptase. This viral DNA is integrated into the T-Helper cells genome with the help of another
enzyme, integrase. It remains latent until the infected T-Helper cell is activated and begins producing HIV
proteins and more RNA, which are then assembled into new virus particles. Some HIV proteins end up as
antigens on the surface of the lymphocyte, which are then detected by other lymphocytes as being
foreign to the body. They are quickly destroyed, releasing the viral particles within, which go and infect
other t-helper cells. This process repeats and as a result, severely compromises the immune system,
which makes it easier for opportunistic infection to occur, which can result in death.
12.5 describe the structure, nutrition and reproduction of bacteria including the

interpretation of bacterial growth curves

Bacteria are prokaryotic, single-celled organisms that reproduce through binary fission, a process of
asexual reproduction where one cell divides into two identical cells. They obtain nutrition from various
sources, including organic and inorganic materials, and exhibit exponential growth patterns.

12.6 investigate the effects of antibacterial agents and antibiotics on the growth of

bacterial culture

To begin the experiment, prepare agar plates by labeling each one with the name of the antibiotic or
antibacterial agent to be tested. Then, inoculate the agar by dipping a sterile cotton swab into the
bacterial culture and spreading the bacteria evenly across the surface of each plate. Next, sterilize the
forceps in alcohol, using them to handle the filter paper discs. Soak each disc in a different antibacterial
agent, and place them evenly on the surface of the inoculated agar plates. For a control, place a sterile
water-soaked disc on each plate. Cover the plates and incubate them at 37°C for 24 hours. After the
incubation period, observe the results by examining each plate and measuring the zone of inhibition
around each disc. Use a ruler to measure the diameter of these inhibition zones in millimeters. Finally,
record the diameter of each inhibition zone for each antibiotic or antibacterial agent, noting that larger
zones indicate greater effectiveness in inhibiting bacterial growth.
12.7 know the methods of transmission, treatment and prevention of the spread of cholera and
gonorrhoea

Disease transmission treatment prevention

Cholera spread through contaminated treatable with safe water sources,
water, severe dehydration antibiotics sanitation
gonorrhoea sexual contact, potential damage treatable with safe sexual practices.
to genital tract antibiotics

12.8 explain the importance of oral rehydration therapy

Using oral rehydration salts can help prevent dehydration if a person is experiencing vomiting and
diarrhea.

12.9 know the methods of transmission, treatment and prevention of the spread of

athlete’s foot

Athlete’s foot is a fungal infection commonly spread in warm, moist environments. Fungal spores infect
the skin between the toes, causing itching and discomfort. Prevention includes good hygiene practices
and wearing protective footwear in communal areas.

12.10 explain the role of the mosquito (malaria) and housefly (typhoid) in transmitting

causative agents of disease

12.11 describe the treatment and prevention of the spread of malaria and typhoid

Malaria and typhoid are transmitted by vectors—mosquitoes and houseflies, respectively. Malaria,
caused by the Plasmodium parasite, enters the bloodstream through mosquito bites, leading to fever
and chills. Typhoid, a bacterial infection, spreads through food or water contaminated by flies. Vector
control and sanitation are key to prevention.

12.12 understand the antibody-antigen reaction

Lymphocytes have receptor proteins on their surface that can bind with the antigens on the surface of
the micro-organisms. This activates the lymphocyte, causing it to divide rapidly to produce millions of
the same type of lymphocyte. These then begin producing antibodies that bind specifically to antigens
on invading organisms. This antigen-antibody reaction helps neutralize pathogens by instructing other
cells and chemicals to combat the threat, or neutralizing the threat directly. Some lymphocytes become
memory cells, providing immunity against future infections. Hence why the secondary immune response
is faster and more effective than the primary response.
12.13 explain how vaccines work to prevent the spread of disease

Vaccines work to prevent the spread of disease by stimulating the body’s immune system to recognize
and fight specific pathogens without causing illness. When a vaccine is administered, it typically contains
a harmless form of the pathogen, such as weakened or inactivated microbes, or antigens, which are
recognized as foreign by the immune system, which then triggers an immune response.

This immune response includes the activation of white blood cells like lymphocytes, which produce
antibodies specifically targeting the pathogen’s antigens. Additionally, memory cells are created and
remain in the body long after the initial vaccination. These memory cells "remember" the pathogen, so if
the person is exposed to the actual disease later, the immune system can quickly recognize and destroy
it before the infection and possible transmission can take hold.

12.14 understand the differences between natural and artificial immunity and active and

passive immunity

Natural immunity is developed through previous infections, while artificial immunity arises from
vaccines. Active immunity involves the body’s production of antibodies, while passive immunity involves
receiving antibodies from an external source.

12.15 know the sources and role of antibiotics

Antibiotics are substances derived from natural sources, primarily bacteria and fungi, that inhibit the
growth of or destroy harmful bacteria in the body.

The role of antibiotics is to treat bacterial infections by targeting specific bacterial functions or structures
essential for their survival, such as disrupting protein (tetracycline), or bacterial cell wall (penicillin)
synthesis and DNA replication (nalidixic acid).

They can either be bacteriocidal or bacteriostatic.

12.16 explain how resistant pathogens such as MRSA arise and why they are a cause for

concern

Resistant pathogens like MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) arise through genetic
mutations and natural selection in bacterial populations exposed to antibiotics.

When bacteria are exposed to an antibiotic, most are killed, but a few bacteria with mutations that
confer resistance may survive. These resistant bacteria then multiply, passing on their resistant genes to
offspring. Over time, this selects for increasingly resistant strains.

MRSA is a significant concern because it resists many common antibiotics, making infections difficult to
treat. This resistance can lead to severe and sometimes life-threatening infections, particularly in
hospitals where patients with weakened immune systems are at higher risk.
12.17 understand the role of non-pathogenic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) useful to

humans in the decomposition of organic matter

Non-pathogenic bacteria and fungi play a crucial role as decomposers in the ecosystem, facilitating the
decomposition of organic matter. Bacteria and fungi secrete enzymes that break down complex organic
compounds into simpler molecules. As these decomposers metabolize organic matter, they release
nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, which can be useful for human use. They are also
utilized in various human activities, such as composting and bioremediation, where they help clean up
environmental pollutants.

12.18 know the processes of sewage treatment in modern sewage works and a pit latrine

including the role of aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms in sewage breakdown

Sewage Treatment: Sewage is allowed to settle in large tanks, where heavier solids (sludge) sink to the
bottom, and lighter materials (scum) rise to the surface. The liquid effluent is then separated for further
treatment. Aerobic microorganisms, such as bacteria, are introduced to the effluent. These
microorganisms consume organic pollutants and convert them into carbon dioxide, water, and biomass.
The process can occur in aeration tanks, where oxygen is supplied to support the growth of aerobic
bacteria. After treatment, the microbial biomass is separated from the treated water. Further purification
occurs to remove remaining contaminants, including nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. The treated
water can then be discharged into natural water bodies or reused for irrigation or industrial purposes.

Pit Latrines: In areas without sewage treatment facilities, pit latrines serve as a basic sanitation solution.
They consist of a deep hole in the ground where human waste is collected. Over time, natural processes
involving anaerobic microorganisms break down the waste in the absence of oxygen.