BIOLOGY Chapter 4 - DNA, RNA and Protein Synthesis

Biology Chapter 4 – Genetics, Variation and Selection
OBJECTIVES
 Name the nucleotides and recognize their structure.

 Outline the structure and function of DNA.
 Describe the process by which DNA is replicated.
 Distinguish between the types of RNA.
 Describe the process by which protein is synthesized.
 Explain the difference between DNA, chromatin and chromosomes.
 Understand the principles of genetic engineering
Chemical Structure And Function Of Nucleotides:
Nucleotides are the monomeric units of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of
three components:
 A purine or pyrimidine
 A five-carbon monosaccharide (sugar) which can either be D-ribose or 2-deoxy-D-ribose.
 A phosphate ion (PO43–).
Nucleotide:
 A nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate
group.
 Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids.
 The nucleotides from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) all contain the monosaccharide 2-deoxy-ribose in
addition to one purine or pyrimidine.
 Purines and pyrimidines are also referred to as bases
Nucleoside:
The removal of the phosphate ion from a nucleotide converts it to a nucleoside. A nucleoside consists
of a 5-carbon sugar bonded to a nitrogenous base.
Purines and Pyrimidine
 There are four bases found in DNA and their names are: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine
 Adenine and guanine are purines
 Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines.
 The nucleotides from ribonucleic acid (RNA) all contain the monosaccharide D-ribose and
adenine, guanine, cytosine or uracil as their base. Uracil is a pyrimidine that replaces thymine in
an RNA nucleotide or nucleoside.
Structures Of Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine And Uracil. (B) Nucleic Acids Are
Polynucleotides
Structure and Function of Deoxyribonucleic

Acid
 DNA : This is a molecule that stores and

preserves the hereditary information of all
organisms. DNA is a double-stranded
molecule that has a sugar (deoxyribose)
phosphate backbone and the nitrogenous
bases thymine, adenine, cytosine and
guanine are hydrogen-bonded thereby
joining the two DNA strands together.
Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with
thymine. Guanine forms three hydrogen
bonds with cytosine. DNA molecules are
anti-parallel, this means that one strand
runs in the 5' to 3' direction, while the other
strand runs in the 3' to 5' direction.
The base sequence (i.e. the order of the adenine,
guanine, cytosine and thymine along the nucleic
acid chain) contains the encoded genetic
information.
The specific pairing of the bases adenine with
thymine and the bases guanine with cytosine
means that the two chains of DNA making up the
double helix are complementary.
Complementary Base Pairing: Complementary means that wherever cytosine appears in one chain,
guanine must be in the other chain and adenine must appear opposite thymine. The sequence of the
base pairs along the sugar–phosphate backbone can be in many different combinations or
permutations.
 RNA is important in the conversion of hereditary information into proteins.

DNA and RNA transcribe and translate the hereditary information in a way that allows synthesis of
the numerous proteins contained in cells.
Transcription refers to the synthesis of mRNA using a template of DNA so that the hereditary
(genetic) information is copied. During the process, a complementary RNA strand is generated
based on the sequence of nucleotides in a specific gene region of the DNA template strand.
Transcription
Transcription is the synthesis of a complementary mRNA from a sequence of bases on a DNA
template so that the hereditary (genetic) information is copied. DNA strands unzip with the use of the
enzyme DNA helicase so that both strands separate and the hydrogen bonds are temporarily broken.
Only one strand is used as the template strand. Complementary bases are then added to the strand that
is being copied, and this process is catalysed by the enzyme RNA polymerase. RNA nucleotides pair
up with exposed complementary bases from one of the DNA strands and ccondensation reactions
occur where phosphodiester bonds form between the bases in a 5’ to 3’ direction to form mRNA. The
mRNA strand is identical to the coding strand but it contains the base uracil instead of thymine, and
the nucleotides contain ribose instead of deoxyribose. A triplet codon on the strand codes for one
amino acid.
Translation
Translation is the conversion of a sequence of nucleotides in mRNA into an amino acid sequence
during protein synthesis
The mRNA travels out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm and binds with a ribosome. After one
ribosome starts protein synthesis and moves along the mRNA, other ribosomes can bind to the same
mRNA and start protein synthesis as well.
A tRNA bearing the first amino acid uses its anticodon to associate with the first proper codon on the
portion of the mRNA template in contact with the ribosome. The ribosome brings the mRNA and the
tRNA carrying its amino acid together in close proximity and helps in the catalysis of peptide bonds
that hold the individual amino acids into the primary protein structure. when the anti-codon on the
tRNA is complementary to the codon on the mRNA, base pairing occurs
Elongation refers to the addition of amino acids, in a particular sequence, to form a polypeptide
chain. This process continues as the ribosome moves along the mRNA and the polypeptide grows
longer until the ribosome reaches a ‘stop’ codon.
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) associates with a set of protein to form ribosomes. The
complex structures physically move along as an mRNA molecule. rRNA catalyses the assembly
of amino acids into polypeptide chains and binds tRNA and various accessory molecules that
are required for protein synthesis.
Functions of mRNA and tRNA
 mRNA functions as an intermediate between the gene and the protein synthesizing machinery. It
carries genetic code from the DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes to synthesize proteins.
 tRNA brings the appropriate amino acids to the ribosomes to be included in the new protein.
Nucleic Acids: A nucleic acid is a long un-branch`ed chain with a ‘backbone’ of sugar and phosphate
units with the purine and pyrimidine bases protruding from the chain at regular intervals.
In proteins, the links that connect amino acids are peptide bonds whereas in nucleic acids, the
connecting links are phosphate ester linkages. A phosphate ester linkage joins the 3-prime hydroxyl
group (3'–OH) of one ribose or deoxyribose sugar to the 5-prime hydroxyl group (5'–OH) of
another ribose or deoxyribose sugar
Phenotype: The phenotype of an organism is the appearance of an organism as influenced by the
combination of genes and environmental factors.
Genes: A gene is a segment of the DNA molecule that encodes the information necessary to direct the
synthesis of one protein or polypeptide
 A gene is transcribed into mRNA complementary to one of the DNA strands and tRNA
translates the sequence of bases in the mRNA into amino acids within a polypeptide
Summary Of DNA Replication:
DNA Replication Steps:

Step 1: Initiation - Initiation of DNA replication is catalysed by the enzyme helicase. Helicase
unwinds the two DNA strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds between their bases, resulting in the
separation of the strands. This process occurs at specific sites in the DNA known as origins of
replication. When the two strands open, this forms a replication ‘bubble’ and DNA replication
proceeds in both directions until the entire molecule is copied. The splitting occurs preferentially in
areas of the DNA chain rich in A-T base pairs due to the weaker hydrogen bonding between adenine
and thymine compared to guanine and cytosine.
Step 2: Elongation - During elongation, free-floating complementary nucleotides in the nucleoplasm
are added to the exposed bases on the single strands. An RNA primer is first synthesized by the
enzyme primase. This RNA primer provides the initial starting point for DNA polymerase to begin
adding DNA nucleotides. The enzyme DNA polymerase then catalyzes the linking of these free DNA
nucleotides to form a polynucleotide chain, which are added from the 3’ end. The RNA primer is then
degraded and DNA is added in its place so that when DNA replication is complete each new daughter
molecule consists only of DNA. Deoxyribose sugars and phosphates join nucleotides together,
forming the backbone of the new DNA strand, while hydrogen bonds join the complementary base
pairs (A-T and G-C).
Step 3: Termination - In the termination phase, two identical DNA molecules are formed by winding
the newly synthesized strands together to form two double-helical structures. The enzyme DNA ligase
plays a crucial role in this step by catalysing the joining of the newly synthesized DNA strands. DNA
ligase seals any breaks or nicks in the sugar-phosphate backbone, ensuring the integrity and continuity
of the DNA molecule.
DNA polymerase: DNA polymerase is the enzyme that catalyses DNA replication. DNA polymerase
brings the deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates to the 3' end of the growing DNA chain that is being
synthesised
DNA Proof-Reading and Repair
DNA polymerases perform a proofreading function after incorporating a nucleotide into a DNA strand
during DNA replication. When the DNA polymerase recognises a mismatched pair of bases it
removes the incorrect base and tries again to insert the correct base.
After DNA replication and genetic recombination has occurred, a mismatch repair mechanism checks
the new molecule to determine if there are any errors.
The link between DNA, Chromatin and Chromosomes
 A chromosome consists of DNA and histone protein tightly packed together

 Double stranded DNA binds to histone proteins to form nucleosomes
 DNA wraps around histone proteins
 Nucleosomes pack closely together forming coils that give condensed chromatin fibres

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Biology Chapter 4 – Genetics, Variation and Selection

 Name the nucleotides and recognize their structure.

Structure and Function of Deoxyribonucleic

 DNA : This is a molecule that stores and

 RNA is important in the conversion of hereditary information into proteins.

Functions of mRNA and tRNA

Summary Of DNA Replication:

DNA Replication Steps:

 A chromosome consists of DNA and histone protein tightly packed together

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