Nucleic acids are essential chemical compounds found in cells that carry

genetic information and direct protein synthesis. In other words, these are
defined as the long chain polymers present in high concentration in the
nuclei of cells in which the monomeric units are nucleotides. The molecule
in which one of the organic base (pyrimidines or purines) is combined with
a sugar is called nucleoside. When a phosphate group is also attached to
the nucleoside, then the compound is called nucleotides.
There are two main types: DNA, which is the blueprint for life in organisms,
and RNA, which is involved in protein production.
BASIC STRUCTURE

Nucleic acids are long chainlike molecules made up of building blocks

called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogen-containing base,
a sugar, and a phosphate group. There are four to five possible bases in
nucleic acids: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil. Adenine and
guanine are purines, while cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines.
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID(DNA)

DNA is made up of four nucleotides: A, C, G, and T. These nucleotides are

connected by a backbone of phosphate and deoxyribose sugar. The bases
in DNA form pairs that are complementary to each other due to their ability
to form hydrogen bonds. Specifically, S always pairs with T through two
hydrogen bonds, while G always pairs with C through three hydrogen
bonds. The A:T and G:C pairs have similar lengths, which allows them to
connect the sugar-phosphate chains evenly. This unique structure,
combined with the stability of the molecule, makes DNA the perfect genetic
material. Additionally, the bonding between complementary bases enables
DNA replication and the transmission of genetic information.
CHEMICAL STRCUTURE

In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis H.C. Crick came up with a structure
for DNA. They used X-ray crystallographic data and Erwin Chargaff's
observation to support their proposal. Chargaff had noticed that in natural
DNA, the amount of T is equal to the amount of A, and the amount of G is
equal to the amount of C. They suggested that two strands of
polynucleotides twist around each other, creating a double helix. These two
strands are identical but run in opposite directions due to the orientation of
the 5' to 3' phosphodiester bond. The sugar-phosphate chains are located
on the outside of the helix, while the bases are found on the inside. The
bases are connected to complementary bases on the other strand through
hydrogen bonds.
Normal DNA has a double helical structure called the B-helix. It completes
one full turn every 10 base pairs. B-DNA has two main grooves: a wide
major groove and a narrow minor groove. Proteins interact with the major
groove and make specific connections with the bases. Some proteins also
interact with the minor groove.

There are different variations of DNA structure. A-DNA forms when there is
high salt concentration and minimal water, causing the base pairs to tilt and
shift towards the minor groove. Z-DNA, on the other hand, forms more
easily in strands that have alternating purines and pyrimidines. Triple
helices can also form when two strands with pyrimidines interact with a
third strand that has purines.

DNA metabolism
DNA metabolism includes replication, repair, and recombination
processes performed by specialized machinery in cells. Accurate
replication is essential for maintaining the integrity of the genetic
code. Errors and damage after replication must be corrected.
Recombination between genomes is crucial for species variation and
DNA repair. Prokaryotes have been extensively studied due to their
simpler machinery, but similar principles apply to eukaryotes.

Replication
DNA replication involves copying the original DNA molecule to create two
identical copies. This process starts at a specific point on a chromosome
called an origin and moves in both directions until it stops at a precise
point. In circular chromosomes, replication ends when the two chains meet
and are joined by specific proteins. DNA polymerases can only extend
existing fragments called primers, so special mechanisms are used in
linear chromosomes to prevent information loss. Before replication begins,
a short RNA primer is made by a specialized RNA polymerase called
primase. After replication, the starting primer RNAs are broken down.

The two DNA strands are copied differently based on the direction of the
phosphodiester bond. The leading strand is replicated continuously by
adding nucleotides to the 3′ end. The lagging strand is created in a stop-
and-go manner by laying down short RNA primers and filling in the gaps
with DNA polymerase, always adding bases in the 5′ to 3′ direction. The
short RNA pieces used during lagging strand replication are broken down
once they are no longer necessary. The two newly formed DNA segments
are connected by DNA ligase. This allows replication to occur in both
directions, with two leading strands and two lagging strands moving away
from the starting point.
Repair
Maintaining DNA integrity is crucial for accurate cell function and genetic
transmission. Repair processes constantly monitor D NA for damage and
activate repair enzymes. General recombination can repair serious DNA
damage, such as pyrimidine dimers or gaps. Mismatch repair, studied in E.
coli, is a significant repair mechanism guided by methyl groups in the
GATC sequence. Mutations in human mismatch repair genes can lead to
cancer by causing rapid accumulation of mutations and uncontrolled cell
division.

After DNA replication, the most common type of damage to nucleic acids
occurs when regular bases are chemically altered. Special enzymes called
DNA glycosylases can identify and remove these altered bases, such as
uracil or thymine in a G:U or G:T mismatch. Another method of repairing
DNA damage is through an excision repair pathway, where enzymes cut
out the damaged segment and DNA polymerase and ligase mend the gap.
Abnormal bases indicate which strand needs repair, using the
complementary strand as a template for accurate repair.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

RNA is a key molecule in cells, made up of nucleotides A, C, G, and U. It
converts DNA information into proteins through transcription by RNA
polymerase. RNA also plays a role in cellular metabolism, regulating
biochemical reactions. It is essential for cell function, acting as a bridge
between DNA and proteins.

Chemical structure
RNA can be affected by substances like periodate that cause the 3′-
terminal ribose ring to open up. The 2′-hydroxyl group on the ribose ring is
a big reason why RNA is unstable, as it can easily break the bond between
ribose and phosphate groups when exposed to alkali. However, this
instability is not a major issue for cells since RNA is continuously being
made and broken down.

DNA and RNA bases interact differently. DNA is double-stranded, with

bases pairing up between strands, while RNA is single-stranded, forming
intricate structures within the same molecule. RNA/RNA duplexes can form
in a right-handed A-type helix, unlike the B-type DNA helix. The number of
base pairs in the helix can vary between 11 and 12. Hybrid helices can also
form between RNA and DNA, playing a crucial role in biology during
processes like transcription and replication.

Single-stranded RNAs can adopt various structures by forming internal

base pairs and engaging in non-base pair interactions. These interactions
allow them to form hairpin loops, like tRNA, as well as longer-range
interactions involving nucleotide bases and phosphate residues, resulting in
compact three-dimensional structures. Limited crystallographic images are
available for RNA molecules, so most structural information is inferred from
biochemical data. RNA molecules can undergo extensive modifications
after transcription, with over 90 different modifications documented,
including methylations and substitutions around the ring. Some of these
modifications impact the RNA's structure and are crucial for its proper
functioning.

RNA metabolism

RNA connects genetic information in DNA to cell functions. Certain

types of RNA form ribonucleoprotein structures with specialized
functions. tRNAs aid in protein synthesis, while mRNAs guide
ribosomes in making proteins. RNA metabolism has three phases:
transcription, processing, and breakdown. Transcription copies
genes from DNA to RNA, while translation decodes mRNA on
ribosomes. Transcription and translation differ between prokaryotes
and eukaryotes.

Transcription
DNA segments are transcribed into RNA by RNA polymerase. The process
begins with identifying a promoter sequence on the DNA, which marks the
start of the gene. The DNA strands separate, and RNA polymerase starts
copying from a specific point on one strand using a ribonucleoside 5′-
triphosphate. More triphosphates are used as building blocks, and
ribonucleoside monophosphates are added to the growing RNA chain.
Each ribonucleotide follows DNA's base pairing rules. The synthesis
continues until a termination signal is reached, and the RNA polymerase
detaches from the DNA, releasing the RNA molecule. This RNA can be the
final mRNA or a pre-mRNA that requires further processing. In prokaryotes,
operators before genes can be bound by repressor proteins, blocking RNA
polymerase access. These repressor proteins are released when signaled
by other molecules, indicating the need for gene expression. Some
prokaryotic genes have signals for activator proteins to promote
transcription.
Transcription in higher organisms is more complex due to the
intricate RNA polymerase in eukaryotes and the presence of
numerous transcription factors that regulate promoter efficiency.
Multiple transcription factors are often required for efficient
transcription in human genes, and they can either repress or activate
gene expression. During transcription, only one strand of DNA is
copied, known as the template strand, resulting in single-stranded
RNA molecules. The coding or sense strand, which corresponds to
the mRNA, can vary between different genes. In eukaryotes, the initial
product of transcription is called pre-mRNA, which undergoes
extensive splicing before becoming a mature mRNA for translation.

Translation
Translation is a crucial process that uses mRNA's nucleotide sequence to
create a specific protein. It occurs on ribosomes, which are complex
structures containing RNA and protein. In prokaryotes, ribosomes attach to
mRNA while transcription is ongoing. The ribosome binding site, located
near the 5′ end of mRNA, guides this attachment. The mRNA sequence is
read in groups of three bases, adding amino acids to the growing protein
chain. Translation stops at a termination codon, and release factors cause
separation of the protein, tRNAs, and mRNA. In eukaryotes, protein
synthesis follows a similar process. Fidelity is important, but occasional
mistranslations are usually corrected or broken down. Ribosomes have
proofreading mechanisms to ensure accurate pairing between mRNA and
tRNA.

EVOLUTION OF NUCLEIC ACID

DNA and RNA are the two types of nucleic acids that are essential for life
as we know it. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material that
carries the instructions for building and maintaining an organism. It is like a
blueprint that contains all the information needed for an organism to grow,
develop, and function. RNA, or ribonucleic acid, plays a crucial role in
translating the genetic information stored in DNA into proteins, which are
the building blocks of cells. The process of evolution, which is the gradual
change in species over time, is driven by the genetic variation that arises
from mutations in DNA. These mutations can lead to changes in an
organism's traits, which can be passed on to future generations. Over time,
these accumulated changes can result in the emergence of new species
that are better adapted to their environment.

Nucleic acids also play a key role in the adaptation of organisms to their
environment. Through processes like natural selection, organisms with
advantageous traits that are encoded in their DNA are more likely to
survive and reproduce, passing on these traits to their offspring. This leads
to the gradual evolution of populations that are better suited to their
environment. Furthermore, nucleic acids are responsible for the
diversification of life on Earth. The vast array of species that exist today is a
result of the genetic variation that has accumulated over billions of years of
evolution. This diversity is essential for the stability and resilience of
ecosystems, as different species play unique roles in maintaining the
balance of nature.

In conclusion, nucleic acids are not just molecules that store genetic
information, but they are the driving force behind the incredible diversity
and complexity of life on Earth. Understanding the role of DNA and RNA in
evolution is crucial for unraveling the mysteries of life and appreciating the
beauty of the natural world.

Nucleic acids, like DNA, hold the blueprint of genetic information. They
contain the instructions that direct the growth and operation of living
organisms. What sets nucleic acids apart is the fact that the genetic code
they carry is universal. Almost all life forms on Earth use the same genetic
code to translate nucleic acid sequences into proteins. This shared
language of nucleic acids is strong evidence of a common ancestry among
all living things. The genetic code is made up of codons, which are three-
nucleotide sequences that determine specific amino acids. These codons
act as a link between the information stored in nucleic acids and the
proteins that carry out various functions within cells.

The preservation of this genetic code across different species emphasizes

the significant role of nucleic acids in shaping the diversity of life. One of
the main driving forces behind evolution is genetic mutation, which occurs
when there are changes in the DNA's nucleotide sequences. Mutations can
happen due to various factors, such as environmental influences, errors
during DNA replication, or even exposure to radiation. While some
mutations can be harmful and lead to diseases or genetic disorders, others
can be advantageous and provide benefits in specific environments.

Natural selection is a process that affects mutations, favoring the ones that
improve an organism's ability to survive and reproduce. This process
occurs over time and results in the accumulation of beneficial traits within a
population, ultimately leading to the formation of new species. Nucleic
acids, such as DNA and RNA, play a crucial role in this mechanism. They
not only carry the mutations but also serve as a template for replicating
these genetic changes during cell division. Additionally, nucleic acids act as
molecular clocks, allowing scientists to estimate the timing of evolutionary
events. Mutations gradually accumulate in the nucleotide sequences of
DNA and RNA at a relatively constant rate. By comparing the differences in
these sequences between species or populations, researchers can
estimate when their common ancestors existed. Nucleic acids are vital in
facilitating adaptation by preserving genetic diversity within populations.
This diversity is essential because it provides the necessary material for
evolution to act upon. In a changing environment, individuals with specific
genetic variations may have a higher chance of survival and reproduction,
ultimately leading to the widespread presence of these advantageous traits.

The significance of nucleic acids in evolution cannot be downplayed. These

molecules hold the genetic information that connects all living organisms
through a shared genetic code. They are like a canvas where mutations are
illustrated, and natural selection acts as the brush that sculpts life's diverse
forms. Nucleic acids also function as molecular clocks, enabling us to trace
the timelines of evolutionary events, and they play a crucial role in
adaptation and genetic diversity within populations.

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