Civics PDF

Civics & Community Engagement 6 BS 4 Years, ADP/ADA/ADS
BASIC
CIVICS & COMMUNITY
ENGAGEMENT
WITH SHORT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
General Education Course

GCCE-101
FOR
Undergraduate Degree (including Associate Degrees)
ADA, ADS, BS
(Arts/ Science/ Commerce)
Khurram Malik
(Visiting faculty Member)
The University of Education
Town Ship Campus, LHR
Prof. Farooq Malik

Aizaz-e-Fazeelat (Presidential Award)
Khurram Books Majeed Book Dept

40-Urdu Bazar Lhr 22-Urdr Bazar Lhr
ALL RIGHTS ARE RESERVED WITH THE
PUBLISHER & AUTHOR
Contents:
CHAPTER: 1
I. AN INTRODUCTION TO CIVICS AND CITIZENSHIP
Civics Nature, Concept of Civics, Definitions, Evolution 7
The Utility & Significance of Civics 9
Salient Features of Civics 11
Importance of Civics in Present Era
CIVICS OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES 13
Civics, Sociology, Geography, Ethics,
History, Economics, Political Science
CITIZEN AND CITIZENSHIP
Concept, Meaning 22
Qualities of a Good Citizen, 24
The ways of Acquiring Citizenship, Loss of Citizenship 25
TYPE OF CITIZENSHIP 27
Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship 31
Importance of Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship 33
CHAPTER NO. 2
CONCEPTS OF CIVICS & CITIZENSHIP

(Family, Individual & Society, Community, Nation & Nationality)
FAMILY
Meaning, Definitions, Kinds of Family, 35
Importance & Duties of Family, 37
CONCEPT OF MODERN SOCIETY
Definitions, 39
Characteristics of Modern Society and Citizenship 40
Aims & Objectives of Society 41
Foundations of Modern Society 44
COMMUNITY 45
Definitions, Characteristics, Kinds,
NATION AND NATIONALITY 46
Definitions, Difference between Nation and Nationality
Elements of Nationality 48
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT 49
Connection Among Civic, Citizenship and Civic Engagement 50
Process of Civic Engagement 52
Kinds of Civic Engagement 55
Hurdles & Challenges of Civic Participation 56
Steps for the Encouragement of Civic Participation 57
Historical Evolution of Civic Participation 58
Civic Participation Present Era & Its Importance 61
CHAPTER NO. 3
STATE, GOVERNMENT & CIVIL SOCIETY
STATE
Evolution of State, Definitions, 63
Essential Elements, Salient Features, Functions
The Historical Evolution of State 67
Factors Played Vital Role in the Formulation of State
GOVERNMENT 70
Structure and Functions of Government of Pakistan
Legislature
Senate, National Assembly, Speaker, 71
Powers and Functions of Parliament
Provincial Assembly, Speaker
Powers and Functions of Provincial Assembly
Executive 75
The President of Pakistan
The Prime Minister 76
Governor, Chief Minister
Judiciary
Supreme Court, High Court
Federal Shariat Court
PARLIAMENTRY SYSTEM 77
Features of Parliamentary System 78
Merits of Parliamentary System 79
De-merits of Parliamentary System
DEMOCRACY AND CIVIL SOCIETY 82
Relationship between Democracy
and Civil Society in the Context of Pakistan
Importance of the Relationship between
Democracy and Civil Society in the Context of Pakistan
RIGHT TO VOTE
Importance of Political Participation and Representation
87
CHAPTER NO. 4
RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Civic Responsibility & Duties
Definitions, Features, Kinds of Rights 90
CIVIC DUTIES 95
Types of Duties, Duties towards State,
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT
Fundamental Rights According to 1973, Constitution 98
Ethical Consideration in Civic Engagement 99
CHAPTER NO. 5
I. COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
Meaning, Types, Salient Features, 103
Difference between Society &Community, Definitions,
Kinds of Community, 104
Meaning of Community Engagement,
Types of Community Engagement, Salient Features 105
Values of Community Engagement, 108
Principles of Community Engagement,
Importance of Community Engagement, 109
Key Measures for Successful Community Engagement 111
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 112
Meaning, Definitions,
Core Principles Community Development 114
Importance of Community Development 115
CHAPTER NO. 6
ADVOCACY & ACTIVISM
PUBLIC DISCOURSE
Definition, Importance of Public Discourse, 116
PUBLIC OPINION 118
Definitions, Importance of Public Opinion,

Formation of Public Opinion 119
The Sources of Formation and Demonstration of Public Opinion, 120
The Ways to Measure the Public Opinion. 121
ADVOCACY
Definitions, Types, Significance, 122
Steps for Public Advocacy, Salient Features,
SOCIAL ACTION MOVEMENT
Meaning, Definitions, Kinds, Features, 127
CHAPTER NO. 7
DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP AND TECHNOLOGY
DIGITAL PLATFORM
Meanings, Definitions, Types, 130
Utility & Importance of Digital Platform, 133
CYBER ETHICS & RESPONSIBLE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA
Meanings, Key Areas of Cyber Ethics, 135
Branches of Cyber Ethics,
Ensuring the Right & Responsible Use of Social Media, 137
DIGITAL DIVIDE & DISPARITIES 138
Origin, Definitions, Kinds, 139
Effects & Impacts of Digital Divide, 141
Causes of Digital Divide 143
Measures to Minimize the Effects of Digital Divide, 144
CHAPTER NO. 8
DIVERSITY, INCLUSION AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
Diversity and Inclusion
Different Shapes of Diversity, Salient Features, 147
Diversity in Pakistani Society & Culture
SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Meanings, Definitions, 151
Important Indicators of Social Development,
Role of Youth, Women and Minorities in Social Development
SOCIAL INEQUALITY & INJUSTICE IN PAKISTAN
Social Inequality, Definitions, Important Features, 155
Measurement of Social Inequality
Remedies to Reduce Social Inequality & Social Injustice,
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 165
Meanings, Definition, Important Features,
Determinants of Social Stratification
Social Injustice, Reasons for Social Injustice,
SOCIAL HARMONY & PEACEFUL CO-EXISTANCE
Meanings, Definition, Salient Features, 168
Importance of Social Harmony Peaceful Co-Existence
Steps to promote Social Harmony
Short Questions & Answer 172

CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTION TO CIVICS & CITIZENSHIP
Civics, Citizenship & Civic Engagement
Civics: The study of the rights and duties of citizenship is called ‘Civics’. In
Arabic, this branch of knowledge is known as „Madniat‟, that is, the study of
Madina (the City) and its natives. The word „Civics‟ it-self is the combination of
two words, „Civis‟ and „Civitas‟, taken from Latin language speaking of „city‟
and „citizens‟ respectively. Civics basically deals with how things work in daily
routine of citizens in their own city.
Twenty five hundred years ago, Greece was divided into so many small-scale
states. Each population or city had the rank of a separate state and such states
were even recognized as „City States‟. Civics, at that time, was the study of
issues and affairs of these city states. After Alexander the Great conquered the
region, these city states were merged into a considerable state. The study of
affairs of mighty states was also identified as „Civics‟. Even today, Civics
includes the knowledge of states and problems of natives living in. The term
„Civics‟ was first used in 1887 when it was formally classified as a proper
“Discipline” or “Branch of Knowledge”.
Civics & its Evolution: The study of city and citizenship set about around
twenty five hundred years ago. In that era, the culture and civilization reached to
its highest level in different areas of Greece. The intellectuals served a lot in the
field of Art & Knowledge and Politics & Government. Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle belong to the same epoch. In this particular period of time in history,
Plato wrote „The Republic‟, Aristotle wrote „The Politics‟ and helped in laying
the foundation of „Civics‟. They both critically analyzed the laws and drawbacks
of a state along with its system of government.
Ancient Greece was divided into One hundred and fifty eight (158) city
states. Each state consisted of self-standing population of a few thousand people,
having its own system of government. Athens, Sparta and Syracuse were
included in the list of those city states but these are now known as big cities of
modern Greece. Ancient City States were independent and self-reliant. In some
of the states, democratic system of government was observed. Due to less
population, even the citizens themselves used to take part in legislation and
formation of government policy enjoying freedom of opinion while keeping up
with their democratic system of government.
After the conquest of Greece by Alexander the Great, the concept of
ancient city states came to an end giving birth to one whole state of considerable
size. Like Greece, such small-scale states also existed in Rome. When the Great
Roman Empire came into being, these inconsiderable states were, likewise,
incorporated into one single state. This journey towards colossal states caused
vastness in the field of Civics. The study regarding extensive states got extended
and gradually the length of topics in the discipline of civics was prolonged. The
modern state is consisted of many cities, and countless towns and villages.
Therefore, the circle of the study (Civics) discussing its issues and affair has also
been stretched out. Now, it not only throws light on local issues but as well as on
national issues.
Citizen: In the Greek states, all natives were not to be considered „Citizens‟.
Only those individuals enjoyed the position of being one, who were eligible to
take part in political, administrative and judicial proceedings. The laborers,
servants, roustabouts, farmers, and the foreigners were not recognized as
‘citizens’. In the modern times, each native is categorized as citizen of his own
city except foreigners. Today, the role of a citizen is not only restrained to the
populated area of the city but has expanded towards national and international
level.
Civic Engagement: Civic engagement refers to the active participation of
individuals in the political, social, and community aspects of their society. It
encompasses a wide range of activities aimed at improving the well-being of a
community and fostering a sense of responsibility toward the common good. This
engagement can take various forms, including voting in elections, volunteering
for community service, participating in local government meetings, joining
advocacy groups, and engaging in public debates or discussions about policy
issues.
Civic engagement involves both formal and informal actions. Formal
actions include voting, running for office, or working with government
institutions, while informal actions involve grassroots efforts, such as community
organizing or awareness campaigns. It is driven by a sense of duty, rights, and
belonging in a society, motivating individuals to contribute to shaping their
social, economic, and political environments.
The goals of civic engagement are to enhance democratic governance,
promote accountability, and foster inclusivity. By participating in civic activities,
individuals help create a more responsive government and a cohesive society
where the interests and needs of the public are better addressed. Civic
engagement empowers citizens to influence decision-making processes and
create positive social change.
Definitions
Patrick Geddes: “Civics is the name of city life and the problems regarding it.”
This definition by Patrick Geddes is very confined, and does not cover the
whole of civics as it refuses to take notice of the national and international issues
of citizens.
Dr. Aziz Ahmad: “Civics is the study of individuals and institute whose
individuals either are the members by birth or they become its members by
choice.”
A.T.Shaw: “Civics is the branch of knowledge which focuses on the rights and
duties of citizens who have been living as a member of well-arranged
organization.”
Oxford Dictionary: “The study of rights and duties of citizenship is called
„Civics‟.
Putnam Becker: “Civics is the knowledge of city life and its philosophy.”
E. M. White: “Civics is the branch of human knowledge that has a link with
citizen, and his past, present and future. It basically discusses every aspect of
life of the citizen i.e.; social, economic, and religious aspects.”
F. J. Gould: “Civics is the study of emotions, activities, tasks and those

institutions, through which every individual whether male or female can
perform their duties and be benefited by any political organization.”
The Utility & Significance of Civics
Civics plays important role in modern social studies. The role of citizens
in social, democratic and political life is of much significance these days. If they
play their part well, it can bring them proficient outcomes. Civics gives birth to
the supportive atmosphere for successful social and political life as well as it
organizes the individual and communal life. It also makes a man aware of local,
national and international fields resulting in the formation of agile society.
Therefore, the study of civics is considered mandatory now a days. The
Usefulness of Civics in our Life is as Follows:
1-Training of Citizens: The knowledge of the citizen is the main concern in the
field of civics. This knowledge provides political, social and moral guidance to
the people making them aware of their role and importance as to what they have
to do in order to live in a strong state and well-ordered society. If people are
politically aware of their problems, the approach to solve those issues is elevated.
When a person is familiar with the role of his country on local, national and
international level, he can serve in a more advantageous way.
2-Emergence of Better Role: Civics is standardized branch of knowledge. It
differentiates between good and evil, urging people to adopt the virtuous traits.
This type of knowledge promotes the emotions of love, sacrifice, sympathy,
patience and co-operation. People tend to respect others’ feelings. They start to
take care of joint interest along with personal interests. Civics is against
prejudices, hatred and abomination and gives training of truthfulness, honesty,
openheartedness and generosity to the individuals.
3-The Equal Proportion of Loyalty: Each person has link with many
institutions simultaneously. He thinks of his personal interest as well as family,
tribal, village and civic interests. He also becomes the member of optional
associations in his surroundings. At the same time, he has association with some
political party having his own separate beliefs. Usually people face problems due
to clash of interest. Therefore, it is necessary to be loyal with some institute but if
the loyalty with one institution is opposed to the other and creating hindrance
then what a man should do? The study of Civics guides citizens in this regard and
bestows upon them the true sense of equal proportion of loyalty.
4-Promotion of Social Values: Man cannot live without society as he is a social
animal. While living with other people where a man is facilitated, he faces
different troubles too. Such problems are solved through different rules and
regulations in the society. Some social limits are executed and good citizen
always take care of them as they advance towards a civilized and cultured
society. Patience and Tolerance play very important role in this regard. If each
person respects the ideas of other people, hurts no one, then, for sure, it will
result in a valuable environment. Through Civics, apprentices come to know
about social values and finally they act upon the principle of “Live and let live”.
5-Rights and Duties: The rights and duties of the citizens are widely discussed
in the field of Civics. The rights are those facilities which are bestowed upon the
citizen from the society and state. In return, a citizen performs many duties. The
rights and duties are always in, alliance with one another. Civics illustrates the
importance of the rights and duties making individuals aware of it and stresses
upon performing duties and then seeking rights.
6-Growth of Democracy: Man has experienced different systems of government
and the best among them is democracy. In this system of government, the real
source of power is public. People select their representatives who govern. The
right growth of democracy in any country depends on the role of its public. If
people are not aware of their democratic rights, then the true sense of this system
is terminated. The study of Civics provides the suitable environment for the
democracy. Further, it proves to be helpful in the emergence of competitive
government and its better performance.
7-Realization of Problems: Civics makes its apprentices aware of their political,
social, economic and civic problems. They think of their national issues
minutely. And it is clear as day that when a nation realizes its problems, it
immediately begins to solve them. In this branch of knowledge, educational,
medical, industrial, agricultural, military, social and economic problems of
people are discussed as well as the solution is identified. The constitutional
monarchy of Switzerland made Civics a compulsory subject in schools while
realizing its importance so that it may lead to the coming of good citizens.
8-Economic Development: The main problems of the citizens are linked with
the economic aspect. Their politics and morality are much influenced by the
economic condition. Unemployment, poverty, low standards of life, unjust
division of wealth and inflation make life of hard knocks. People are living under
the burden of taxes. The study of civics not only points out the industrial,
mineral, trade, and other economic problems but it also has the problem solving
characteristics.
9-Cultural Awareness: The progress of culture and civilization is the human
progress. If the nation is devoid of cultural awareness, and its natives are busy in
living their personal lives only, there process of joint development becomes slow.
The realization of a civilized society gives birth too many virtuous traits in the
citizens. They learn the art of living. They adopt their own culture, art, customs
and traditions, occurrences and lifestyle and have their own separate identity
among different nations. The study of Civics enlightens people with the features
of culture and civilization and gives them apprehension of future planning.
10-International Affairs: Through the study of Civics, we come to know that a
person’s life is not confined to his personality or nation, but he is also the
member of universal human society. In the modern era, the establishment of
international associations, the development of international laws, and the
immensity of international relations helped a lot in highlighting the international
aspect. Today, no state can live alone and it has to make connections with other
states. The problems of any nation cannot be solved without international co-
operation. We can say that, today, human problems are examined on international
level.
11-Local Institutions: In civics, the problems of cities, towns and villages are
specifically discussed. And to eradicate those problem, the institutions that are
autonomous bodies on local level, are taken notice of, for example, Civics
particularly talks about Union Councils, Union Committees, Municipal

Committees, District Councils and other local municipal institutions. Such local
institutions are also established in Britain, America, France and other countries.
12-The Passion of Helping Ourselves: The study of Civics teaches the students
to perform their local duties voluntarily instead of relying on government only.
The countries where there is political and cultural awareness, people admit their
responsibility for local affairs. In Pakistan, people in villages especially like to
help themselves where people build road, make trenches and grooves on their
own. Civics has helped a lot in promoting such kind of behavior among people.
The rural students struggle hard to encourage this attitude.
13-The Encouragement of Leadership: The apprentices of today are citizens
for tomorrow and they have to govern their country. Some of them may be
selected as future President, Prime Minister, Chief Ministers and Members of
Parliament. Civics prepares people for the future leadership and makes them
realize their rights and duties. It makes them aware of the formation of different
constitutional institutions and their performance as well as illustrates the
importance of different political and administrative offices. Civics plays an
eminent role in providing the nation a new leadership.
14-The Struggle for Beau-ideal: The philosophers gave much thought to
political, social and economic problems and presented their views. In civics,
such concepts are examined and the implementable ones are adopted. The efforts
to develop the society and state are proved to be very helpful. Today the society
fulfilling the demands of public welfare can be revolutionized only in the light of
these views. The study of Civics enlightens the citizens with new trends and
concepts and the process of progress continues in this way.
15-The Importance for Third World: The individuals living in Asia, Africa
and Southern America are facing poverty, ignorance and diseases to the larger
extent. The western world has always been exploiting them. The study of Civics
can develop contemporary awareness in people of these countries and they can
get rid of their problems with their joint efforts as civics plays vital role in
promoting the awareness among people.
Salient Features of Civics
Civics is the study of the rights and duties of citizenship and the functioning
of government. It encompasses a wide range of topics related to governance,
democracy, and civic responsibility. Here are the salient features of civics:
1-Citizenship: Rights and Responsibilities: Civics focuses on educating
individuals about their rights as citizens, such as freedom of speech, the right to
vote, and protection under the law. Equally, it emphasizes the responsibilities of
citizenship, including obeying laws, paying taxes, and participating in civic
duties like voting and jury service. This balance of rights and duties helps
maintain a functioning society and ensures active citizen participation in
governance.
2-Government Structure and Function: A key feature of civics is
understanding different forms of government, such as democracies, republics,
monarchies, and authoritarian regimes. It explores how power is divided among
the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, ensuring that no single entity
holds unchecked authority. Civics also highlights the importance of checks and
balances to maintain accountability and prevent the abuse of power within
government institutions.
3-Democracy and Political Representation: Civics stresses the significance of
democratic participation through elections and voting. It explains the electoral
process and how citizens elect representatives to govern on their behalf. This
feature of civics ensures that individuals understand the importance of voting as a
means of shaping government policies and holding public officials accountable to
the people they serve.
4-Rule of Law and Constitutional Rights: The rule of law is a foundational
element of civics, underscoring the principle that everyone is equal under the
law. Civics explains the role of the constitution as the supreme law of the land,
outlining how it protects individual rights and governs legal and political
processes. Understanding constitutional rights helps citizens navigate the legal
system and advocate for justice and equality.
5-Civic Engagement and Public Participation: Civics encourages active
participation in community and national affairs. This may include joining public
discussions, attending town hall meetings, or engaging in protests and advocacy.
Public participation is essential for a healthy democracy, and civics promotes
volunteerism and community service as ways to contribute to the well-being of
society.
6-Civil Liberties and Human Rights: Civics places a strong emphasis on civil
liberties such as freedom of speech, assembly, religion, and the press. It also
fosters an understanding of universal human rights, promoting respect for
diversity and the protection of individual freedoms against discrimination. These
rights form the bedrock of democratic societies, ensuring that individuals can
freely express themselves and participate in public life.
7-Political Ideologies and Parties: Understanding political ideologies is another
important aspect of civics. It explores the spectrum of political beliefs, from
conservatism and liberalism to socialism and libertarianism. Civics also explains
the role of political parties in representing different viewpoints and organizing
electoral competition, helping citizens make informed choices when voting.
8-Global Citizenship and International Relations: Civics extends beyond
national borders by teaching global citizenship. It covers the role of international
organizations such as the United Nations and delves into global issues like
climate change, human rights, and international conflicts. This helps individuals
understand their role in the global community and the interconnected nature of
modern societies.
9-Economic Literacy and Public Finance: Civics often includes an
understanding of how public resources are managed. It explains taxation,
government spending, and the economic systems that influence public policy.
This helps citizens comprehend how economic decisions impact societal welfare
and enables them to engage more effectively in discussions about public finance
and economic policy.
10-Ethical Responsibility and Civic Virtue: Civics promotes moral
responsibility and civic virtue, emphasizing the importance of integrity, honesty,
tolerance, and cooperation. These values are essential to fostering a sense of
community and ensuring that democratic governance is carried out in the best
interests of society as a whole. Ethical behavior in both public and private life is
seen as a cornerstone of responsible citizenship.
CIVICS & OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
Knowledge of science basically has two branches:
1. Pure Sciences 2. Social Sciences
In pure science, the substance is being discussed i.e. Physics, Chemistry,
Botany, Zoology and Algebra etc. On the other hand, the branches of knowledge
which discuss human beings, are called „Social Sciences‟ i.e. History, Political
Science, Economics, Sociology, Civics and Psychology. Each subject throws
light on some specific aspect of human life. These subjects have a deep
connection with one another and with Civics too. The study of Civics contains
the material regarding other subjects too although it is very limited.
Civics and Sociology
Sociology is basically an ancient social science which can be called the
combination of all social studies. This branch of knowledge discusses some
distinguishing features of a society, basic social life and social institutions.
Sociology is the study about society and it covers different standards of the
beginning and evolution of a society. Social customs and traditions, cultural
relations, and different types of mandatory and optional social institutions are
part of this knowledge. Sociology basically throws light on religion, culture,
economics and ideas.
Similarity between Civics and Sociology
Civics is the study of human habits, activities, emotions and institutions. Society
and state are the main concern in this field. Sociology and civics have a great link
with one another.
1-Part and Whole: Sociology is one whole subject while Civics is the part of it.
In Sociology, we discuss all the other social sciences. This branch of knowledge
illustrates many aspects of human life as well as civic aspect, therefore, civics is
the part of sociology. Sociology has been called, „Mother of all Social
Sciences.”
2-Main Concern: Sociology and Civics both are social sciences which discuss
human beings. Civics talks about human rights and duties and different political
and social institutions whereas sociology covers the social aspect, therefore, both
the subjects reach the same level as both of them are deliberate about one thing,
that is , human beings.
3-Common Topics: Human beings are the main topic in both branches of
knowledge. But there are other topics which are common. Civics specifically
throws light on the link between individual and society. Both the subjects explore
beginning, evolution, characteristics and features of the society. They both
converse about religion and give the information regarding the traditions of
family, tribe, village, city and town. Sociology contains much stuff and details
from Civics.
4-The Base of Citizenship: Sociology can easily be recognized as ‘Base of
citizenship’. It is true that in civics, we study about civic life and institutions but
it is necessary to examine different things with great attention to details. While in
sociology, we study about human institutions, social features, religion, beliefs,

culture and civilization. If we give importance to all the above mentioned topics,
then it will be easier to fully understand the topics of Civics. Arab Philosopher
Ibn Khaldun presented the basic principles of sociology in his book while talking
about rise and decline of nations which very clearly illustrate the link between
sociology and civics.
5-Human Welfare: In Sociology and Civics, human welfare is specifically taken
care of. Both branches of knowledge stress upon the character of an individual
and creation of a better society. So, we can say that the motives for human
welfare in sociology and civics are the same.
6-Sociology is Superior: To achieve the aims of Civics, students are required to
have knowledge about beginning and evolution of the society which can be found
in sociology (the study of society). Traditions and social circumstances influence
the lives of citizens a lot and their recognition is gathered only through the study
of sociology. Both the branches of knowledge, in fact, help in providing a better
life to the citizens.
Dissimilarities between Civics and Sociology
1-Standardized Branch of Knowledge: In Sociology, we explore features of a
society, social institutions and social customs and traditions whereas civics is the
branch of knowledge which sets about standards. It differentiates between good
and evil. Sociology only reveals social customs and characteristics but civics
recommend proposals for the development of the society.
2-Vastness of the Subject: Sociology has more importance than Civics as far as
immensity of the subject is concerned. Civics is only the part of Sociology. The
topics in sociology are so many, where light is thrown on political, economic,
social, psychological, moral, civic and other fields. On the other hand, the circle
of civics is very limited and compact, it does not have any alliance with
sociology when one talk about its vastness.
3-A Bird Eye-view: Although many topics of both the subjects are the same but
it is clear as day that in sociology, we explore these topics superficially while in
civics, we study in detail.
4-According to Age: In civics, past, present and future of civic life and social
institutions are discussed while sociology only talks about past and present and
does not have any link with future. The sense for the better future of an
individual and society exist only in civics. There is no future planning in
sociology.
5-According to Awareness: Civics is concerned only with those human actions
which a man commits consciously. On the other hand, in sociology, both
conscious and unconscious actions as well as organized and disorganized
activities are examined.
6-Individual and Society: Although both the subjects give value to the
individual and society, but it is very clear that civics focuses more on the
individual, and sociology on the society. The main concern of civics is the human
being while sociology covers the whole circle of joint social life.
7-Religious Aspect: Religion cannot be disregarded while conversing about
beginning and evolution of the society, therefore, religious discussion is part and
parcel of sociology. Civics, however, does not have much concern with creed and
religion.
Civics and Geography
Civics and geography are connected because both look at how people
live together and how they interact with the world around them. Civics is about
how governments work, the rights and duties of citizens, and how laws are made
and followed. Geography is about the land, water, climate, and how people live
in different places. These two are linked because the place where people live
affects how they are governed. For example, natural features like rivers or
mountains can create borders between countries or regions, and different
environments may need different laws. Places with lots of resources like water or
oil might have rules to protect or share those resources, and people living in cities
or villages may care about different issues. Geography also helps us understand
environmental problems like floods or droughts, which need governments to
make plans and policies. In short, geography shapes the way governments work
and how people engage in their communities.
Similarities between Civics and Geography
Civics and geography have several similarities, even though they study
different aspects of human life and the world. Here are some key similarities:
1-Both Study Human Interaction: Civics focuses on how people interact with
their governments and each other, while geography looks at how people interact
with their physical environment and space.
2-Impact on Society: Both civics and geography influence and shape societies.
Civics affects how people live together, make laws, and solve problems, while
geography affects where people live, how they use resources, and how they adapt
to their surroundings.
3-Concerned with Human Behavior: Civics studies the behavior of individuals
and groups within a society in relation to laws, rights, and responsibilities.
Geography also considers human behavior, particularly how populations move,
settle, and adapt to different environments.
4-Influence of Location: In both fields, location is key. Civics considers the
location of political borders and government jurisdictions, while geography
studies the physical and cultural characteristics of different locations.
5-Problem-Solving Approach: Both civics and geography deal with solving
human challenges. Civics looks at issues like governance, citizenship, and
justice, while geography tackles problems like resource distribution,
environmental sustainability, and population growth.
6-Global Perspective: Both subjects encourage a global perspective. Civics
involves understanding how different political systems operate around the world,
while geography looks at how different regions of the world are connected
through the environment, trade, and culture.
These similarities show that civics and geography are both essential for
understanding how humans live, interact, and govern in different physical and
social environments.
Dissimilarities between Civics and Geography

Civics and geography differ in several key ways, as they focus on different
aspects of human life and the world. Here are the main dissimilarities between
them:
1-Focus of Study: Civics: Focuses on government, citizenship, laws, rights, and
responsibilities within society. It explores how people are governed and how they
participate in the political process.
* Geography: Focuses on the physical features of the Earth, such as landforms,
climate, and natural resources, as well as human-environment interactions.
2-Subject Matter: Civics: Deals primarily with social, political, and legal
structures, including topics like democracy, elections, and justice systems.
* Geography: Deals with physical landscapes, ecosystems, spatial patterns, and
how humans adapt to and impact their environments.
3-Main Concerns: Civics: Concerned with how societies are organized, how
governments function, and the roles and responsibilities of individuals as
citizens.
* Geography: Concerned with the Earth's physical features, spatial relationships,
and how people use and manage natural resources.
4-Scale of Study: Civics: Primarily focuses on societal structures at the local,
national, and global levels within a human context, such as laws and governance.
* Geography: Studies both local and global scales, but emphasizes physical
spaces, natural boundaries, and environmental conditions.
5-Methods of Study: Civics: Involves analyzing laws, political systems,
constitutions, and civic responsibilities through historical, legal, and political
lenses.
* Geography: Uses tools like maps, satellite imagery, and geographic
information systems (GIS) to study the Earth’s surface and human patterns of
settlement.
6-Nature of Interaction: Civics: Primarily focuses on human-to-human
interactions within the framework of laws, governance, and social
responsibilities.
* Geography: Explores both human-to-environment interactions and human-to-
human interactions based on geographic locations, resources, and environmental
conditions.
7-Purpose: Civics: Aims to educate citizens about their rights, duties, and how
governments function, to foster active and informed participation in society.
* Geography: Aims to understand the Earth's physical features, human settlement
patterns, and how people adapt to different environments.
In summary, civics focuses on human society, government, and political
systems, while geography centers on the physical world, spatial relationships,
and the interaction between people and the environment.
Civics and History
History is the study of past where causes and outcomes are discussed.
History is actually the combination of events and incidents of different ages and
it throws light on almost every aspect of life. Human beings, their activities, and
institutions are the subject of history as well as it explores rise and decline of
nations, cultural and literary progress, spreading of literature, and evolution of art
and philosophy.
Similarities between Civics and History
1-Main Topic: Many topics of civics and history are the same and both primarily
talk about human beings. The problems in both the disciplines are, to some
extent, identical. Many events, occurrences and revolts in history are also the part
of civics. Moreover, both the branches of knowledge belong to social sciences
and cover different human aspects.
2-The base of Civics: Professor Seeley has written; “Political Science without
History has no root; History without Political Science has no fruit.”
This explanation by Professor Seeley can be acceptable as far as civics and
history are concerned because many topics of civics are the part of history. If
they are separated from history, there will be a great room in this branch of
knowledge.
3-Research Center: The research center for civics is history. The past of people
and nations help in providing experiences. The past experiences, revolts, and
wars give a lesson to the coming generations. It is said that those individuals and
nations always face damages who do not learn from their past. It is also quoted
that history repeats itself. So, we cannot say that history plays an important role
in setting up the principles of civics as the past experiences prove to be very
useful for future planning.
4-Common Topics: Civics and History have many same topics as they both
discuss the beginning and evolution of the state. Furthermore, International
organizations, international relations and international cooperation are evaluated
in both the fields.
5-Harmonry among Motives: Both the branches of knowledge believe in the
betterment of individuals, nations and humanity all over the world. Civics seeks
help from History for human development, prosperity and welfare. In the light of
past experiences, guidance for the better future is provided.
6-Ideas and Institutions: In history, we study about the evolution of all political
and economic ideas. History is an amalgam of ideas and these ideas are the
greatest part of civics. How the concepts of promotion, distribution, individuality
and idealism developed and which philosophers promoted them? All these
things come to knowledge through history. In the formation of ideas and
principles of civics, the study of history proves to be very useful.
7-The Importance of Rights: Human Rights are given much importance in the
field of Civics and it is expected that citizens of all nations have equal rights. In
history, the evolution of rights and struggle for them is mentioned as to what
extent people and nations made sacrifices. The history of human rights is, in fact,
linked with the history of freedom and democracy.
8-The Nature of a State: It is necessary for citizens to know about beginning
and evolution of the state and History helps a lot in this regard as it illustrates the
beginning and evolution of the state in a very clear way.
Dissimilarities between Civics and History
1-Continual Study: In history, we study about the incident and events as they
occurred. On the other hand, in civics, we do not follow such uninterrupted chain
of actions. While studying Civics, we choose and learn about particular events
and incidents.
2-The Study of Past: History is only the study of past, it gives lesson to present
and future but it does not cover both of them. On the other hand, Civics has link
with past, present and future simultaneously.
3-Immensity of Topics: The topics in history are immense as it is associated
with wars and past events. Economic, social, political, religious and other fields
are analyzed in history. Whereas, Civics only talks about human rights and
duties, political and civic institutions, and city life.
4-Standardized Branch of Knowledge: The aim of History is to make people
aware of facts and past convictions. But Civics is not the mixture of incidents and
events only. This branch of knowledge sets about standards as rules and
regulations are designed in this field.
5-The Nature of Study: In civics, different aspects are critically analyzed while
in history, we only look through the happenings where experiments are not
stressed upon.
Civics and Economics
Economics is the study of human needs, economic problems, production of
wealth and its division. Famous economist Marshal has described Economics as,
“the study of wealth and its acquisition”. Civics and Economics are both
associated with each other and often prove to be helpful.
Similarities between Civics and Economic
1-Political Economics: Civics and Political Science were considered to be a
same discipline in earlier times when a single term “Political Economy” was
being used for Civics, Economics and Political Science. But with the passage of
time, Civics, Economics and Political Science were separated as different
branches of knowledge. However, these subject had and still have a deep
connection with one another.
2-Identical Topics: The main topic of Civics is individuals and their civic life.
Economics is the study of individuals, their economics needs and resources. So,
the main point (human beings) is same in both the subjects. The aim of civics is
to provide a better life to an individual and economic aspect is of much value in
this regard.
3-Identical Ideas: In Civics and Economics, ideas are learnt with the same level
of interest. The concepts of promotion, distribution, industrial revolution,
laborers’ welfare have same importance in both the disciplines. Even the
philosophers like Karl Marx are recognized as political and civic expert as well
as economist at the same time.
4-Public Welfare: Both the branches of knowledge strive for public welfare and
human development. Just distribution of wealth, the rights of laborers, proper
wages and the concept of welfare state are taken care of in both the fields equally
as they aim at increase of human prosperity and comfort.
5-Economic Movements and Revolutions: All the great revolutions in the
world were due to political and civic changes but the main cause was economic
condition of people. Karl Marx was of the view that all the rebellion, wars,
events and revolts in the world happened due to economic reasons.
6-Acquirement of Good Citizenship: With the help of economics, a better

environment with rights of citizenship can be secured. If any society gets rid of
poverty, unemployment, low standard of life and unjust distribution of wealth, it
will basically be the economic steps but they will influence civic life in a great
way. For the good citizenship, the proper distribution of wealth and fulfillment of
needs are very necessary.
7-International Aspect: Economics is important not only on local or national
level, but on international level too. Inflation and economic deterioration in one
state influences the other state to some extent. Developed countries exploit the
undeveloped countries for their political purposes and enforce their own desire in
international affairs.
8-Welfare State: In the second half of the twentieth century, the concept of
establishment of welfare state is very delightful. Adorable state is the one where
natives are satisfied enjoying their basic needs. They may also have an appealing
lifestyle and state must provide them a complete security.
Dissimilarities between Civics and Economics
1-Vastness: Economics is the study of economic aspect of human life, it does not
have any concern with other topics and aspects. On the other hand, Civics has
immensity as it is consisted of moral, political, social, religious, and social topics.
Economics has no connection with human institutions other than economic ones.
2-Detailed Study: Although economic affairs of citizens, production of wealth
and its distribution are examined in Civics but they are not of much value in this
field. Only the field of Economics discusses these topics in detail. In civics, we
go through economic affair only for the purpose of having knowledge about
economic problems and their solutions.
3-Standardized Knowledge: Civics is the branch of knowledge which sets about
standards. It stresses upon adopting a right way while differentiating between
good and evil. Economics, on the other hand, is just the mixture of facts and
figures having no alliance with standards.
4-Material and Spiritual Aspect: Economics is concerned with material life
only and it does not give importance to spiritual ideas and concepts. Civics
supports the improvement of high moral and spiritual values as well as it
discusses materialism. Furthermore, Civics has links with culture, religion,
education, literature and politics.
Civics and Political Science
The topics of discussion in Civics and Political Science are same to the
extent that both are considered the same discipline and there is no difference
between both of them other than the name itself. The circles of Civics and
Political Science are similar as much that it is Herculean task to differentiate
between two. However, both the branches of knowledge have their separate
identities.
Similarities between Civics and Political Science
1-The Same Disciplines in the Beginning: Civics and Political Science both
developed in ancient Greece and they were considered the same discipline in the
beginning because city states used to exist in ancient Greece and there was no
difference between local and national affairs at that time. Today, Political
Science is recognized as the study of states, and Civics is the study of problems
of cities and citizens. Twenty five hundred years ago, there was no differentiation
among the state or city therefore, no contrast can be observed among these two
subjects. Later, when larger states came into being, and more citizens were added
in a state, Civics and Political Science set apart.
2-According to the Sense: In English language, we use the terms ‘Civics‟ and
„Political Science‟ for both subjects. The word ‘Civics’ is taken from two Latin
words such as “Civis and “Civitas” which mean „City‟ and „Citizen‟ respectively.
The word ‘Political Science’ is taken from „Polis‟ which also means „City‟. Both
have similarity as far as their meaning is concerned.
3-Common Motives: There is harmony among the motives of Civics and
Political Science. Both of them are conscious of political aspects and they give
importance to human rights and duties on the same level. Civics and Political
Science have same approach towards beginning and evolution of the state as well
as different systems of government. Both branches of knowledge discuss the
importance and duties of political and civic institutions.
4-Common Problems: The main concern of these two branches is human being
and both of them fall in the category of social studies. Political and Civic aspects
of individuals are linked with one another. The civic problems are, sometimes,
considered political problems and these local issues are solved by the state. The
aim of Civics is to make citizens prosper, well-mannered and responsible and it
demands their rights. This whole procedure proves to be very helpful for Political
Science.
5-Common Sections: In the course of Civics and Political Science, there are
many common chapters. The beginning of the state, its evolution, present
condition, motives, systems of government, basic rights, freedom, equality, law,
political parties, constitutions and many other chapters are same in both braches
of knowledge, however, in Civics, we do not focus much on these issues.
6-The Impact of Civics on Political Science: The politics in any state is
delineated in the light of environment and problems of people living in its
villages and cities. The individuals have to take care of civic and social values
while forming the principles of state. When the root cause of political problems is
required, then it is necessary to know about civic problems and Civics has a great
impact on Political Science in this way.
Dissimilarities between Civics and Political Science
1-The Main Circle: The circle of Political Science is larger than that of Civics.
Civics is related to local problems and features of civics life whereas the field of
Political Science has vastness. In Civics, we deal with national and international
affairs only. Although there is a discussion regarding political issues but not in
detail. On the other hand, all the immensity of political aspects is included in the
field of Political Science
2-City and State: Civics is basically the study of city while Political Science
talks about the whole state. About twenty four hundred years ago, both subjects
used to converse about citizen and there was no dissimilarity among city and
state. Later, cities got emerged into state, so, we can say that Political Science is
far superior to Civics.
3-Topics: Although many chapters in both the subjects are identical, but it does
not mean that both have same logic. Some topics of Political Science are not
included in Civics likewise some topics of Civics are not the part of Political
Science. Education, leisure and entertainment, crime and punishment, culture and
civilization, society and human institution are specific sections only in Civics.
4-Firm Position: The main concern of Civics is the link between „human being
and the society‟ and of Political Science is the link between „human being and
the state‟. We know that society existed before emergence of states, therefore,
the study of society (Civics) is considered to be older than the study of state
(Political Science).
5-The Difference between Theory and Practical: Political Science considers
the ideas where practice is given the second position. On the other hand, in
Civics, we discuss about role and practice instead of theories. The field of Civics
strives for the betterment of human character and morals and encourages the
individuals to perform their duties in a proper way. There is a great difference in
both the subjects theoretically and practically. We can say that Political Science
stresses upon attainment of basic rights while Civics talks about performance of
the duties. And in this regard, the field of Civics is considered to be an art.
6-Cultural Awareness: The study of Civics promotes cultural values and directs
the citizens towards self-determination, mutual co-operation and support.
Whereas Political Science has link with political awareness more than cultural
awareness. It paves the way for basic rights, freedom, equality, social justice and
democracy making people realize their importance.
7-Intensity of the Subject: It is said that Political Science is far superior to
Civics as far as its vastness is concerned. But it does not have the depth we can
find in civics. In Civics, we examine and scrutinize those issues which do not
come under the heading of Political Science. Some topics are discussed very
meticulously and in detail in the field of Civics.
Civics and Ethics
Civics is the study of human habits, activities, emotions and institutions.
Ethics is concerned with human character and approach. The base of the society
is moral principles and if we respect moral principles, we help in developing a
better civic life. There is a great link between Civics and Ethics.
Similarities between Civics and Ethics
1-Ancient Greek Philosophy: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle included moral and
civic life of human beings in one circle. They consider Ethics, an important part
of Civics and to them, both branches of knowledge are part and parcel. Ethics is
always given the rank of foundation while forming the principles of civic life
since Greek era. Plato laid the foundation of his ideal state on Ethics.
2-Motives: The main motives of both the subjects are same. The aim of Civics is
to make an individual a good citizen and Ethics helps in making him a good
human being. It is clear as day that a good citizen is a good human being as well
as a good human being falls in the category of good citizens.
3-Principles based on Ethics: Moral values are taken special notice of while
forming the principles of civic life because the opposite rules and regulations
cause chaos in social, political and civic life. People who believe in high morals
face no challenges. Moral values were omnipresent earlier. So, when the concept
of states came into being, the moral principles were given the name of state laws.
4-Mutual Co-operation: Ethics and Civics prove to be helpful for one another.
People with excellent morals give birth to an excellent society as a whole.
Therefore, the legislative institutions always keep moral aspect in view while
framing the state laws.
5-Standard Branches of Knowledge: Both the disciplines are to set about the
standards. Both are concerned with well-mannered and well-organized life of
individuals. These two subjects also strive for the encouragement of good and
eradication of evil simultaneously. Ethics makes it easier for Civics when it
specifies the principles for the removal of evil.
Dissimilarities between Civics and Ethics
Civics and Ethics have similarities and both branches of knowledge support
each other but it does not imply that they are two different names for one subject.
A clear difference can be observed in some of their aspects.
1-Body and Soul: The link of Civics is with the actions of citizens whereas
Ethics is concerned with both body and soul. Ethics actually covers human
approach and actions at the same time. In civics, people are asked to act nicely.
2-Vastness of Civics: Civics is far better than Ethics. In civics, we talk about
civic, social, religious, economic, cultural and political aspects while Ethics is all
about moral aspect only.
3-Differnece of Principles: Many rules of Civics cannot be designed on the base
of Ethics. For example, driving a car without license is unlawful act but this
cannot be considered unethical. In the same way, helping the needy people is
moral responsibility but it cannot be recognized as civic responsibility.
4-knowledge of both the worlds: Ethics prepares people mentally for this life
and here-after whereas Civics focuses more on worldly things. Spiritual aspect is
given significance only in the field of Ethics.
CITIZEN AND CITIZENSHIP
In Civics, all those natives or neutralized members of a state who owe
allegiance to its government and are entitled to its protection are known as
Citizens. They are given proper rights from state and as a result, they perform
duties. In this regard, people living in villages can also be recognized as citizens
because they also have their equal rights.
Aristotle suggests that “a citizen is someone who shares in the
administration of justice and the holding of public office”
The Modern Concept of Citizen: Today, the states have become so vast as far
as their area and population are concerned. Now a days, it is not possible to
gather millions of people and give them the direct opportunity of performing
administrative, political and judicial duties. In modern times, there is no concept
of the category of slaves. Further, women and other categories are also given the
rank of citizens. The concept which was extinct in Ancient Greek era. An
increase in population and establishment of larger states have changed the
situation. Today, no citizen can directly perform all the duties. Therefore, the
concept of indirect democracy has been introduced in accordance with new
trends. Now the citizens perform those duties through their representatives which
they themselves used to perform in Ancient Greek era.
“Citizen is a person who may be obedient to state, may have awareness

and to whom state provides social, economic and political rights, who has the
passion of following the constitution and serving his country as well.”
What is meant by Citizenship?
Citizenship is that position of a citizen through which he enjoys full
political rights in a state and in return performs certain duties to the state so that
state may progress. When right of citizenship is given, then the protection of a
citizen becomes the responsibility of state. Therefore, it is the duty of every
citizen to respect the state laws. Citizenship is such a right of citizen by which the
state adopts him and he himself stays connected/ linked with the state and works
for the progress of state as well. Given the civic rights, there develops a lawful
relationship among an individual and state. Four conditions are necessary
regarding these rights.
1. An Individual should show full obedience.
2. State should protect him.
3. An Individual should perform all the duties given by the state.
4. An Individual should have all basic rights being provided.
Citizen and National: Citizens and nationals both are the natives of a state who
have political rights. A national has the authorization of living in the state
permanently, and taking advantage of economic and social facilities but such
people are deprived of political rights. For example, the right to vote is restricted
only to adults. And in some states, women were not given the right to vote in the
past. Those individuals who are not capable of giving vote or contesting an
election, are called nationals not the citizens.
Citizenship versus Naturalization: People become citizens by birth by being
born in the state. Such people are given all the rights from state. Naturalization,
on the other hand, is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen in a country
may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done by a
statute, without any effort on the part of the individual, or it may involve an
application and approval by legal authorities. There is no difference between both
types of people as far as basic human rights are concerned. Both have all the
rights including political rights. However, in America only the citizens by birth
are given the chance to take part in presidential elections.
Citizens and Foreigners: All natives in a state are not required to be its citizens.
Some people are from outside the community. They go to another state for
getting education, job and for the purpose of exposure. Now a days, there is great
increase in number of such people because progress of science and technology
has decreased the distances. The people who come to visit, go back to their states
after some time. However, people who come for getting education or job remain
in other states for long time. Such people remain loyal with their own countries
and they can claim the citizenship of their country only.
Foreigners and Residential Foreigners: Foreigners can be further divided into
two types. If the citizen of one state lives in another state for short time, he may
only be recognized as a foreigner but if a citizens lives in another state for long
time, he can be recognized as residential foreigner. Residential foreigner has the
right to buy property, run the business or doing any private job in the other state.
He is facilitated more than other foreigners in this regard. Ambassadors are also
the foreigner. The state where they perform their duties provides complete
protection to them.
Qualities of a Good Citizen
According to Lord Bryce, a good citizen has the following qualities or virtues;
(i)- Intelligence (ii)- Self-control (iii)- Conscience
There are so many other qualities in a good citizen which are following:
1-Intelligence: In modern democracy, the citizens have the real authority. They
select the representatives of their government and play an important role in
formation and performance of democratic institutions. If they are aware of their
problems as well as national and international affairs, they can make the
performance of politics quite better. Intelligent and insightful citizens lay the
foundation of government in the right way.
2-Self Control: A good citizen is sober in temperament and exercises self-
control in his public dealings. He possesses a disciplined character. He does not
indulge in vicious habits. He is self-confident without being vain. A good citizen
also respects the views of other people whole being patient and does not impose
his point of view on others.
3-Conscience: A good citizen is usually honest in his social, economic and
political affairs. He respects the rights of others. He does not get involved in
wrongdoings and corruption. He is also inclined towards performing his
economic, political and social duties leaving behind his personal interests. He
pays all the taxes inflicted by the government.
4-Fear of God: The fear of God makes an individual a good human being. The
cause of many problems, now a days, is non-existence of fear of God. If we start
believing in the Day of Judgment, we can get rid of so many evils.
5-Self Confidence: A good citizen has confidence in himself and firm belief in
his nation. If there exists no self-confidence, society and state cannot progress. It
is necessary to put an end to inferiority complex among the citizens. Self
Confidence can bring progression in every field.
6-Sense of Responsibility: A good citizen performs his duties sincerely and
faithfully. He co-operates with the state officials in the discharge of their duties
and makes due payment of taxes.
7-Education: A good citizen is intelligent enough to shift good from bad and
takes a dispassionate view of everything. He is educated. His education enables
him to play his part in the society more successfully and usefully.
8-Political Awareness: A good citizen is supposed to be honest in the exercise
of his vote. Self-interest or sectional interest of the state, class, religion or
community does not prejudice his judgment. The wrong use of vote can lead a
nation towards destruction and devastation. Therefore, a good citizen performs
his duties after complete understanding of the situation.
9-Right ordering of loyalties: Good citizenship exists in the right ordering of
loyalties. A citizen is the member of various social groups, i.e., family, locality,
city, state and the world. A citizen must sacrifice his narrower interest for the
sake of wider interests. If there is a conflict between the interests of the family
and the locality, one must sacrifice the interests of the family for the sake of the
locality because the latter represents larger interests.
10-Sharpness: A sharp and astute citizens is not usually hasty. He carefully

examines all the aspects before taking any decision. He keeps in mind the
expected outcomes and tries to solve the issues after considerable understanding.
Careless people are hurt, in the end, by their own decisions and they harm the
whole society too.
11-Patriotism: Each good citizen is expected to be a true patriot. He is very
much attached to his homeland and, therefore, has unquestionable integrity for
his country. A man lives for his country and dies for his country if he loves his
country.
12-Ethics: A good citizen is governed by ethics and high moral values. He seeks
pleasure in helping others. He is filled with the emotions of sacrifice, love,
tolerance and sympathy. He takes special interest in public welfare as well.
13-Frugality: It is the duty of every citizen to avoid extravagance and profligacy
in life. Frugality proves to be very useful on individual and collective levels. The
saved money can be spent in the time of difficulty. The one who is not limited in
spending money or using resources does not prove to be a good citizen.
14-Respecting the Law: A good citizen has special regard for law. He is fully
aware of the importance of law as far as welfare of the country and peace are
concerned. He knows that law is just another name of restrictions and limitations
but he also knows the fact that all laws are made and implemented for public
good. He himself follows the law and also makes his companions to.
15-Health: A good citizen takes care of his health. He remains mentally and
physically active. He takes balanced food and avoids intoxicating products. A
healthy citizen develops a healthy environment around him.
The ways of Acquiring Citizenship
1-Natural way: (By Birth) When and where parents or grandparents live, a child
gets citizenship over there by birth. It is very simple and plain way and has been
accepted since ancient Roman and Greek eras. The rule of citizenship by birth is
in practice in Pakistan, India, France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Iraq, Egypt
and Sweden. In Pakistani community, where ever a child of Pakistani parents is
born, he automatically has the citizenship of Pakistan.
2-The Rule of birth place: Some states keep the rule that a child can get the
citizenship of the country where he is born whether his parents are national or
foreigners. In this way, if a child is born where his parents belongs to, he can get
the citizenship and the vice versa. This rule is not quite popular and is only
applicable in Argentina. According to the law of Argentina, only those children
get the citizenship who are born within the borders of the country. So, a child
born in another country, whether his parents are the citizens of Argentina, cannot
be called the real citizen or by birth citizen of the aforementioned place.
3-Through Getting National Rights: If a citizen of one states wants to have
citizenship of another state for his welfare, he can do so. For this purpose, he has
to submit an application. But he is not recognized as a citizen by birth. Instead,
he is called a “Naturalized Citizen”. The state puts some conditions on such
citizens i.e. he has to take the loyalty oath.
4-Long Residence: If any citizen of one state resides in another state for a long
period, he can submit an application for getting the citizenship. A person living
for five and ten years can be considerable for citizenship in America & Britain
and France respectively. Some countries do not grant citizenship to foreigners at
any price such as the Republic of China. The following are the conditions for
submitting application for getting the rights of nationality:
●Marrying the foreigner: If any person ties the knot with any foreigner, he or
she can be granted the rights of nationality. For example, if any British lady
marries a Pakistani male, her husband can easily get the British nationality. This
rule is practiced in America, Japan, Germany and Italy.
● Government Job: If the citizen of one state starts doing a government job in
another state, he can get the citizenship. But we should keep in mind that joining
the Foreign Service and military means that a person has changed his loyalties.
● Property: If the citizen of one state buys property in another state, it means
that he is soon going to change his loyalties. This happens in Mexico.
● Referendum: If a state is divided, so also are its natives. Israel announced to
grant it’s citizenship to Arab citizens after conquering their areas. When Russia
sold the area of Alaska to America, all natives of Alaska became American
citizens. Similarly, if Kashmir gets affiliated with Pakistan, the people of
Kashmir will definitely be the citizens of Pakistan.
● Business and capitalization: If a person starts a business or invest his money
in the foreign country, he is easily given the right of nationality over there.
● Legal adoption: If any citizen of one state assumes the parenting of a child of
another state, such child can easily get the citizenship of his parents’ country. For
example, if a Pakistani national assumes the parenting of an Afghan child, that
Afghan child will automatically be the citizen of Pakistan.
Loss of Citizenship
As a person can get the citizenship, he also can lose the citizenship for
some reasons. Following can be the causes in this regard:
1-Citizenship of another state: If any person submits an application for getting
Citizenship of another state, and is granted those rights, his initial citizenship is
terminated.
2-Long Absence: Some states cancel the citizenship of those people who live
abroad for long time. It is the case in France and Germany where if a person
stays away from his state for ten years, he is no more the French or German
citizen. But this rule is not acceptable in Turkey.
3-Investment in foreign country: If any person invests his money in the other
country and changes his economic loyalties, his citizenship can be cancelled on
this bases too.
4-Property in foreign country: If a citizen of one state purchases property in
another state, his loyalties are, somewhat, changed. It is assumed that now he is
affiliated with the other state. So, his citizenship may be cancelled.
5-Government Job in foreign country: Government job is usually considered
to be a token of loyalty to a state. If any person gets a government job in another
state without getting permission from his own state, this can lead to a change in
his loyalties.
6-Getting married in foreign country: If any lady gets married with a

foreigner, her citizenship is cancelled. However, she gets the citizenship of her
husband’s country.
7-Escape from the country: Sometimes, the citizens of one state escape and
move to another state. This is illegal and can cause the cancellation of
Citizenship.
8-Getting medals in foreign country: If an individual receives any honor,
medal or price in a foreign country without the permission of his government, he
may step forward to a situation where his citizenship will be cancelled.
9-Involvement in Serious Crimes: If a person is involved in serious crimes
against his own country i.e. betrayal or treachery, he is strictly punished. One of
the punishments is also the cancellation of his citizenship.
10-Conquest or Referendum: If one state conquers or gets affiliated with the
other state, the citizenship of the first state is automatically terminated. People
are recognized as the citizens of the new state.
Pakistani Nationality: If a person is allowed to have the citizenship of Pakistan
according to the law of nationality rights, presented in 1951, he is a Pakistani
national. Any foreigner can also get the Pakistani citizenship by giving an
application if he fulfills the conditions. The foreigner ladies can get the
citizenship of Pakistan by marrying Pakistani males as well.
Type of Citizenship
Citizenship refers to the legal status, rights, and responsibilities
individuals have as members of a state or society. Over time, the concept of
citizenship has evolved, with different types emerging to reflect new social,
political, and technological realities. Below is a detailed explanation of various
types of citizenship, including traditional and modern forms:
1-Active Citizenship: Active citizenship refers to the practice of individuals
participating in the civic, political, and social processes of their community or
country. Active citizens engage in the decision-making processes, often
advocating for change or improvement in their societies. This can include voting,
volunteering, joining political parties, engaging in public debates, or organizing
community activities. Its main features are following:
(i)-Participation in democracy: Voting in elections and referendums.
(ii)-Public service and volunteerism: Involvement in charities, NGOs, and local
organizations.
(iii)-Advocacy: Engaging in advocacy for social justice, environmental
protection, or other causes. Examples: Someone who regularly participates in
elections, attends town hall meetings, engages in community service, and
advocates for policy changes is considered an active citizen.
2-Participatory Citizenship: Participatory citizenship is closely related to active
citizenship but emphasizes deeper and more continuous engagement in
democratic processes and collective decision-making. It involves citizens not
only reacting to political decisions but actively contributing to the formulation
and implementation of policies. Its main features are following:
(i)-Deliberative involvement: Engaging in public consultations, citizen
assemblies, and participatory budgeting processes.
(ii)-Collaborative problem-solving: Working with governments, NGOs, or local

groups to co-create solutions to societal problems.
(iii)-Democratic governance: Helping shape laws and policies through collective
discussions and input. Examples: Participatory citizenship can be seen in local
governance models where citizens are involved in budget allocation through
participatory budgeting, or in deliberative democracy forums where citizens
debate policy decisions.
3-Digital Citizenship: Digital citizenship refers to the responsible and ethical
use of technology and digital platforms for civic engagement, communication,
and participation in democratic processes. It encompasses how individuals
engage in online communities, access digital services, and influence public
discourse through the internet. Its main features are following:
(i)-Informed and ethical use of digital platforms: Practicing responsible behavior
in online spaces, respecting privacy, and preventing cyberbullying or spreading
misinformation.
(ii)-Digital activism: Using social media, websites, and other online tools for
advocacy, organizing protests, or raising awareness of social, political, or
environmental issues.
(iii)-E-governance participation: Engaging with government services and public
consultations through digital means, such as online petitions, virtual town halls,
or digital voting. Examples: Engaging in online petitions through platforms like
Change.org, organizing protests via social media (e.g., during the Arab Spring),
or participating in digital consultations with governments about new policies.
4-Global Citizenship: Global citizenship goes beyond the boundaries of national
citizenship and refers to the sense of belonging and responsibility to the global
community. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of people across borders and
advocates for global responsibility, human rights, environmental sustainability,
and social justice. Its main features are following:
(i)-Global responsibility: Recognizing and acting upon global challenges such as
climate change, poverty, and inequality.
(ii)-Human rights and advocacy: Supporting human rights, humanitarian work,
and global justice issues, regardless of national borders.
(iii)-Intercultural awareness: Understanding and respecting diverse cultures, and
promoting tolerance and cooperation between different societies. Examples:
Involvement in international movements like Fridays for Future (a global climate
strike), advocating for global human rights campaigns (e.g., Amnesty
International), or supporting fair trade initiatives that ensure ethical global
production standards.
5-Ecological Citizenship (Green Citizenship): Ecological or green citizenship
centers on the belief that individuals have responsibilities toward the
environment and should engage in activities that promote environmental
sustainability and conservation. It reflects the idea that one's civic duties extend
to the stewardship of the natural world. Its main features are following:
(i)-Sustainable living: Engaging in behaviors that reduce environmental impact,
such as recycling, reducing carbon footprints, and conserving resources.
(ii)-Environmental activism: Participating in or supporting environmental

movements, advocacy for climate action, and working towards legislation that
promotes sustainability.
(iii)-Global perspective: Recognizing that environmental issues such as climate
change, deforestation, and pollution are global challenges that require collective
action. Examples: Joining local or global environmental campaigns like
Extinction Rebellion, supporting renewable energy policies, or engaging in
community efforts to preserve natural resources.
6-Economic Citizenship: Economic citizenship refers to the rights,
responsibilities, and participation of individuals in the economic life of their
country or region. It focuses on the role of individuals as contributors to the
economy, whether through work, entrepreneurship, or consumption, and their
entitlement to economic rights such as fair wages, access to resources, and
financial inclusion. Its main features are following:
(i)-Labor rights and participation: Engaging in the economy through work,
collective bargaining, and supporting labor rights.
(ii)-Entrepreneurship and innovation: Citizens contributing to the economy by
starting businesses, creating jobs, and innovating.
(iii)-Economic advocacy: Participating in or supporting policies that promote fair
trade, living wages, and economic justice. Examples: Supporting local
businesses, advocating for worker's rights, or participating in community
economic development projects aimed at increasing financial inclusion.
7-Cultural Citizenship: Cultural citizenship focuses on the right of individuals
to participate in and contribute to the cultural life of their community and society.
It reflects the recognition and protection of cultural identities, languages, and
traditions, and promotes the idea that civic identity is not limited to legal status
but includes cultural belonging. Its main features are following:
(i)-Cultural participation: Engaging in artistic, linguistic, and heritage practices
within one’s community.
(ii)-Multiculturalism and diversity: Supporting policies and practices that protect
cultural diversity and encourage intercultural dialogue.
(iii)-Cultural preservation: Advocating for the protection of cultural heritage and
promoting policies that safeguard the identities of minority groups. Examples:
Supporting indigenous rights, advocating for the preservation of minority
languages, or participating in cultural festivals that promote intercultural
understanding.
8-Social Citizenship: Social citizenship refers to the right of individuals to
access certain social services and welfare benefits, and to participate in the social
life of the community. It is based on the idea that citizens have a right to a
minimum standard of living and that the state has a responsibility to provide
certain protections and services. Its main features are following:
(i)-Access to social services: The right to education, healthcare, housing, and
social security.
(ii)-Social equality: Advocating for equal access to services and opportunities,
and fighting against discrimination or social exclusion.
(iii)-Collective welfare: Supporting policies that promote the well-being of the
entire community, such as universal healthcare or public housing initiatives.
Examples: Advocating for universal healthcare, participating in social welfare

programs, or engaging in community actions aimed at reducing poverty or
homelessness.
9-Corporate Citizenship: Corporate citizenship refers to the role of businesses
and corporations in contributing to the well-being of society. It extends the
notion of citizenship to companies, suggesting that they have responsibilities to
the communities and environments in which they operate, beyond profit-making.
Its main features are following:
(i)-Corporate social responsibility (CSR): Engaging in ethical business practices
that benefit society, such as reducing environmental impact, fair labor practices,
and philanthropy.
(ii)-Sustainability: Promoting environmentally and socially sustainable business
practices.
(iii)-Community engagement: Companies participating in local communities,
offering sponsorships, or supporting local initiatives. Examples: A corporation
reducing its carbon footprint, supporting education initiatives, or engaging in
philanthropy through programs like corporate social responsibility (CSR).
10-Digital Natives and Networked Citizenship: A subset of digital citizenship,
networked citizenship refers to the highly connected, tech-savvy younger
generation (often called digital natives) who use digital tools to engage with the
world around them in unique ways. Their citizenship extends beyond traditional
boundaries, creating networked communities that engage in global civic issues.
Its main features are following:
(i)-Tech literacy: Digital natives are adept at using digital technologies to
communicate, organize, and mobilize.
(ii)-Global engagement: They are often engaged in global issues, transcending
local concerns and interacting with like-minded individuals across borders.
(iii)-Digital-first activism: Using digital platforms to enact change, such as
organizing online protests, fundraising through digital platforms, or participating
in social media-driven advocacy campaigns. Examples: The use of platforms like
Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok to organize social movements like the Black
Lives Matter protests or Greta Thunberg's climate activism.
Conclusion: The concept of citizenship has expanded and diversified over time,
evolving from traditional notions of legal and civic responsibilities within a state
to include various forms of participation in social, economic, environmental, and
digital spheres. Each type of citizenship highlights different aspects of the rights,
duties, and methods of engagement that define individuals' roles in society,
reflecting the complexity and interconnectedness.
Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship

The relationship between democracy and citizenship is fundamental and
deeply interconnected, as each concept relies on and reinforces the other.
Democracy is a system of governance in which power is vested in the people,
either directly or through elected representatives. Citizenship, on the other hand,
refers to the legal status, rights, duties, and responsibilities of individuals within a
political community, often a nation-state. Below is a comprehensive examination
of how democracy and citizenship relate to one another:
1-Democracy as a System of Governance: Democracy is a form of government
where power is vested in the people, exercised either directly or through elected
representatives. In a democracy, the core principle is popular sovereignty, where
the authority of the government is derived from the people. Elections allow
citizens to choose their representatives, who govern according to the rule of law.
These elected officials are held accountable through mechanisms like regular
elections, judicial oversight, and public scrutiny. Democracy, in essence, thrives
on the active participation and engagement of its citizens.
2-Citizenship as Legal and Social Status: Citizenship involves both the
privileges of belonging to a nation and the obligations that come with it. It grants
individuals legal recognition within a state and the protection of rights, while also
demanding active participation in the community’s well-being. Citizens
contribute to society not only by fulfilling their legal duties but also by engaging
in broader civic activities, such as community service or public discourse. This
balance between rights and responsibilities underpins the functioning of any
democratic society.
3-Democratic Citizenship and Political Participation: Democratic citizenship
emphasizes active involvement in the political life of a community. Citizens are
expected to not only exercise their right to vote but also to stay informed about
public issues and engage in dialogue that shapes policy. This active participation
is what sustains the legitimacy of democratic institutions and ensures that
governance reflects the will of the people. Political apathy or disengagement, on
the other hand, weakens democracy, as it results in a lack of accountability and
representation.
4-Citizenship and the Protection of Rights in a Democracy: One of the
hallmarks of a democratic system is its commitment to protecting the rights of its
citizens. These rights allow individuals to express their opinions, participate in
civil society, and challenge unjust laws or policies. In a democracy, the
government is obligated to respect and uphold these rights, ensuring that all
citizens, regardless of their background, are treated equally. This legal and moral
protection fosters trust in the system and promotes active civic engagement.
5-The Role of Education in Democratic Citizenship: For a democracy to
function effectively, its citizens must be knowledgeable about how government
works, their rights, and their responsibilities. Civic education plays a crucial role
in preparing citizens to actively participate in governance, ensuring they can
make informed decisions at the polls and contribute to public debates. Without
this understanding, citizens may become vulnerable to misinformation,
undermining the democratic process.
6-The Balance of Rights and Responsibilities in Citizenship: Citizenship in a

democracy is a two-way relationship. While the state provides citizens with
rights that protect their freedom and dignity, citizens must also contribute to the
maintenance of the democratic system by fulfilling their responsibilities. This
mutual relationship ensures that democracy remains resilient, as it relies on
citizens to actively engage in its upkeep by voting, obeying laws, and respecting
the rights of others. A strong sense of civic responsibility among citizens
strengthens democracy and fosters a sense of shared community.
7-Civic Engagement and Strengthening Democracy: Beyond voting,
democratic citizenship involves a broader engagement with civil society.
Participating in community service, advocacy, and civic groups allows citizens to
contribute to the common good and shape public policy. This active involvement
creates social capital—networks of trust and cooperation that underpin
democratic governance. When citizens collaborate and participate in civic life,
they strengthen the foundations of democracy, ensuring that it remains
responsive to the needs of the community.
8-Challenges to Democratic Citizenship: Democracy faces significant
challenges when its citizens are not fully engaged. Political apathy, where
individuals feel disconnected from the political process, can erode democratic
accountability. Additionally, economic and social inequalities often lead to
unequal participation, with marginalized groups having less influence. The forces
of globalization further complicate citizenship, as people increasingly move
across borders, creating populations that may not fully participate in any single
nation’s democratic processes. Addressing these challenges is vital for preserving
the integrity and inclusivity of democratic citizenship.
9-Global Citizenship and Democracy: In the age of globalization, the idea of
global citizenship is emerging, where individuals see themselves as part of a
global community with responsibilities to uphold human rights, environmental
protection, and social justice across borders. While this perspective encourages a
broader understanding of democratic values, it also challenges the traditional
nation-state model, where citizenship is tied to a specific country. Migrants,
refugees, and global citizens may struggle with their rights and obligations in
different countries, raising questions about how democracy can adapt to these
changes.
Conclusion: The relationship between democracy and citizenship is essential for
the functioning of democratic societies. Citizenship in a democracy is not just a
passive status but an active role that individuals play in shaping their governance
and community. Active, informed, and engaged citizens are the bedrock of a
healthy democracy, ensuring that government reflects the will of the people and
upholds democratic principles like equality, justice, and the protection of rights.
For democracy to thrive, citizenship must be inclusive, participatory, and
balanced between rights and responsibilities. The evolution of citizenship in
modern democracies continues to adapt to global challenges, technological
advances, and social transformations, but its core function remains the same:
empowering individuals to participate in and shape their political community.
Importance of Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship

The relationship between democracy and citizenship is fundamental, as
both concepts rely on each other to function effectively. Here’s a breakdown of
why the relationship between democracy and citizenship is so important:
1-Citizenship Defines the Role of the Individual in a Democracy: In a
democracy, citizenship is more than just legal status—it represents the rights and
responsibilities individuals have in relation to their government and society.
Citizens are the foundation of democracy because they are the ones who elect
leaders, shape policies, and hold institutions accountable. Without active and
informed citizens, democracy cannot function properly.
2-Democracy Grants Power to Citizens: One of the core principles of
democracy is that power is derived from the people. Through the process of
voting, citizens choose their representatives and make decisions on key issues.
This power is what distinguishes democracy from other forms of government,
where power is often concentrated in the hands of a few. In this way, citizenship
gives individuals the ability to influence how they are governed, ensuring that the
government reflects the will of the people.
3-Citizenship Involves Rights and Responsibilities: In a democracy,
citizenship comes with a set of rights, such as the right to vote, freedom of
speech, and equal protection under the law. However, these rights come with
responsibilities. Citizens are expected to stay informed, participate in the political
process, and respect the rights of others. When citizens fulfill these
responsibilities, it strengthens the democratic system. On the other hand, when
citizens disengage or ignore their duties, it weakens the effectiveness of
democracy.
4-Active Citizenship Strengthens Democracy: A strong democracy depends on
active, engaged citizens. When citizens participate in civic activities—such as
voting, volunteering, joining civic organizations, or advocating for change—they
help improve the system and ensure it works for everyone. Active citizenship
also creates accountability. Citizens who are involved can question government
actions, demand transparency, and push for reforms. This prevents the
concentration of power and reduces the risk of corruption.
5-Democracy Protects Citizens‟ Rights: One of the key functions of a
democracy is to protect the rights of its citizens. A healthy democracy ensures
that the rights of minorities and vulnerable groups are respected, and that all
citizens are treated equally before the law. Through democratic institutions like
the courts, citizens can challenge injustices and seek protection of their rights.
The ability to participate in this system is what allows citizens to safeguard their
freedoms.
6-Education and Informed Citizenship Are Essential: For democracy to work
well, citizens must be informed about the issues facing their country and their
community. Education plays a crucial role in preparing citizens for participation
in a democracy. An educated and informed citizenry is better able to critically
evaluate political leaders, understand policies, and make thoughtful decisions.
Without informed citizens, democracy risks becoming ineffective, or worse,
controlled by a small group of elites or special interests.
7-Citizenship Builds a Sense of Belonging and Shared Purpose: Democracy

thrives when citizens feel a connection to their community and their country.
Citizenship creates this sense of belonging, giving individuals a stake in the well-
being of their society. When people feel that they are part of something larger
and that their voices matter, they are more likely to contribute to the common
good. This shared purpose strengthens democracy by uniting people around
common goals and values.
8-Democracy Evolves Through Citizen Participation: Citizenship is not static;
it evolves with society. As citizens engage in the democratic process, they help
shape the direction of their nation. Over time, democratic reforms have expanded
citizenship to include more people, such as women, minorities, and marginalized
groups. Democracy grows stronger when citizens push for change, advocate for
rights, and work toward a more inclusive society.
Conclusion: Democracy and Citizenship Are Interdependent. Democracy relies
on citizens to function, and citizenship gains its full meaning within a democratic
system. This relationship creates a cycle where citizens shape democracy through
participation, and democracy, in turn, empowers citizens by protecting their
rights and giving them a voice in government. When citizens are active,
informed, and engaged, democracy thrives. Conversely, when people disengage
or are excluded from the process, democracy weakens.
In short, democracy and citizenship are intertwined, with each supporting and
enhancing the other. The health of a democracy is directly linked to the level of
engagement and responsibility shown by its citizens.
..........................
CHAPTER NO. 2
CONCEPTS OF CIVICS & CITIZENSHIP
(Family, Individual & Society, Community, Nation & Nationality)
FAMILY
Family is the most basic unit of human society. This ancient unit began
when the life began on earth and is everlasting. Man cannot live alone as he is
social animal. For this reason, the prophet Adam (the first human being on earth)
demanded a companion to live with. As a result Mother Eve (the first lady on
earth) was produced and they gave birth to the first family on this planet. We all
know that the members of family have blood relations. When the family
increased, it processed the community, further fabricating the tribes which
initiated the political system of different tribes.
The Creator of this Universe said in the Holy Book: “O mankind, we have
created you from male and female and made you people and tribes that you
may know one another.”
There is no restriction on the size of a family as it depends on the couple.
This institute is the most basic group of relatives where they live and fulfill their
needs together. A male and a female commence a family after they tie the knot
which is further developed by the birth of children.
Definitions
“Family is such a group of people which consists of parents and one or
more than one children.” (Thomas Bogardus)
“Family is a relation which is specified by a physical relation of a male
and female and is made strong with the birth and training of children.”
(MacIver)
“Family is a natural unit which was emerged on the base of human needs‟‟.
(Aristotle)
Aristotle was convinced that family is the very unit, which makes
ultimately the state; from man to family, families to village, from villages to the
state that is how the natural growth of the state takes place. Aristotle wrote in his
“A Treatise on Government”; “Besides, the notion of a city naturally precedes
that of a family or an individual, for the whole must necessarily be prior to the
parts, for if you take away the whole man, you cannot say a foot or a hand
remains, unless by equivocation, as supposing a hand of stone to be made, but
that would only be a dead one; but everything is understood to be this or that by
its energetic qualities and powers, so that when these no longer remain, neither
can that be said to be the same, but something of the same name. That a city
then precedes an individual is plain, for if an individual is not in himself
sufficient to compose a perfect government, he is to a city as other parts are to
a whole; but he that is incapable of society, or so complete in himself as not to
want it, makes no part of a city, as a beast or a god.” (Aristotle)
KINDS OF FAMILY
Professor MacIver wrote, when the human beings started living a social
life, no such group existed where there was no family. Many oppose his views, as
to them, there was no concept of family and marriages in earlier societies.
Physical relations were developed for a short time period and resulting children
were considered to be common children of the human group. They are, in fact, of
the view that the concept of a male and female being specified and married
developed later.
1-Patriarchal Family: A family where fathers is considered to be the supervisor
of the house and where family and the whole generation is linked with the male
is called patriarchal family. In such type of families, ancestry usually belongs to
the fathers who also are recognized as payers to the beneficiaries/inheritors. Such
families are common even today.
2-Matriarchal Family: Some researchers are of the view that the concept of
patriarchal family developed quite late. In the earlier families, women were the
head where ancestry belonged to the mothers. Fathers and children were inferior
to the mothers whose property was inherited to the daughters only. It is said that
this concept of families exist in Khasa (a tribe) of Province Assam of India.
Otherwise, the concept of matriarchal family is almost extinct in the world today.
3-Democratic Family: Patriarchal family has been in trend since centuries and is
still omnipresent in all societies, countries and continents of the world but
gradually the concept of a lady being inferior is getting inactive. The cultural
progress and educational development made women equal to men. In the modern
world, the man does not hold that place in family which he possessed earlier
where he could subordinate his family without any share. Today, women have
shared the responsibility of household by getting education. A lady is no more
helpless and dependent.
4-Joint Family: In this type of family, many relatives live together. Grandfather,
grandmother, father, mother, uncle, aunt, nephews, nieces, sons and daughters all
live under one roof where the income of all earning hands is in one hand who
looks after the whole family. The concept of joint family is very common in rural
areas of Pakistan.
5-Separate Family: In modern times, the concept of a separate family is
preferred. A person when reaching young age and getting his job, starts living
with his wife in a separate home away from his parents. Such families are usually
consisted of husband, wife and their children. Children after being young also
develop their own separate families. In western countries, the concept of separate
families is common where old parents do not live with their children.
6-Conservative Family: Such types of families stay stick with customs and
traditions and cultural principles and have special inclination towards
orthodoxies. They do not like new trends and fashions. These families are usually
against female education and only consider customary education enough for
girls. In such families, covering themselves is recognized as a code of Ethics.
7-Liberal Family: These families are weary of customs and traditions and they
adopt new trends. They accept the freedom and rights of women. They don’t
consider covering themselves (Purdah) code of their ethics. These types of
families encourage the acquirement of modern education considering it
compulsory for both men and women equally. They accept the western code of
conduct and avoid the conservative notions. In such families, there is no
restrictions in mixed gatherings and they don’t have any problems in making
marital relation out of their caste as they don’t believe in caste system.
8-Monogamous Family: In such families, a male marries only one woman and
does not consider polygamy good for him. If husband and wife have some kind
of controversy, they end up in getting divorced. In such circumstances, they have
the freedom of choosing a new life partner for them. In western countries, the
idea of monogamous family is in vogue. In Christianity, only this type of family
is allowed to live with. In a monogamous family, there is a slight harmony and
co-operation prevailing as there exist always the feelings of loyalty among
parents and children.
9-Polygamous Family: This kind of family is consisted of one husband and two
or more than two wives. This trend is subsisted in many areas of the world. This
practice is most common in Africa and Arab Countries. A man can have more
than one wife at the same time i.e. some Muslim leaders have hundreds of wives.
10-Polyandric Family: Here, a woman can be married to more than one husband
at the same time. Such societies exist even today where women are allowed to
have marital relation with more than one husband. Some philosophers are of the
view that in the very beginning of social life, Polyandric families were
established, where women were the head, having the right to marry more than
one male and women themselves were the central character of the family at that
time.
11-Intra-caste Family: When there is a custom of marrying a male/female into
his own family/caste and not outside it, this system is the other name of intra-
caste family.
12-Inter-caste Family: In such type of families, there exists the practice of
marrying outside the family too. In our society, there was the trend of intra-caste
family system which is now getting lost gradually. And people, now a days, are
getting married in other families too due to education and awareness. So, we can
say that inter-caste family system is becoming famous day by day.
Importance & Duty of Family
Family is the basic and most important unit in the society. Because of its
importance and significance, family is superior to all others human institutions. It
is, in fact, the first unit which played role in construction of the complete
structure of the society.
1-First Institute for a Child: It is a universal saying;
“A Mother‟s lap is a child‟s primary school.”
When a new-born baby opens his eyes for the first time, he sees only his
family members around. The best way to create interest in children is through the
mother who can teach children through various activities. If father is the fountain
of protection, the roses of affection are easily available in the lap of mother.
Mother is the name of that peerless training institution where both saintly as well
as ill habits are nurtured.
A Hadith Says; “Everyone is born on the nature of Islam, but their parents
make him a Jew, Christian, or an irreligious.”
Family is, for sure, an institute which trains to an individual to lead his childhood
and young age in a proper way.
2-Family, A small State: Family plays an important role in social and emotional
development of children. Only a family can make a child learn obedience and
other values as well as about right and wrong. If we minutely observe, a family
may look like a small state in which father is the president, mother is advisor and
finance minister, and children act upon the rules and regulations designed by
parents like common citizens. When children grow up, they also take part in
family decisions and in this way, democratic practices develop from the basic
unit of the society, that is, family.
3-Awareness of High Morals: A good human being is required to be honest,
truthful, sympathetic, loyal and responsible. He has the qualities of scarifies and
co-operating with others. A family encourages all these good traits. In a family,
all members, love and show loyalty and gratitude towards each other. When a
person is made aware of these high morals in his family, he tends to act nicely
with other people in the society.
4-Habits and Manners: Every individual follows his family members.
Whenever we meet a sober, decent and well-mannered person, we don’t hesitate
in saying that he belongs to a nice family. On the other hand, an ill-mannered
person illustrates the ill nature of his family. The children of pious parents often
prove to be pious. They avoid corruption in daily life, hurting others, and have
the fear of God.
5-Survival of Human Generation: For every human being, family is the first
social environment to step into, and this significantly influences their further
existence. A unit based on parents gives birth to children, and this develops the
concepts of whole human generation. This unit (family) is a place where a child
lives and feels secure, a place with a unique atmosphere. It is said that every new
child is born with a hope that the creator is not dispirited of human beings on the
whole.
6-Unity and Harmony: In a family, a man realizes the fact that he is dependent
on other members of the family as well as other people need his support in
different affairs. Social life and the system of depending upon one another is
basically taught in the family. Where a man leans that he can be facilitated only
by harmony, loyalty and co-operation with other people. The sense to find out the
personal interest in common interests is also bestowed upon a man by his family.
7-Nurturing and Training of a Child: Nature has developed passion for the
care of infants in the hearts of their parents to the extent that they don’t care for
their lives in this regard. When a child is born, he does not know about
advantages or disadvantages, cannot recognize loyalty among friends or foes. He
cannot save himself from animals, fire, flow of water, and severity of weather. A
child is usually helpless and the family protects him. The nurturing of a child
becomes very difficult, at times. A child is dependent upon his family members
from his birth to the stage of staggering and even after that. So, the members of
the family have to take special care of the child.
8-Economic Aspect: Until a person is not financially stable, his family fulfills
his basic needs. His family provides him food, clothes to wear, education and
fulfills other basic needs. A family either makes a man capable of good job by
embellishing him with the jewel of education or links him with any profession
i.e. trade, industry by making him learn the business rules. A man learns from his
family as to how he can fulfill his needs.
9-Social Relation: A man usually interacts with other people and social units
with the help of his family, thus, becoming the member of the society, he
performs his duties and asks for his rights. Being the member of a caste, tribe,
village, city and other such units, he enjoys the social advantages and voluntarily
gets connected with educational, professional, religious, welfare and political
institutions.
10-Literary, Cultural and Educational Progress: With the help of a unit like
family, literature, culture and knowledge flourish. If the head of a family is poet,
scholar, writer, artist or a sportsman, he teaches his sons, the real techniques in
the concerned field. A doctor inherits his knowledge to his family members. A
player of a national level definitely wants to enlighten his children with sports
skill. So, knowledge and art, culture and literature and sports stay alive in this
way. Many contemporary players of cricket, hockey and squash are the
descendants of earlier players as well as many singers and musicians follow suit
their parents in their particular fields.
11-Family, A Basic Unit: Family is an economic, social and administrative unit.
Family fulfills the basic needs of its members i.e. protects them, and trains them
on administrative bases. Family is basically a small form of state.
12-Love for Life: Nature has developed love for life in the heart of every man
and a family makes it stronger. An individual may have lots of friends or
relatives or office mates. They will definitely be with him in his happy times or
any successful achievements. But, his parents, sisters, and brothers are the only
ones who will stay with him in his hard and difficult times. In very rare situation,
friends or relatives stand with us in our hard times. But our family members will
always stand with us.
13-From Beginning to the End: A family gives birth to an individual, guard
him, and takes care of him until he is young. In his young age, family arranges
his wedding and provides him resources to start his career. When a man gets old,
his family attends to him. If he is sick, the responsibility of his treatment is upon
the shoulders of his people. Lastly, when a man gets expired, his family members
give him a funeral.
Concept of Modern Society
Society means to live together. The word, „society‟ is taken from Latin
„Socius‟ which means „Companion‟. The word „Samaaj‟ is being used for the
society in Sanskrit language. It is the human nature that he tends to live with
others.
Aristotle said that “Man is a social animal”. He is the one who lives
happy in the company of other human beings. He even said; “Whosoever is
happy alone, he is either God or beast but not a human being.”
Man is the crown of creature and is produced for living a purposeful life. This
purpose can be gained only through living with other human beings. Imam
Ghazali was of the view that; “Four things help an individual to live his life;
food, clothes, home and social relations.”
For fulfilling these needs, human beings live together. If a man wishes to
live away from the people, he can do so but it is against his nature. Therefore,
„Solitary Confinement‟ is considered to be worst of punishments.
Society is the mixture of human beings who are bound to social roles and
customs and traditions. Society is established for an important purpose as it is a
platform for all human relations i.e. social, moral, spiritual, cultural and political
relations. Human beings establish institutions with the help of other people. And
the collection of these institutions give birth to a society.
Definitions
A.W.Green: “Society is the largest group in which individual have
relationships.”
Ibn Khaldun: “Society is an organic body and it has its own personality”
A.H. Giddings: “Society is a collection of individuals united by certain modes
of behavior which mark them off from others and who struggle for their
common purposes.”
Ralph Linton: “Any group of people who have lived and worked together long:
enough to get themselves organized and to think of themselves as a social unit
with well-defined limits is called society”.
Gray and Groves: “Society is the collection of people who are united for a
certain common interest.”
Characteristics of Modern Society and Citizenship
1-A Group of People: The basic requirement for forming a society is the proper
number of people. Although, this number cannot be fixed, but it is necessary to
have population where human beings can fulfill each other’s needs. Society is
actually a very organized group. Families and castes are the part of a society.
2-Harmony in Thought: It is necessary that all members of the society may
have similar approach towards common interests. Harmonized line of thinking is
required for sharing common ideas. And this harmony can be observed only
through living with one another for a long time period.
3-Stability: Society is never the result of some timely need or affection. It is a
stable and ever-lasting organization and is inherited from one generation to
another. Society is not the name of mixing people which was formed temporarily.
4-Membership: The membership of an individual in a society is optional.
However, a person becomes the member of a society soon after his birth. But it is
not necessary to stay as the member. If a person wishes to be separated from his
society, he can do so.
5-Permanent Aims: Society is established for achievements of common aims.
For this purpose, people struggle collectively. Different targets are set one after
another but the social structure remains the same. The mixture of people for a
temporary purpose cannot be considered a society. Permanent and continuous
aims are necessary for it.
6-An Organization: Society is a well-organized organization which works under
specific rules and regulations. Following these rules is the duty of all the
members of a society. Every society has its own culture and traditions.
7-Common Values: People in a society usually have common culture, language,
ideas, and moral values. If these values are not same, then it causes chaos in the
society. Common aims and activities can be changed with the passage of time.
This change gives birth to new social institutions and the process of change in
social relations continue. We can also say that every society, to some extent, gets
influenced by its surrounding societies.
8-Universal Relations: Society is an assemblage of human relations, these
relations are either dependent or independent. Society is an amalgam of human
emotions i.e. love, hatred, sympathy, vindication, open heartedness and malice.
Human relation must have link with most of the aspects of life. Many institutions
in the society are connected with one another. And the grouping of these
institution give birth to a universal society. Society is either limited or limitless as
it has universality.
9-Independent: A society is consisted of people belonging to different
professions. Workload is divided in a way that society becomes independent and
fulfills all the basic needs of its members. If a society is not capable of fulfilling
such needs, it gets diminished because in this process of struggle, only a strong
and active society can survive.
10-Controversies: It is not possible that people in a society have good relations
every time. Controversies rise which further result in collision. Actually the
society is the collection of different people, institutions, classes, generations and
different religions. When there is a difference in their interests, it causes bump in
the society.
11-Mutual Co-operation and Competition: Different classes and different
people co-operate with one another and this joint effort brings social
development. There is also the aspect of competition alongside the co-operation
which brings differences in a society.
12-Geographical Relation: Some societies exist in the whole world i.e. Islamic
society, Christian society, and Jewish society. Some societies are categorized on
the base of state system i.e. civic society and rural society.
Aims & Objectives of Society
This verse of Muhammad Iqbal, the poet of East is based on the beauty of
relation between an individual and his society. Individuals and society are part
and parcel of each other. No society can exist without people whereas society is
also very important for individuals. Society is like a body and individuals are its
parts. A man can live without society but such life would be insecure and
unnatural.
The relation between and individual and society and the importance of
society can be analyzed in the following points;
1-Aristotle is recognized as the first mentor in the field of Civics. He says, “Man
is a Social Animal” and “Whosoever is happy alone, he is either God or beast
but not a human being.”
Man has civic nature therefore, a great philosopher like Aristotle has highlighted
the importance of the society for an individual.
2-Imam Ghazali considered the existence of a society compulsory for a man.
Man cannot live alone, he has to live with other human beings for the fulfillment
of his needs. He helps others and others help him. While describing the
importance of society, this great philosopher wrote that it is the society which
furthers human generation because a man and woman after making a family live
in the society.
3-Solitary Confinement: Living together is the human nature. If a person is

captivated away from his fellow beings, this would be the greatest punishment
for him. Very professional culprits even get irritated in lock ups. There is a sense
of a strange brutality in loneliness. Human beings want to see and interact with
others. Feelings for social interaction are natural. Therefore, Islam has prohibited
segregation and refrained Muslims from being cut off from the society.
4-From Birth to Death: Man is dependent on the society from his birth to death.
Society is responsible for his birth, nurturing, education, food, clothes, protection
and other basic needs. When a man dies while performing his duties throughout
his life, it is the society which gives him a funeral. Man is not fully independent
in any stage of life. He always strives for the help and support of the society.
5-Breeding: Society causes the human breeding. Family is the basic and most
common social unit. A man and a woman get married they give birth to children.
If people prefer not to live together, it can end up the human breeding. Family
and society, in fact, increases the human generation which gives life to the world.
6-Training of a Child: A human child is not capable of having food and his
protection on his own. His life is protected by the society. Parents and other
relatives save him from animals, severe weathers and illness. Child is not even
aware of the fact that fire can hurt him or jumping from high building can kill
him. The family guards him. Providing a child milk to drink, medical treatment
in case he is sick, wearing him clothes and keeping him neat are the tasks being
performed by the members of a society.
7-Protection of Life: Society is always active for the protection of human life. If
there is no society, human life will be short and full of dangers. A man is weak
alone but he feels himself very strong in the company of his fellow beings. It is
often said that one plus one makes eleven. Single man cannot fight with animals.
To compete with heavenly penances like illness, disease and floods, the help and
support of society is always required.
8-Economic Needs: In daily life, man has many needs which he cannot fulfill
alone. Food, clothes, home and medicines cannot be acquired without the help of
society. Apart from these, man has many other countless basic economic needs.
Before the beginning of a proper social life, people used to live in jungles and
mountains. They used to have food by hunting animals (in shape of their meat)
and use the leaves of trees as their dresses. Caves were their homes. That
uncultured life was neither safe nor satisfactory. In those times, when people fell
ill, they had no cure instead of getting expired as a result. If we compare the
earlier human life with the modern one, we can say that the division of workload
in modern social life has made life quite easier.
9-The Progress of Culture and Civilization: All the progress of culture and
civilization is due to the society. Individually, a man has many skills, but he can
make use of them only when the society provides him basic facilities. Poetry, the
art of screwing, painting, literature, philosophy and art are all the result of
common struggle. The development of Fine Arts is possible only in a society.
Today, the civilization we are aware of, is the outcome of people living together.
10-Modern Facilities: Man has been facilitated a lot in his daily life due to
society. The number of these facilities has been surprisingly increased in modern
times. Comfortable residences, transportation, electric products, tools for
entertainment and many such facilities are easily accessible today. The journey of
thousand miles is covered in minutes and hours. Modern techniques in the field
of medicine have helped a lot in prevention of so many diseases. The system of
post, wire and telephone has been in trend. Apart from this, man has stepped into
space now and trying to access other planets. Radio, television, air-conditioner,
computer and many other inventions have revolutionized the human life.
11-Lesiure Time: Leisure plays an important role in making human life
pleasant. If there is no society, man may always stay busy. Society not only gives
space due to the division of workload but also provides means to spend free time
in a pleasant way. In daily life, society gives relief and sources of entertainment
to a tired man. The sports fields, libraries, cinemas, theatres, clubs, and gardens
are very beneficial for enjoying the free time. With it, man gets refresh and
passionate for working more diligently because he knows that “Hard Works pays
off”.
12-Protection of Legacy: People live together in a society. A generation ends up
after completing its tenure in this world inheriting the jewel of customs,
traditions, social practices and cultural progress. Every generation increases the
amount of the jewel as this is inherited to one generation after another as a
legacy.
13-Formation of a Character: Man is the crown of creature and is far superior
to other living beings due to his goodness and virtue. Man has the characteristic
of differentiating between right and wrong. He learns the lesson of love, co-
operation, sympathy, sacrifice and unity from the society. Society not only
fulfills the basic human needs but also enlightens him with high moral values.
Society is the, in fact, the reason behind encouragement of patience, justice, and
friendly attitude among human beings.
14-Social Organizations: Cultural, welfare, political, professional and religious
organizations are included in many of man-made organizations. All these
organization serve human beings and they exist due to the society. The collection
of these organization is called society. Their non-existence can devoid man of so
many facilities. These social organizations also play an important role in making
human life easier, pleasant, beautiful and organized.
15-Individual and Collective Progress: Society helps a man to progress. A man
alone cannot have those benefits which he gets from the society. The purpose of
the society is to provide high position and better circumstances to an individual.
Individual as well as the collective progress of people depend upon society.
Individuals take advantage of others’ help on both individual and joint levels.
16-Pursuit of Truth: An anxious soul of human being has always been in
pursuit of truth. What is right? It is impossible to know without the help of a
society. In a society, people live together and find solutions with mutual co-
operation. They prove to be helpful in achievement of high spiritual aims using
their previous experiences and thus lead other people towards a right direction.
Foundations of Modern Society

Modern society is built on several important foundations that shape how
people live and interact. These foundations help create systems of governance,
economy, and social structures that affect everyone’s lives.
1-Democracy: Democracy is one of the key foundations of modern society. It is
a system of government where people have the right to vote for their leaders and
influence decisions that affect their lives. In a democracy, citizens can express
their opinions, participate in elections, and hold their leaders accountable. This
involvement promotes fairness and ensures that the government reflects the will
of the people.
2-Rule of Law: The rule of law is another critical foundation. This principle
means that everyone, including government officials, must follow the law. It
ensures that laws are applied equally to all individuals, protecting citizens from
abuse of power. When the rule of law is respected, it creates a sense of justice
and security, allowing people to live freely without fear of arbitrary decisions.
3-Human Rights: Human rights are basic freedoms and protections that every
person should have, such as the right to life, freedom of speech, and equality
before the law. These rights are essential for maintaining dignity and respect for
all individuals. In modern society, protecting human rights is crucial because it
fosters an environment where everyone can thrive and contribute positively to
their communities.
4-Economic Systems: Economic systems play a significant role in shaping
modern society. These systems, such as capitalism and socialism, determine how
resources are produced, distributed, and consumed. A strong economy creates
jobs and opportunities for individuals, improving their quality of life. The way
wealth is shared within a society affects social stability and overall happiness.
5-Education: Education is fundamental for personal and societal growth. It
provides individuals with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in life.
An educated population is essential for innovation and progress. Education
empowers people to make informed decisions, participate in the economy, and
contribute to their communities.
6-Technology and Innovation: Technology and innovation are crucial in
modern society. Advances in technology improve communication, transportation,
healthcare, and many other aspects of daily life. These innovations can make
tasks easier and open up new possibilities for work and leisure. Embracing
technology helps society grow and adapt to changing needs.
7-Social Institutions: Social institutions, such as families, schools, and religious
organizations, provide support and structure to society. They help shape values,
beliefs, and behaviors, contributing to a sense of community. These institutions
play a vital role in teaching social norms and fostering relationships among
individuals.
8-Cultural Diversity: Cultural diversity enriches modern society by bringing
together people from various backgrounds, traditions, and perspectives. This
diversity encourages creativity and innovation and helps foster understanding and
cooperation among different groups. Embracing cultural differences leads to a
more inclusive and harmonious society.
9-Globalization: Globalization connects countries and cultures through trade,

communication, and travel. This interconnectedness has transformed how
societies interact and share ideas. Globalization can provide economic
opportunities, but it also presents challenges, such as cultural homogenization
and inequality. Understanding and navigating these complexities is vital for a
successful modern society.
10-Environmental Awareness: In recent years, environmental awareness has
become a crucial foundation of modern society. People are increasingly
recognizing the importance of protecting the environment and sustainable
practices. This awareness leads to actions that aim to preserve natural resources
and promote a healthier planet for future generations.
COMMUNITY
The term „Community‟ is used in our society in various ways.
Sometimes, it is called „society‟. Sometimes, a group of people related to a
particular profession is called ‘community’ i.e. community of teachers or
lawyers. The word „community‟ is also used for a nation i.e. Pakistani
community or Iranian community. The terns „Civics community‟ and „Rural
community‟ are also in use by dividing the whole population in two categories.
This word is used on religious bases two, i.e. Muslim community or Christian
community. But the term „Community‟ can be more appropriately attributed to
the division on the base of area. A group of people living in a particular area
are called „community‟. An area where there are common values and people are
culturally connected with one another. When some families have same emotions,
interests, values and they have been living in a place unitedly, such group of
people is called „community‟.
Definitions
“Wherever the members of any group… small or large … live together in
such a way that they share, not this or that particular interest, but the basic
conditions of life, we call that group a community.” (MacIver)
“The whole population living in a particular area who has common
principles of life.” (Ginsburg)
“Community is the collection of people who live in one geographical
area, have same interests and activities and collectively take part in routine
activities of daily life.” (Osborne)
Characteristics of a Community
● Community is consisted of people. Their number cannot be specified however,
it is less than a society.
● Common language is spoken which proves to be very helpful for mutual co-
operation.
● Aims and interests are the same.
●There is harmony among lifestyle and customs and traditions.
● Community is consisted of people belonging to a particular area.
● Collective struggle is their identity.
●There exist common emotions, feelings and values.
● People are emotionally linked with one another.
Kinds of Community
●On the base of religion i.e. Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Sikh.
●On the base of sects i.e. Sunni, Wahabi, Shia.
●On the base of caste i.e. Jaat, Arain, Syed or Rajpoot etc.
●On the base of gender i.e. male or female.
●On the base of area/region/province i.e. Punjabi, Balouchi, Sindhi or Pathan.
Some of other communities include international communities such as western
European countries, Latin American countries or Third world countries.
Rural Community: Rural community is a group of people who have been living
in a small area since centuries. Rural people are simple, loyal, honest, and trust
worthy. They have a deep inclination towards customs and traditions and are the
real interiors of moral values. People living in villages, that is, an open place,
also has openness when it comes to their approach towards life. Such community
is filled with the emotions of brotherhood, sacrifice, sympathy and comradeship.
Civic Community: There is a great number of people in civic community.
People have less connections and the emotions of brotherhood and loyalty are not
in plenty. Civic community is consisted of busy and all the time active people.
Most of the people are linked with trade or jobs. The life standard of citizens is
far better than the villagers. Civilized people are more smart and intelligent and
their lifestyle is very different from rural community.
Professional Community: People linked with one profession are considered one
community i.e. farmers, laborers, industrialists, traders and employees etc.
Sectarian Community: A religious group has its own separate identity i.e.
Christian community, Hindu community, Parsi community, Ahmadi community.
Muslims were given the right of separate elections in 1909 only because of being
a separate community.
Nation & Nationality
The terms 'Nation' and 'Nationality ' are usually considered same. But in
the field of civics, both terms have a significant difference however, they both
are taken from the Latin word 'Natio' which means birth or generation.
Nationality: When a particular group of people has common interests, and
emotional relation, its members get together and feel themselves separated from
other human beings. They also have same spiritual approach. Such group is given
the name of 'Nationality'. People, linked with this group, have same approach
and motives. The main identity of Nationality is emotion of unity which is
flourished by common generation, common language, common culture and
civilization, common religions, common customs and traditions and common
history. All these elements give birth to nationality.
Definitions
“A portion of mankind may be said to constitute a Nationality if they are united
among themselves by common sympathies which do not exist between them
and any others which make them co-operate with each other more willingly
than with other people. (J. S. Mill)
It is “nothing but material or mechanical, but a subjective psychological
feeling in living people.” (Arnold J. Toynbee)
“What constitutes a nation, is not speaking the same tongue or belonging to

the same ethnic group, but having accomplished great things in common in the
past, and the wish to accomplish them in the future.” (Ernest Renan)
“Nationality is such a unity of hearts which cannot be put an end to, once
made.” (J. H. Rose)
“Nationality may be defined as 'a spiritual sentiment or principle arising
among a number of people usually of the same race, residents on the same
territory, sharing a common language, the same religion, similar history or
traditions, common interests with common political associations and common
ideals of political unity”. (Gilchrist)
Nation
The term ‘nation’ is derived from the Latin words „Natio‟ and „Natus‟
which mean ‘born’ and ‘generation’. Nation, therefore, in its derivative sense
means a group of people belonging to the same racial stock. The term was used
in this sense by the German philosophers.
In Civics, the word ‘nation’ is being used on political grounds. It means
a group of people which is free or has the will to be free. Nation has a great link
with struggle for freedom. When nationality decides to make people free of their
cruel leaders, it takes the form of a nation. So, we can say that nation is a form of
nationality which is either independent or striving for independence.
Definitions
"A body of people united by common descent and a common language."
(Leacock)
“When nationality gets unity and total freedom, it becomes a nation.”
(Hays)
“Nation is a culturally homogeneous social group which is at once conscious
of its unity” (Garner)
“The mixture of state and nationality is called „nation‟”. (Gilchrist)
“Nation is a union of men having racial or ethnographic significance. A group
which is free and have the will of freedom.” (Lord Bryce)
This definition of Lord Bryce is most clear and comprehensive.
Difference between Nation and Nationality
1-Nationality is the name of an emotion, because of it, the member of a group
feels alienated. Nation can clearly be seen as it is exposed to us in the form of
reality. Nationality, on the other hand, connects people.
2-We can consider nationality ‘a foundation’ on which the building of a nation is
based. No group can take the form of nation without nationality. The existence of
nationality is very necessary for a nation. And this nationality also takes the form
of a nation when its members struggle for freedom.
3-Nation is a body which is visible, whereas nationality is the soul (invisible).
4-When there is a passion for freedom in nationality, it gives birth to nation.
Nationality is the production of common feelings. And nation emerges as a result
of common passion for freedom.
Elements of Nationality
1-Common Race: Racial harmony plays an important role in emergence of
nationality. People belonging to one race have deep connections with one
another. A clear example of nationality on racial bases is Jews who have been
living life in different countries for centuries but the ideology of nationality never
faded among them. Only because of this strength, they became able to get their
separate homeland, that is, Israel. Blood relation is very strong and considered far
superior than other elements of nationality. But it does not mean that any
nationality cannot exist without racial unity.
2-Common Language:
Ramsay Muir, a British Historian and Political thinker (1872-1941) considers
the linguistic relation very important recognizing it as a basic element for the
sensation of nationality. Common language paves the way for relations bringing
them together. Through language, people express their motives, poetry and
literature is promoted and ideas are flourished. In Arab countries, language is the
main source of unity.
3-Common Culture: Fine Arts such as poetry, painting, art of screwing,
architecture and common dress code brings unification of thought in a group of
people. Common cultural inheritance unites them and they are given the form of
nationality. But only common culture does not play the complete role in
emergence of nationality. This element along with the other ones gives birth to
oneness. Johan Stuart Mill considered common culture very necessary for
promotion of the sense of nationality.
4-Common Residence: When one group of people has been living in any
particular area since centuries, this develops the sense of nationality. They have
same joys and sorrows. They struggle together against dangers. So, only living
together can promote this sense, i.e. people living in America and Australia.
When these regions were discovered, many natives of European countries shifted
to America like Spanish, French, Portuguese, English, Dutch and Belgian etc.
They made new country their homeland, and they all were connected by sense of
nationality in the span of few years. The element of common residence does not
cause nationality in every country and region i.e. people living in sub-continent,
that is, Hindus and Muslims, could not take the form of one nationality despite
living together for centuries. Both the groups lived as a separate identity and they
maintained their separate values.
5-Common Religion: Religious beliefs play the most significant role in uniting
human beings and directing them towards one nationality. Religion was created
alongside human beings. The first human being was also the first prophet who
guided his community towards the way of Allah. A large number of persons
introduced different religions in the world. Religion comes in the form of a
complete code of life and provides social, economic, religious, political, and
personal guidance to its believers. Religion also becomes the base of nationality
among its followers. When Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) spread the message of Islam,
racially united people of Quresh were divided into two groups. People following
the leadership of Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) developed a new sensation and they
took the form of a separate nationality.
6-Common Political Aims: When a group of people is united for the

achievement of political goals, it takes the form of nationality. People shifting to
America got united and consolidated in spite of cultural, racial, regional and
religious differences as they had an aim of getting freedom from British Empire.
This aim gave birth to their nationality. They challenged the British colonialism
in spite of their differences and kicked it out of their country.
7-Common Interests: If there is an element of common interests among one or
more groups of people, and they can attain a suitable position due to unity, this
sentiment also leads towards emergence of nationality. In 1808, People of
England and Scotland preferred to be the part of British Nationality because it
equally benefited both the nations. Their political, economic and social interests
were same. The people of Syria and Egypt also saw a dream of a greater unity
and took the form of a same nation and nationality by deciding to be the part of
common nationality but this unity was not continued for a longer period of time.
Gilchrist considered the existence of common interests compulsory for a
nationality.
8-Common Customs and Traditions: Traditions connect a group of people with
their past, enhance the interest in recent times and help in future planning.
Common customs and traditions give birth to emotional attachment and relations
among human beings. It also causes harmony in thought and philosophy while
bringing people together and thus, promoting the sense of nationality. But it is
not always possible because common customs and traditions, sometimes, ignore
people and only give importance to other values.
All the above mentioned elements give birth to the sense of nationality.
Professor MacDougal is of the opinion that if any of these elements is not found
in a group, it still can take the form of nationality. Professor Zamran said; “If
people only think that they have same nationality, they are a nation.”
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT
Civic: Civic refers to anything related to a city, community, or citizenship. It
involves the responsibilities, rights, and activities associated with being a
member of a society. This term often emphasizes participation in the public life
of a community, such as voting, volunteering, or staying informed about public
affairs.
"Civic" refers to matters concerning a city or community, especially
those tied to citizenship and public life. It encompasses the duties and
responsibilities individuals have within their society, like participating in
democratic processes, abiding by laws, and contributing to the collective well-
being. Civic engagement ensures that individuals actively contribute to the
functioning and improvement of their communities, thereby fostering a healthy
and cooperative social environment.
Citizenship: Citizenship is the legal and social status that defines an individual's
membership in a political community, typically a nation-state. It encompasses a
set of rights, such as the right to vote, the right to free speech, and access to
public services, as well as responsibilities, including obeying laws, paying taxes,
and participating in civic life. Citizenship is both a legal designation and a
reflection of one's commitment to the values and norms of the society in which
they live. It involves an active engagement with one's community and

government, fostering a sense of belonging and identity. In a globalized world,
the concept of citizenship has evolved to include the idea of global citizenship,
emphasizing the interconnectedness of individuals and their responsibilities to
address global challenges.
Concept of Civic Engagement: Civic engagement refers to the active
participation of individuals in the life of their community and the political
process. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including voting,
volunteering, participating in public discussions, and advocating for social
change. Civic engagement is vital for a healthy democracy, as it encourages
citizens to contribute to decision-making processes and hold their government
accountable. It fosters a sense of responsibility and collective action, allowing
individuals to influence policies that affect their lives and communities. By
promoting civic engagement, societies can build stronger, more inclusive
communities where citizen’s work together to address shared challenges and
enhance the well-being of all members.
Definitions
While "civic engagement" as a specific term has become more prominent
in modern times, several philosophers and thinkers throughout history have
discussed the ideas that form its foundation. Here are definitions and perspectives
related to civic engagement from eminent philosophers:
1-Aristotle: Aristotle believed that human beings are inherently political animals
and that active participation in public life is essential for a virtuous and fulfilled
life. For him, civic engagement was part of living in accordance with virtue and
achieving the good life. “Man is by nature a political animal.”
2-John Stuart Mill: Mill emphasized the importance of individual freedom and
collective decision-making. For him, civic engagement was not only a duty but a
way to safeguard liberty and enhance social progress“A person may cause evil to
others not only by his actions but by his inaction, and in either case he is justly
accountable to them for the injury.”
3-Rousseau: Rousseau argued for the idea of the "general will," where civic
engagement was central to forming a social contract. He believed that individuals
must actively participate in shaping the laws and policies that govern them. “The
general will is always right, but the judgment which guides it is not always
enlightened.”
4-De-Tocqueville: De-Tocqueville saw civic engagement as essential for
maintaining democracy. He believed that the strength of American democracy
lay in its citizens' active participation in local governments and community
associations. “The health of a democratic society may be measured by the
quality of functions performed by private citizens.”
Connection Among Civic, Citizenship and Civic Engagement
Civic, citizenship, and civic engagement are closely connected and
support each other in important ways. First, civics teaches people about how
government works and what rights and responsibilities they have as citizens. This
knowledge helps individuals understand their role in society and encourages
them to participate in democracy.
Next, citizenship provides individuals with rights, such as the ability to

vote and express their opinions, as well as responsibilities like obeying laws.
Feeling a sense of belonging as a citizen motivates people to engage in their
communities and take action for positive change.
Finally, civic engagement is about taking part in community activities,
such as voting, volunteering, and advocating for important issues. When people
engage actively, they make their voices heard and contribute to decision-making
processes, which strengthens their community.
Together, these three concepts create a strong framework for democracy. Civics
provides the knowledge, citizenship offers rights and responsibilities, and civic
engagement encourages action. This combination helps build informed and
responsible citizens who work together to improve their communities and support
democratic values. Here’s how these concepts interconnect and reinforce one
another:
1-Foundation of Knowledge (Civics): Civics provides the essential knowledge
and understanding of governmental structures, laws, and the rights and
responsibilities associated with being a citizen. It equips individuals with the
tools to comprehend how their government operates and the role they play within
it. By learning about civics, citizens become aware of their rights, such as voting
and free speech, as well as their responsibilities, like obeying laws and
participating in civic duties. This foundational knowledge is crucial for informed
participation in democracy.
2-Identity and Rights (Citizenship): Citizenship is the legal status that grants
individuals specific rights and responsibilities within a political community. It
forms the basis of belonging and identity, as citizens recognize their connection
to their nation and its values. Citizenship goes beyond mere legal recognition; it
embodies a commitment to the principles of democracy, such as equality, justice,
and collective welfare. The rights that come with citizenship empower
individuals to engage meaningfully in their communities, reinforcing their sense
of agency and responsibility.
3-Active Participation (Civic Engagement): Civic engagement encompasses
the various ways individuals participate in the political and social life of their
communities. This can include voting in elections, volunteering for local
organizations, attending town hall meetings, and advocating for policy changes.
Civic engagement transforms the knowledge gained from civics education and
the identity tied to citizenship into action. Engaged citizens actively contribute to
decision-making processes, advocate for their communities, and work towards
social change.
4. Reinforcing the Cycle
* Education to Engagement: Civics education inspires individuals to become
engaged citizens by highlighting the importance of their participation in
governance and community affairs. An informed citizenry is more likely to
engage in civic activities.
* Rights to Responsibilities: Citizenship not only provides rights but also
emphasizes the responsibilities that come with those rights. Understanding these
responsibilities motivates citizens to engage in activities that benefit society, such
as voting and community service.
* Engagement to Empowerment: Civic engagement empowers individuals to

take ownership of their communities and advocate for their needs and interests.
When citizens actively participate, they influence policies and drive change,
reinforcing the idea that their voices matter in a democratic society.
5-Building Strong Communities: The interplay of civics, citizenship, and civic
engagement fosters strong, resilient communities. When citizens are educated
about their rights and responsibilities and are engaged in civic life, they build
networks of collaboration, trust, and mutual support. This collective action leads
to a more vibrant democracy, where diverse voices are heard, and common goals
are pursued.
Conclusion: Together, civics, citizenship, and civic engagement create a
comprehensive ecosystem that promotes active participation in democratic
processes. This synergy ensures that individuals are not only aware of their rights
and responsibilities but also empowered to act on them, contributing to the
overall health and sustainability of democratic society. Through this collaborative
framework, communities can thrive, and democratic principles can be upheld and
strengthened.
Process of Civic Engagement
The process of civic engagement involves various stages where
individuals and groups actively participate in public life to improve their
community, influence decision-making, and foster social change. This process
typically includes several steps, from awareness to action, and can take many
forms depending on the type of involvement. Below is a detailed breakdown of
the process:
1-Awareness and Education: The first step in civic engagement is
understanding the issues and needs of the community or society. This involves
becoming informed about local, national, or global issues that matter to you.
Citizens educate themselves about topics like politics, social justice, healthcare,
education, environmental problems, or human rights. Information can come
from news outlets, community meetings, social media, discussions with others, or
formal education. It’s important to assess the credibility of information, analyze
various perspectives, and think critically about the best ways to address these
issues.
2-Identifying Interests and Priorities: Once informed, individuals must
determine which issues they care about the most and which align with their
personal values and the needs of their community.
* Personal priorities: This could be improving public education, reducing crime
in the neighborhood, protecting the environment, or advocating for social justice.
* Community priorities: Individuals often look at the immediate needs of their
community to decide where their involvement will have the most impact.
Identifying common problems shared by others helps in setting goals for civic
engagement.
3-Connecting with Others: Civic engagement is often more powerful when
done collectively. This step involves reaching out and connecting with others
who share the same concerns or interests.
* Joining organizations: People often connect with local groups, non-profits, or

social movements that address their causes. These groups can provide resources,
support, and a platform for action.
* Networking: Networking with other like-minded individuals strengthens the
chances of making a larger impact. This could be through community forums,
online groups, or volunteering networks.
* Building coalitions: Sometimes, individuals and smaller organizations come
together to form coalitions that work toward a common goal, pooling their
resources and influence.
4-Engagement and Participation: This is the core step in the civic engagement
process where individuals take action. There are several ways to participate:
* Voting and Political Participation: Voting in local, state, and national elections
is one of the most direct ways of participating. It ensures that the voices of the
community are represented in decision-making processes. Political participation
can also include working for a campaign, running for office, or attending political
rallies.
* Volunteering: Volunteering is a hands-on way to engage civically. Individuals
may volunteer at non-profits, local schools, environmental cleanup projects, or
with political advocacy groups to contribute their time and skills to causes they
believe in.
* Community Service: Engaging in community service projects, such as
neighborhood improvement efforts, organizing food drives, or mentoring youth,
provides immediate help to local issues. It also fosters a sense of community
connection.
* Public Advocacy: Public advocacy includes activities like participating in
protests, writing letters to representatives, starting or signing petitions, or using
social media to raise awareness about issues. It can also involve lobbying for
policy changes by meeting with public officials or speaking at town halls.
* Attending Public Meetings: In local governments, public meetings are held to
discuss issues like budgeting, planning, and policy changes. Attending these
meetings allows citizens to share their concerns, suggest ideas, and influence
decisions that directly affect their community.
* Serving on Local Boards or Committees: Citizens can serve on advisory
boards, committees, or task forces that influence local government decisions.
This involvement offers a direct way to shape policy and community initiatives.
5-Advocacy and Dialogue: Beyond participating in activities, civic engagement
often involves advocating for change through dialogue and communication with
leaders and institutions.
* Dialogue with policymakers: Engaged citizens can write letters, meet with
elected representatives, or speak during public forums to advocate for specific
causes. Communicating with decision-makers is essential for influencing laws
and policies.
* Campaigning for awareness: This could involve starting awareness campaigns
to educate the broader public on a certain issue through social media, public
speeches, or organizing events. Engaging in the media is also a way to bring
attention to a cause.
6-Monitoring and Accountability: After participating or advocating for change,

civic engagement includes monitoring the progress of actions and holding leaders
accountable for their promises.
* Follow-up on actions: It’s important to keep track of the decisions and policies
made by local or national governments and ensure they are implemented
effectively.
* Public accountability: Citizens can use the media, public forums, and other
platforms to hold officials accountable when promises aren’t met or policies fail
to produce desired results.
7-Reflecting and Adapting: Civic engagement is an ongoing process that
involves learning from each action or project. Reflecting on the outcomes and the
effectiveness of the efforts helps improve future engagement.
* Evaluating impact: After engaging, individuals or groups assess how
successful their actions were. This might include looking at how a policy change
affected the community or how well a volunteer project addressed a local issue.
* Adapting strategies: If initial efforts did not bring about the desired changes,
individuals or groups can adjust their strategies. This might mean shifting focus,
trying new methods of engagement, or collaborating with different partners.
8-Sustaining Engagement: Long-term civic engagement requires sustained
effort. It’s not just about participating once but continuing to be involved over
time to make meaningful and lasting change.
* Staying informed: Civic-minded individuals keep themselves updated on
changes in their community, legislation, and broader societal issues to stay
engaged and responsive to new developments.
* Building lasting relationships: Building relationships with other engaged
citizens, leaders, and organizations helps to sustain engagement. These networks
can offer continued support, collaboration opportunities, and motivation to
remain active in civic life.
* Encouraging others to engage: Sustaining engagement also involves
encouraging others to get involved. This may mean educating or mentoring the
next generation of civic leaders and community activists.
9-Creating a Culture of Engagement: The final step in the civic engagement
process is contributing to a culture of continuous civic participation.
* Fostering civic education: Promoting civic education in schools, workplaces,
and communities ensures that future generations understand the importance of
active citizenship.
* Creating inclusive spaces: Encouraging diverse voices and perspectives ensures
that civic engagement is representative of the whole community, not just specific
groups. This involves making civic processes more accessible and inclusive for
marginalized or underrepresented groups.
* Building civic institutions: Creating or strengthening institutions like non-
profits, advocacy groups, and local associations that facilitate ongoing civic
involvement helps to institutionalize civic engagement, ensuring it becomes a
permanent feature of society.
Conclusion: Civic engagement is an evolving and participatory process. It
begins with being informed and identifying issues, followed by taking action
through voting, volunteering, and advocacy. This process continues with efforts
to hold leaders accountable, reflect on progress, and sustain involvement. The

ultimate goal is to create a society where everyone is empowered to participate in
shaping their communities and the world around them, making a positive and
lasting difference.
Kinds of Civic Engagement
Civic engagement takes many forms, ranging from direct political
involvement like voting and lobbying to more community-focused activities such
as volunteering and participating in local events. Whether it's through advocacy,
community service, or digital activism, civic engagement allows individuals to
contribute to the improvement of society and the strengthening of democracy.
Each type of engagement serves a unique role in creating change, and many
people engage in multiple forms throughout their lives.
1-Electoral Participation: Electoral participation involves engaging with the
political system through voting, running for office, or working in campaigns.
Voting in elections, at local, state, or national levels, is a direct way for citizens
to influence governance and policymaking. Additionally, organizing or
volunteering in voter registration drives, attending political rallies, or working at
polling stations are important activities in this category.
2-Advocacy and Activism: Advocacy and activism involve speaking up and
taking action to support or oppose causes. People can engage by joining protests,
signing petitions, participating in demonstrations, or lobbying decision-makers.
This type of civic engagement can be focused on a range of issues, from social
justice and human rights to environmental sustainability, and is aimed at creating
change through collective action.
3-Volunteering and Community Service: Volunteering includes donating time
and skills to improve communities without expecting financial compensation.
Examples include working with non-profits, participating in local clean-up
drives, helping at shelters, or tutoring students. Community service not only
helps solve local problems but also fosters a sense of responsibility and
connection to others.
4-Community Building: Community building focuses on fostering relationships
and strengthening the social fabric of local areas. This can involve organizing or
attending local events, creating neighborhood watch programs, or participating in
community improvement projects. Such activities help build trust, collaboration,
and a shared sense of purpose among residents.
5-Public Consultation and Participatory Governance: In this form of
engagement, individuals take part in shaping policies by interacting with
government institutions. This includes attending public meetings, town halls, or
participating in advisory committees. Citizens provide feedback, share concerns,
and influence decision-making processes at the local or national level, ensuring
their voices are heard in governance.
6-Political Consumerism: Political consumerism involves making purchasing
decisions based on ethical or political values. Individuals may choose to buy
from companies that align with their principles, such as fair trade or
environmentally friendly products, or they may boycott businesses that engage in
harmful practices. By doing so, they use economic power to support social or
political change.
7-Social Entrepreneurship: Social entrepreneurship combines business

practices with social impact. Entrepreneurs create businesses that address societal
problems while being economically sustainable. These ventures can range from
companies focused on environmental protection to businesses that provide
education or healthcare to underserved communities.
8-Civic Journalism and Media Engagement: Civic journalism involves using
media to highlight important social or political issues. This could be done
through blogging, podcasting, or independent reporting. Media engagement also
includes participating in campaigns that promote awareness and encourage others
to act on pressing concerns, making media a powerful tool for civic engagement.
9-Civic Education and Advocacy: This type focuses on educating people about
their rights, responsibilities, and the importance of civic participation. Programs
aimed at teaching civics to young people, or workshops that inform communities
about specific issues, are examples of how civic education helps people become
more engaged and informed citizens.
10-Online Engagement and Digital Activism: Digital platforms have become a
crucial tool for civic engagement. Social media campaigns, online petitions, and
crowdfunding are ways people can engage with issues without needing to be
physically present. Digital activism allows individuals to reach large audiences,
raise awareness, and mobilize support for causes quickly and effectively.
Each type of civic engagement allows individuals to participate in their
communities and society in different ways, contributing to the common good,
promoting change, and building stronger democratic systems.
Hurdles & Challenges of Civic Participation
Civic participation, while essential for democracy and community
development, faces several challenges that can hinder people's involvement. Here
are some of the key challenges:
1-Lack of Awareness and Education: Many people are unaware of their civic
rights and responsibilities or lack knowledge about how to engage with political
and social systems. Limited understanding of issues, processes, or avenues for
participation can prevent people from getting involved.
2-Apathy and Disengagement: Political apathy is a significant challenge. Some
individuals feel that their participation won’t make a difference, leading to
disengagement from civic activities such as voting or community organizing.
This can stem from frustration with government inefficiency or a belief that their
voices won’t be heard.
3-Time Constraints: Civic participation often requires a time commitment that
many people, especially those with demanding jobs, families, or multiple
responsibilities, may not have. Finding time to attend meetings, volunteer, or stay
informed about issues can be difficult.
4-Social and Economic Barriers: Individuals from marginalized communities
may face economic or social barriers to participation. Limited access to
resources, transportation, or technology can hinder involvement. For example,
those in low-income communities may lack the financial stability to engage in
civic activities.
5-Distrust in Government and Institutions: In some cases, a lack of trust in

government, political institutions, or elected officials can discourage people from
participating. If people believe that the system is corrupt or unresponsive, they
may feel disillusioned and avoid engagement.
6-Complexity of Political Systems: Political systems can be complex and
difficult to navigate. Understanding how government works, how to engage in
policy-making, and knowing the processes for civic engagement can be
overwhelming, especially for first-time participants or those without political
experience.
7-Polarization and Divisiveness: Increasing political polarization can deter
people from civic engagement. Fear of conflict or being criticized for their views
can prevent individuals from participating in discussions or debates on important
issues.
8-Access to Information: In some cases, citizens lack access to accurate and
timely information, making it difficult to stay informed. Misinformation, limited
media coverage, or lack of digital access in rural or underserved areas can
prevent people from being active participants in civic life.
9-Limited Representation and Inclusion: Certain groups, such as ethnic
minorities, people with disabilities, or immigrants, may feel excluded from
traditional civic processes. This lack of representation and inclusivity can
discourage their participation in civic activities.
10-Fear of Repercussions: In some regions or under certain governments, civic
participation can lead to legal or social repercussions. People may fear
retaliation, legal consequences, or social ostracism for engaging in protests,
speaking out, or organizing around controversial issues.
11-Ineffective Engagement Channels: In some cases, available channels for
participation may be ineffective or inaccessible. Public forums, town hall
meetings, or online platforms may not be well-publicized, well-organized, or
designed to encourage meaningful participation.
12-Burnout: Activists and engaged citizens may experience burnout from
continuous participation in civic activities. Sustained involvement in demanding
causes can lead to exhaustion, frustration, or a feeling of helplessness, especially
when results are slow or non-existent.
Conclusion: The challenges to civic participation range from personal obstacles
like lack of time and knowledge to broader issues like political distrust, systemic
exclusion, and societal polarization. Addressing these challenges requires
improving access to education, fostering more inclusive environments, enhancing
communication, and making civic processes more accessible and transparent.
Steps for the Encouragement of Civic Participation
Increasing civic participation is vital for strengthening democracy,
improving communities, and addressing societal issues. There are several
strategies to encourage more people to get involved. Here are some ways civic
participation can be increased:
1. Civic Education
2. Improving Access to Information
3. Making Voting Easier
4. Encouraging Volunteerism
5. Strengthening Community Connections
6. Increasing Inclusivity and Representation
7. Addressing Political Apathy
8. Using Social Media and Digital Tools
9. Enhancing Public Trust
10. Making Civic Participation Fun and Social
11. Support for Grassroots Movements
12. Making Civic Participation More Accessible
13. Civic Leadership Programs
Historical Evolution of Civic Participation
The historical evolution of civic participation is a complex journey that
reflects the changing relationship between individuals, communities, and
governing institutions. As societies have evolved, people became more engaged
in the governance of their societies. This evolution has been shaped by cultural,
economic, technological, and philosophical changes across time. Here's a detailed
account of its development:
1-Ancient Civilizations and Origins of Civic Engagement
(i)-Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt: In the earliest civilizations, such as
Mesopotamia 3500 BCE and Egypt, political participation was almost
nonexistent for the general public. Governance was highly centralized,
dominated by kings or pharaohs, who were often seen as divine or semi-divine
rulers. However, councils of elders or priests sometimes advised these rulers, a
rudimentary form of civic engagement for elites.
(ii)-Ancient Greece: Civic participation as a formal concept originated in ancient
Greece, particularly in Athens 5th, century BCE, where democracy was
developed. Athenian democracy allowed male citizens (excluding women,
slaves, and foreigners) to participate directly in decision-making processes
through the Ekklesia (assembly). Citizens voted on laws, military decisions, and
other public policies. Civic responsibility included military service, holding
public office, and jury duty. This was an early model of direct democracy, where
citizens were directly involved in legislative and executive matters.
(iii)-Ancient Rome: The Roman Republic (509–27 BCE) further developed the
concept of civic participation, though it was more hierarchical and representative
than Athenian democracy. Roman citizens voted for elected officials such as
senators, consuls, and tribunes. However, power was divided among different
classes, with patricians (nobles) having more influence than plebeians
(commoners). The establishment of legal and political institutions such as the
Senate, Assemblies, and the Twelve Tables (Rome's early legal code) laid the
foundation for representative government, where civic participation was
increasingly structured and mediated through formal roles.
2-The Middle Ages and Decline of Civic Participation
(i)-Feudalism (5th,-15th, centuries): After the fall of the Roman Empire, Europe
entered the feudal period, characterized by a decentralized political structure
where power was based on land ownership and hierarchies of nobility. Civic
participation declined as monarchs and feudal lords controlled the political and
legal systems. The majority of the population, mostly peasants and serfs, had
little to no voice in governance.
(ii)-Church and Civic Life: During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church played
a significant role in governance. Religious councils and church synods offered
some form of participation, though this was largely limited to clergy and
aristocrats. In cities and towns, guilds and merchant councils began to offer
limited civic engagement to their members, laying the groundwork for urban self-
governance later.
(iii)-Magna Carta (1215): In England, the Magna Carta was a landmark
document that limited the absolute power of the king by requiring consultation
with a council of barons before certain taxes could be levied. Though the rights
granted by the Magna Carta were largely for the nobility, it represented a shift
toward the concept that rulers should be accountable to the governed, a key
principle in civic participation.
3-Renaissance & Early Modern Period and Reawakening of Civic
Engagement
(i)-Renaissance (14th,–17th, centuries): The Renaissance brought a renewed
interest in classical ideas of civic life. Thinkers like Machiavelli and Leonardo
Bruni emphasized the importance of active citizenship and participation in public
affairs. The concept of republicanism gained traction, where civic virtue and
participation in governance were seen as essential to the health of the state.
(ii)-Protestant Reformation (16th, century): The Reformation introduced ideas of
individual conscience and decentralized religious authority, which had
implications for civic participation. In Protestant regions, religious leaders often
had a role in local governance, and individual communities had greater autonomy
in managing local affairs.
(iii)-The Dutch Republic and Italian City-States: In places like the Dutch
Republic and the Italian city-states (e.g., Venice and Florence), merchant elites
played a significant role in governance, blending aristocratic, oligarchic, and
civic traditions. Though not democratic by modern standards, these systems
allowed for broader participation from a wealthy, educated citizenry.
4-The Enlightenment and the Age of Revolutions and Expanding
Participation
(i)-Enlightenment (17th,–18th, centuries): The Enlightenment was a period of
intellectual ferment that laid the groundwork for modern democratic thought.
Philosophers like John Locke, Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau
advanced ideas of natural rights, the social contract, and the separation of
powers. Locke, in particular, argued that government authority is derived from
the consent of the governed, while Rousseau advocated for popular sovereignty
through direct or representative participation.
(ii)-American Revolution (1775–1783): The American Revolution was a turning
point in the evolution of civic participation. The Founding Fathers, influenced by
Enlightenment ideas, established a system of representative democracy where
citizens could elect their leaders. The Constitution and Bill of Rights enshrined
civil liberties and a system of checks and balances, though initially, participation
was limited to white, property-owning men.
(iii)-French Revolution (1789–1799): The French Revolution further expanded

civic participation by abolishing the feudal system and establishing the principles
of liberty, equality, fraternity. Though the Revolution led to periods of violence
and instability, it resulted in broader participation in governance, including the
establishment of elected assemblies and the promotion of universal male suffrage
during the First Republic.
5-19th, Century and Struggles for Inclusion and Representation
(i)-Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution brought significant social
and economic changes, which fueled demands for greater political participation.
Workers, facing poor conditions, began to organize in labor unions and other
groups to advocate for rights such as fair wages, safer working conditions, and
the right to vote. The growth of urban populations led to new forms of civic
organization and advocacy.
(ii)-Liberal Reforms and Expansion of Suffrage: The 19th, century saw
significant liberal reforms across Europe and North America. In Britain, the
Reform Acts (1832, 1867, 1884) gradually expanded the franchise to include
more men, reducing property qualifications. Similar movements occurred in
other countries, reflecting a shift from elite to mass participation in politics.
(iii)-Abolitionism and Women‟s Rights Movements: Civic participation also
expanded through social movements, including abolitionism (fighting to end
slavery) and early feminism. Women‟s suffrage movements, such as those led by
activists like Susan B. Anthony and Emmeline Pankhurst, fought to extend
political participation to women, leading to early victories in countries like New
Zealand (1893) and later in the U.S. (1920) and Britain (1918, full in 1928).
6-20th, Century: Global Democratization and Civil Rights
(i)-World Wars and Democratic Movements: The world wars had a profound
impact on civic participation. The rise of totalitarian regimes like Nazi Germany
and Soviet Russia led to a suppression of civic freedoms, but the wars also
spurred a global push for democracy in the post-war period. The establishment of
the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
enshrined the idea that civic participation and political freedom were universal
rights.
(ii)-Civil Rights Movements: The 20th, century saw mass movements for civil
rights, particularly in the U.S., where leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and
organizations like the NAACP fought for racial equality and the expansion of
voting rights for African Americans. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting
Rights Act of 1965 significantly expanded civic participation by outlawing racial
discrimination and removing barriers to voting.
(iii)-Decolonization: After World War II, many African, Asian, and Caribbean
countries gained independence from European colonial powers. These newly
independent states often established democratic governments, expanding civic
participation to populations that had been previously disenfranchised under
colonial rule.
7-Late 20th, & 21st, Century and New Forms of Civic Engagement
(i)-Social Movements: The late 20th, century saw an explosion of social
movements advocating for a wide range of rights, from environmental
protections to rights. Grassroots organizing, protests, and direct action became

key tools of civic engagement.
(ii)-Digital Revolution: The rise of the internet and social media in the 21st,
century revolutionized civic participation. Digital platforms allowed for instant
communication, organization, and mobilization, enabling global movements like
the Arab Spring (2010s) and various social justice campaigns. Online petitions,
social media activism, and digital voting platforms have broadened the scope of
participation, though they also bring challenges such as misinformation and
political polarization.
8-Contemporary Issues and Challenges and Opportunities
(i)-Populism and Polarization: In recent years, rising political polarization,
populist movements, and the spread of misinformation have complicated civic
participation. While technology has made it easier for people to engage in
politics, it has also led to new challenges in maintaining informed and
meaningful civic discourse.
(ii)-Global Civic Engagement: Despite these challenges, civic participation
continues to evolve globally. Issues such as climate change, economic inequality,
and human rights have sparked new forms of transnational activism,
demonstrating the continued importance of civic participation in shaping both
local and global governance.
Conclusion: In summary, the evolution of civic participation has been marked by
the gradual expansion of rights and access to governance. From the limited
participation of elites in ancient civilizations to the broad, digitally-enhanced
forms of engagement seen today, civic participation has continuously evolved,
reflecting the changing needs, values, and technologies of society.
Civic Participation Present Era & Its Importance
Civic participation is more important than ever in today’s world. As
societies grow more complex and interconnected, individuals need to be involved
in shaping the communities they live in. Here are some key reasons why civic
participation is vital in the present era:
1-Strengthening Democracy: Active civic participation helps keep democracy
strong and functioning. Voting in elections, participating in public discussions,
and holding leaders accountable ensures that governments remain responsive to
the needs of the people. When citizens engage, it creates a government that
reflects the interests and values of its people, preventing power from being
concentrated in the hands of a few.
2-Addressing Local and Global Challenges: We are facing unprecedented
global challenges like climate change, economic inequality, and public health
crises. These problems require collective action, and civic participation allows
individuals to have a say in how these issues are tackled. At the local level,
involvement in community initiatives, public forums, or environmental
campaigns ensures that solutions are shaped by the people who are most affected.
3-Promoting Social Justice and Equality: Civic participation is crucial for
advancing social justice and equality. Movements for civil rights, gender
equality, and justice for marginalized groups rely on active participation—
whether through protests, advocacy, or voting. It ensures that every voice,
especially those from underrepresented communities, is heard and included in

decision-making processes.
4-Encouraging Accountability and Transparency: Governments and
institutions are more likely to act fairly and transparently when citizens are
engaged and informed. Civic participation—whether through voting, public
oversight, or engaging with elected representatives—serves as a check on power,
reducing the likelihood of corruption, abuse, or inefficiency.
5-Building Stronger Communities: When people participate in their
community, whether by volunteering, joining local boards, or attending town
meetings, it fosters a sense of belonging and collective responsibility. Civic
engagement builds trust among neighbors, strengthens social bonds, and helps
communities work together to solve local problems. In times of crisis, strong
community ties built through civic participation can make a significant difference
in resilience and recovery.
6-Educating and Empowering Citizens: Civic participation helps individuals
learn about their rights, their government, and how decisions are made. An
informed and engaged citizenry is empowered to make meaningful contributions
to society. Participation fosters critical thinking, collaboration, and understanding
of diverse perspectives, which are essential in a healthy democracy.
7-Adapting to the Digital Age: In today’s digital age, civic participation has
taken on new forms through social media, online petitions, and digital advocacy.
These tools allow people to quickly organize, spread awareness, and mobilize
action. However, this also makes it crucial for individuals to participate
responsibly, countering misinformation and engaging in productive, informed
discourse.
8-Securing Future Generations: By participating in civic life, people help
shape policies that will impact future generations. Decisions made today
regarding the environment, education, healthcare, and social welfare will affect
children and generations to come. Civic participation ensures that these decisions
consider long-term effects and reflect the values of a broad spectrum of society.
Conclusion: Civic participation in the present era is vital to fostering inclusive,
fair, and sustainable societies. It empowers individuals, strengthens communities,
and ensures that governments remain accountable to the people they serve.
…………………………………..
CHAPTER NO. 3
STATE, GOVERNMENT & CIVIL SOCIETY
State
The basic concept of a state was initiated in Ancient Greece. Where every
city was given the rank of a state. These were called „Polis States‟. In the era of
Romans, even larger states came into being. „„The small independent
organizations which came into being at the end of fifth century BC are called
"States".
In middle ages, states consisted of rural areas as well as civic areas. In
modern times, state is formed on national bases. The people of a state call them a
whole nation and such state is called “national state”.
State is a name of the region where a permanent number of people live,
which is free from external pressure, which has its own government whose
principles are followed by natives.
Nation and state are often recognized as similar terms. State and nation are
two different organizations. Nation is such a group of people who had some
common values i.e. race, religion, language and culture and this group struggles
collectively for freedom. The people of Kashmir are a nation because they have
common religious, cultural, linguistics and regional values. Further, they have
been struggling for freedom for many years. They are a nation but cannot be
recognized as a state.
Definitions
Aristotle: “The state is a union of families and villages and having for its ends
a perfect and self-sufficing life by which we mean a happy and honorable
life.”
This definition by Aristotle does not cover the whole circle of modern
state. He only talks about persons and regions and does not consider government,
the main element of a state. He considers state, an independent unit, however, no
state can claim so in modern times. Even the largest states need the support of
other states.
Laski: “State is a territorial society divided into government and subjects
claiming within its allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other
institutions.”
Burgees: “State is such a group of human beings which can be called „an
organized unit”.
Bluntschli: “State is apolitically organized people of a definite territory.”
The definitions by Bluntschli and Burgess don’t have the mentioning of
authority in a government.
Woodrow Wilson: “People organized for law within a definite territory.”
Gettel: „State is the name of an organized group of people who live in a
particular area, are free from external pressure and have their own
government.”
Oppenheim: “The state exists when people are settled in a-country under its
own sovereign government.”
Holland: “State is a group of people which occupies a particular area, has the
organization where public opinion is regarded.”
Gamer: “The state is a community of persons, more or less numerous,

permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent (or nearly
so) of external control and possessing an organized government to which the
great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.”
Among all above mentioned definitions, the definition by Professor
Gamer is the most comprehensive one which has mentioned the four elements
(Population, territory, government and sovereignty) of a state.
Essential Elements of State
The four basic elements of a state are; Population, Territory, Government
and Sovereignty.
1-Population: The main element of a state is population because the state is
established for the public development. An area where there is no population,
cannot be called „state‟.
A state is not consisted of trees, animals, or rivers but of human beings. The
population of a state is divided into two parts. Frist category is consisted of
people who are benefited by political rights. And second category is of the people
who are not the regular citizens of a state i.e. foreign traders, students, visitors or
ambassadors. Foreigners are not given political rights in any state whether there
exists population or not. However, this point of the number of population has
always raised and has been the main topic in discussion of many philosophers
since centuries.
● Greek philosopher Plato tells the number of its population five thousand and
forty (5040). This number was perhaps acceptable for the ancient Greek state but
not acceptable for the modern states.
● Another Greek philosopher Aristotle was of the view that population should
neither be low that it cannot fulfil the needs of a state nor that much soaring that
there may be difficulties in controlling the system of state.
● French philosopher Rousseau proposed the number of 10,000 people for the
population of an ideal state.
● Famous Muslim scholar of subcontinent, Shah Wali Ullah wrote that a proper
population is one which includes people of all professions so that it may establish
an independent political society.
The demands of every state are different in accordance with the population.
Now a days, the rise in the population in China India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and
Pakistan is causing many problems. The governments of these states are stressing
upon birth control. On the other hand, states like Russia, Canada and Australia
need to increase their population. In Russia, the mother of many children is
called "Heroin Mother". In the first half of twentieth century, parents were
rewarded for an increase in birth of children in Germany and Italy.
2-Territory: The second most important element of a state is territory. A
vagabond tribe is independent, follows its leader, and lives life under proper rules
and regulations but only because of the fact that it does not have any permanent
territory, we cannot call it a state.
The importance of territory can be observed in the case of Jews who had
been a strong and well-organized group since 1948 and influenced the politics of
so many states but they did not have their own territory therefore, they could not
be given the rank of a state. Only when Israel was bestowed upon Jews, then the
Jewish state came into being for the first time.
The question of vastness of an area for the population is also raised many
a times. De-Tocqueville, Ibn Khaldun, and Montesquieu supported the idea of
small areas. Small area was considered necessary for the democratic
development so that the public may directly take interest in state affairs.
Rousseau also considers small state beneficial for achievements of democratic
goals. Aristotle suggested such a small area for the state where a man at one
corner can easily look at the man standing at another corner of the state.
The proportion in population, territory and resources of the state is very
necessary. Territory should be large enough to provide basic resources to the
public. A state of small territory was also considered standard on administrative
bases but after the establishment and development of United States of America,
the larger states were given much importance. The German thinker Trashky
considers a large territory necessary for a state and says; “It is a sin for the state
to be of small size.” So, the basic point is that there must be proportion in
population, territory and resources of a state.
3-Government: The system which is established to form laws and to act upon
them, is called „Government‟. It is formed to provide basic facilities to the public
for leading an organized life as well as for the purpose of their protection. There
develops anarchy and chaos in a state if there is no government. A state can make
people act upon its laws through a government as it plays the role of a weapon
for a state. The government can be observed in whole world in different forms.
The Kingdom, Dictatorship, Nobility, Democracy are the types of government.
The Government performs three major duties and for this purpose, there are
three different institutions in a democratic system.
(i)-Legislature: It is a Law-making assembly and its members are selected
through the votes of Public. The legislative body of a state makes law keeping in
view the circumstances and present condition of the country.
(ii)-Executive: This institution controls the discipline of the state and implements
the laws made by legislature. The establishment of peace, protection of public,
international relations and the border defense are among the important duties of
this unit of a state.
(iii)-Judiciary: The Judiciary is the branch of authority in a country which is
concerned with law, legal system and administration of justice. In a democratic
system of Government, the judiciary plays the most significant role as it provides
justice to people.
4-Sovereignty: Sovereignty is such an authority of the state through which the
state is fully free from outside pressure and has the full control of people and
institutions within the state. Until people living in a specific territory and their
government is not free from external pressure, it cannot be given the rank of
state. If territory is considered the body of a state, sovereignty is the soul.
Jean Bodin (1530-96), a French Jurist and political philosopher, defined
sovereignty (which he called in Latin, ‘Suverenitas‟) in the following words;
“Maiestie or Soveraigntie is the most high, absolute, and perpetual power over
the citizens and subjects in a Commonweale: which the Latins cal Maiestatem,
the Greeks akra exousia, kurion arche, and kurion politeuma; the
Italians Segnoria, and the Hebrewes tomech shévet, that is to say, The greatest
power to command.
● Internal Sovereignty: It is the high authority within the circle of a state which
is superior to all the citizens and their institutions and it's each decision is
supposed to be a final one.
● External Sovereignty: When an area and people living in are free from
outside pressure and they can make their own decisions, it is called the external
sovereignty of a state.
Salient Features of the State
The state is a political entity that governs a specific territory and population.
Its salient features include:
1-Sovereignty: The state has supreme authority to make laws, govern, and
enforce decisions without external interference, both within its borders (internal
sovereignty) and in relation to other states (external sovereignty).
2-Territory: The state has a defined geographic area where its authority is
exercised. This includes land, airspace, and sometimes territorial waters.
3-Population: A state must have people living within its territory, forming the
citizenry governed by its laws and policies.
4-Government: The state operates through a system of governance, which can
be democratic, authoritarian, or any other form. It includes institutions like the
executive, legislature, judiciary, and bureaucracy.
5-Law: A state creates and enforces laws that regulate the behavior of its
population, maintaining order and justice.
6-Recognition: For international legitimacy, a state must be recognized by other
states and international organizations.
7-Permanence: Unlike governments, which may change over time, the state is a
permanent institution.
These features together define a state and distinguish it from other forms
of social or political organizations.
Functions of Modern State
1-Law and Order: Enforcing laws and maintaining peace through the police,
courts, and judicial systems.
2-National Defense: Protecting the country from external threats through the
military and intelligence services.
3-Economic Regulation: Managing and regulating the economy, including
controlling inflation, unemployment, and trade policies.
4-Taxation: Collecting taxes to fund public services, infrastructure, and
government operations.
5-Public Services: Providing essential services like healthcare, education, water,
and electricity.
6-Social Welfare: Ensuring the well-being of citizens by offering social security,
unemployment benefits, and poverty relief programs.
7-Infrastructure Development: Building and maintaining roads, bridges,
airports, public transportation, and communication systems.
8-Environmental Protection: Regulating activities to preserve natural

resources, reduce pollution, and promote sustainability.
9-Foreign Policy: Managing relations with other states, including diplomacy,
trade agreements, and international cooperation.
10-Justice Administration: Ensuring a fair and impartial judicial system to
resolve disputes and uphold the rule of law.
11-Public Health: Managing healthcare systems and promoting public health
initiatives, including vaccination and disease control.
12-Education: Providing and regulating access to education from primary to
higher levels to promote literacy and skills development.
13-Employment Promotion: Encouraging job creation and supporting labor
rights to ensure economic stability and growth.
14-Security and Crime Prevention: Combating crime, terrorism, and ensuring
internal security through law enforcement agencies.
15-Financial Stability: Managing monetary policies, banking regulations, and
fiscal policies to maintain economic stability.
16-Disaster Management: Coordinating responses to natural disasters and
emergencies to protect citizens and infrastructure.
17-Cultural Preservation: Promoting and preserving national culture, heritage,
and arts through funding and regulation.
18-Public Transportation: Managing and developing public transportation
systems to ensure mobility and connectivity for citizens.
19-Promotion of Equality: Implementing policies that promote gender, racial,
and social equality, and prevent discrimination.
20-Public Participation: Encouraging citizen participation in decision-making
through elections, referenda, and civic engagement.
The Historical Evolution of State
Different theories were presented regarding the beginning of state. Some
philosophers considered it a creation of God, while others took it as a result of
power. Some intellectual thinkers considered state a larger form of Family and
Tribe. A group of philosophers called state, a result of the social pact among
public. These ideas can be partly accepted but it is not appropriate to consider
any of them wholly correct.
The most accurate and acceptable theory about beginning of a state is called
Evolutionary or Historical Theory. It is also called “The Theory of Evolution of
State”. This concept rejected all earlier concepts and now only this concept is
accepted worldwide. So many elements gave birth to the system of states. It
basically initiated on the base of Family which further developed in Castes and
Tribes, religious principles urged people to be together, the use of power and
wars advanced toward establishment of state and lastly an increase in political
awareness completed the process of completion of state.
Doctor Stephen Leacock (1869-1944), a Canadian political scientist and
author wrote while explaining the historical concept; “The word state, used in its
widest sense, rests on the fundamental idea of control and obedience; it implies
authority and a submission to that authority. It thus calls before our minds a
phenomenon which may be considered almost coextensive with human society

as it at present exists, and which reaches back into the past almost as far as the
history of human society itself.
Professor Garner (1871-1938) wrote; “State is neither the creation of
God nor the result of physical strength. It is neither the outcome of any pact
nor the developed form of Family.”
The process of creation of state resembles to the growth of a tree. A tree
does not flourish in one day. The process of growth continues for months and
years, only then a plant takes the form of tree. Elements like seeds, water, air,
mud, fertilizers and weather play an important role in growing a tree. Likewise,
many elements together pushed towards the modern shape of the tree of state.
John Burgess (1844-1931) defined the state as; “A particular portion of
mankind viewed as an organized unit which initiated in a bad way.”
Factors Played Vital Role in the Formulation of State
In formation and growth of state, the following elements played their role:
1-Relatives/Blood Relations: Aristotle considered state, the combination of
families. Famous German philosopher Jean Bodin considered state, a developed
form of Family. Muslim Scholar Ibn Khaldun specially mentioned the
importance of blood relations in his works. He is of the view that blood relations
not only helped in the beginning of state system but also played an important role
in its rise and fall. The vulnerability of blood relations has weakened the state. If
it becomes stable, it can be very helpful in durability of state. Sir Henry Maine
even considered blood relations, the only element in the beginning of state.
MacIver writes; “Blood relations created the society and society finally
formed the state.” “Family is inclusive of all the limitations which later
embellish the system of government.”
With the passage of time, people of different castes & Tribes through of living
a joint life and established a civil society while co-operating with one another. It
was a cardinal step towards the system of states. Elements other than blood
relations were added later and thus the process of formation of states continued.
2-Relgion: Religion has been of great importance in each epoch of human life.
The Holy Book is a proof that first human being was a prophet. Allah (S.W.T)
sent one lac and twenty four thousands prophets and made people learn the right
way to live. Every religion brought rules and regulations and became the reason
behind unity, sovereignty and co-operation among its followers. Religious
harmony gave birth to larger human groups. There lies a great power in religion.
People got achievements while giving importance to religious affiliations.
In past, whenever a tribe adopted any religion, its leader was also made the
religious leader of the people. The combination of religion and blood relations
made groups of human beings strong. The sentiments of obedience and mutual
co-operation were also developed due to religion as well as it united people of
different tribes, territories and generations. Gettle has considered the role of
religion in growth of state very essential. Religion united people and they
advanced towards the establishment of state.
3-Magic: In ancient times, the magicians and enchanters used to force people to
obey them. These magicians, at that time used to enforce their wills after getting
control of a specific group, which used to take form of an organization like state.
Likewise, the use of magic and illusion united and organized people and urged
them to follow the laws. In the era of Moses, the political and social significance
of magicians and necromancers is specifically mentioned in religious books.
As magicians used to attract people by their exceptional tricks, people had a
feeling that if they would not obey the magician, he could easily destroy them.
Therefore, they used to obey the magicians. Whenever a large number of people
came under the control of a magician, he would have announced his leadership.
So, the magicians used to rule the people because of their magic and brilliance.
4-Power and War: When the groups of people formed on the basis of castes or
religion, there developed collision because of property, animals and different
other resources. Different tribes which were well-organized, fought with one
another. The process of integration was introduced among the triumphant and
disintegrated tribes. Their separate identity was faded with the passage of time
and they were merged into a larger organization. The leader of the triumphant
tribe became the political leader of different tribes living in a territory and the
concept of the state came into being. Blood relations, religion and illusion/beliefs
organized human groups and war united them. Oppenheim considers power and
war the most important element in formation of state.
5-Economic Needs: In the beginning of human life, males and females were
unaware of culture and civilization. They used to live together but not in a well
manner. Each individual used to fulfill his needs on his own. The self-sown
fruits, the river water, and the meat of wild animals was their food and they used
to cover themselves with the leaves of trees. With the passage of time, they were
cultured and their lifestyle was revolutionized. They became civilized by learning
the art of agriculture. The development of crops’ production and care of cattle
gave birth to the problems among human beings. They felt themselves dependent
for economic needs. Each one of them was struggling for his personal interests.
At that time, they felt the need to establish such institution which may be helpful
in solving the problems, making the laws and implementing them. The same
desideratum also granted the approach to people to form themselves politically.
6-Property: Until the element of property was not raised, people were living a
simple and satisfactory life. With the passage of time, there was an increase in
population, the resources decrease and this developed the concept of property.
Any person would mark a piece of land claiming that it was his place, thus the
worst period of conflicts began. The different belonging of people raised
disputes and caused assassination. When there developed dissatisfaction and
frustration, human beings thought of adopting rules and regulations for the
solution of problems related to property and felt the need of proper machinery to
implement those principles.
7-Sentiment of Nationality: People living in one territory had some common
elements i.e. language, interests, residence, culture and civilization, religion and
caste etc. These elements gave birth to the groups and they were further given the
shape of nationality. Common aims, common interests and dangers united
people, the sentiment of nationality developed & the journey towards state began.
8-Political Awareness: Man is naturally conscious of good and evil. He always
strives for the best. Different changes in human life, social institutions, progress
of culture and civilization, new inventions and evolution in routine behaviors are
the proof that man has been advancing in almost every field. Human beings
living in jungles and caves used to live in groups, but they were unaware of
defensive skills for their own protection. Gradually, they learned the use of
weapons and discovered the ways to counter attack the wild animals and other
groups of human beings. They also learned agriculture, advanced towards the use
of metal and finally perceived that it’s better to be well-organized. With the
passage of time, human beings also preferred to live under the leadership of a
leader. They lived as wanderers for a long time until they thought of permanent
residence and the concept of state finally came into being.
GOVERNMENT
Government is the system or group of people that governs an organized
community, typically a state or nation. It is responsible for making and enforcing
laws, maintaining order, and providing public services that ensure the well-being
of its citizens. Governments operate at various levels, from local municipalities
to national bodies, each tasked with overseeing specific regions and functions.
The primary role of a government is to create a stable society through the
establishment and enforcement of laws that protect individuals' rights and
promote the common good. Governments also manage resources, administer
public services like education, healthcare, and infrastructure, and work to protect
national security. In democratic systems, governments are elected by the people
and are accountable to them, ensuring that citizens have a voice in how they are
governed.
Different types of government include democracies, where power lies
with the people; authoritarian regimes, where power is concentrated in a single
ruler or small group; and monarchies, where leadership is often hereditary. The
structure and function of a government can significantly influence the economic,
social, and cultural aspects of a country.
A government plays a pivotal role in shaping the lives of its citizens. It
provides the framework within which a society operates, ensuring peace,
security, and justice. Without a functioning government, societies would struggle
to maintain order and provide the necessary services for the collective well-being
of the people.
Structure and Functions of Government of Pakistan
The political process in Pakistan has gone through many changes since
the country's inception in 1947. Pakistan is a federal parliamentary democratic
republic where the President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the
head of government.
Pakistan's political process has been marked by periods of military rule,
political instability, and violence. The country has had several coups since its
independence, with military leaders taking over the government and suspending
the constitution.
In 1971, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) seceded from West Pakistan,
leading to a major change in the country's political landscape. The country
adopted a new constitution in 1973, which established a parliamentary system of
government with a bicameral legislature.
Functioning of the Organs of the Government

(i). Legislature
Parliament is formed which consists of the president and two Houses.
The upper house is known as „Senate‟ while the lower house is known as
„National Assembly.‟ Like India and Britain, the legislative assembly of
Pakistan is also known as parliament. There was unicameral legislature as per the
first two constitutions of Pakistan. But the third constitution adopted the formula
of bicameral legislature. Now, all the provinces have equal representation in the
Senate and they have representation according to their population in National
Assembly. After the 8th, amendment, the parliament is known as „Majlis e
Shura.‟ And the president is also added for legislation along with both Houses.
Senate
Under the 17th, amendment, the number of the members of Senate has
been increased to 100 which are further increased to 104 through 18 th,
amendment. The detail is given below:
Seats from each province 14 14×4 56
Tribal Areas 8 8
Females from each province 4 4×4 16
Technocrats from each province 4 4×4 16
Minority from each province 1 1×4 4
Total 104
Senate is a permanent institution. All members of National Assembly are
selected for five years but the assembly can be dissolved anytime by the
president on the suggestions of prime minister. The Senate, on the other hand, is
formed on permanent basis. According to 3rd, clause of article 59 of the
constitution, the Senate cannot be dissolved. However, each member is selected
for 6 years. There are total 104 members. If a member dies or resigns, the new
member will have membership for remaining period of that member.
Chairman and Deputy Chairman: The chairman presides the Senate. After
every 3 years, half of the seats are vacant. The new members are selected for the
vacant seats and they select their chairman and deputy chairman.
The chairman and deputy chairman take oath after winning the elections.
The oath statement is written in the constitution. If the chairman is unable to
perform his duties due to any reason, deputy chairman performs his duties. The
chairman can send his resignation to the president. And the Senate can dismiss
chairman and deputy chairman from their post.
National Assembly
The lower house of the parliament is known as ‘National Assembly.’ The
members of National Assembly are selected through public votes. Under the third
clause of article 51 of the constitution of Pakistan, here is the detail:
General Seats Females Total Seats
Punjab 148 35 183
Sindh 61 14 75
KPK 35 8 43
Balouchistan 14 3 17
Tribal Areas 12 - 12
Capital 12  12
Minorities - - 10
Total Seats 272 60 342
According to the third constitution, the National Assembly is formed for
five years. After completion of five years, the assembly would get dissolved and
new elections would be conducted. The president can dissolve the assembly on
the suggestions of prime ministers even before completion of its tenure. Five
years is the maximum period and it cannot be extended. The fixed term helps the
members realize that they have to face the public after fixed time. They perform
well so that may win the next elections.
The Speaker
The post of the speaker is created to preside the sessions of National
Assembly. Under the article 53 of the constitution, the members of National
Assembly, soon after taking oath, select their speaker and deputy speaker. The
former speaker chairs the first session of new assembly. The new speaker takes
oath according to the oath statement written in the constitution.
Powers and Functions of Parliament
The parliament is the real source of power in parliamentary system of
government. In Great Britain, the parliament is the real sovereign and it is said
that parliament can do anything other than making man a woman or woman a
man. In Pakistan, the rules of British parliamentary system are adopted.
Parliament is an institution which makes law, makes amendments in the
constitution, selects the prime minister and ministers, dismisses them, selects the
president of country and can dismiss him through impeachment. The whole
system of finance is run in the supervision of parliament. In Britain, the
supremacy of parliament is accepted whereas the supremacy of the constitution is
accepted in Pakistan. Parliament works according to the constitution.
The powers of the parliament are written below:
1-Legislation: (i). First List of Federal Legislative Affairs
(ii). Second List of Federal Legislative Affairs
Only the parliament can make laws about the first and second list. The
provincial assemblies cannot intervene in this regard. As far as concurrent affairs
are concerned, both central and provincial assemblies can make laws about them.
According to the constitution of 1973, all affairs of the first list were first
presented in National Assembly and then in Senate. The Senate had limited
powers with regard to these affairs. It had to return the bill within 90 days. If the
Senate would not take decision within 90 days, the bill was supposed to be
passed on its own. The amendment of 1985 has given equal status to both the
Houses. Now a bill can be first presented in any of the Houses.
The affairs of the second list can be presented in any House. If one
House passes the bill, it is sent to the second House. And then the president
approves the bill. If there develops any conflict between both Houses, a
committee consisting of 16 members is formed whose decision is respected by
both Houses. If the president does not reply to the bill within 30 days, the bill
becomes law on its own. The president can send his suggestions about a bill
being discussed in the parliament. It is necessary for the parliament to keep in
view those suggestions. The legislative powers of parliament makes it more
effective. The parliament makes law for the areas which are beyond the
provincial boundaries such as capital.
With regard to legislation, the parliament has the right to enforce
governor rule if the president announces the emergency situation. The emergency
situation continues for maximum six months.
2-Declaration of Emergency: If the central administration feels that there are
crisis and turmoil in the country, it declares the emergency. After declaration of
emergency, the president calls the common session of parliament. This session is
arranged within 30 days of declaration.
During emergency, the parliament can make laws of compensation for
public suffering. The article 237 of the constitution allows the parliament to
make such laws. Thus, the parliament plays important role for the protection of
common people as well as government officials.
3-Financial Powers: The parliament has full control over national finances.
Under the article 73 of the constitution, the financial powers of both the Houses
are explained. The taxes are approved by the parliament. According to
democratic demands and conventions, all financial affairs are discussed in
National Assembly. The National Assembly is the representative of common
people and it makes financial decisions while understanding the public problems.
According to the constitution, all financial affairs are first discussed in
National Assembly and then sent to the Senate. The approval of the Senate is not
necessary. Then the financial bill is sent for the presidential approval. It is
necessary for the president to take decision within 7 days. Otherwise, the bill
becomes law on its own. The Senate has no power as far as financial bills are
concerned. Even the president cannot create hurdle in this regard. Only the
National Assembly has the power to decide financial matters.
The speaker decides whether a bill is financial or not.
The bills of following types are known as financial bills:
(i). Implementation of taxes (ii). Supervision of collective defense funds
(iii). Loans of central government which are granted by common people
(iii). Supervision of collective defense funds
(iv). Audit of the accounts of federal or provincial government
4-Amendment in the Constitution: The constitution of Pakistan is inflexible.
For making amendment in the constitution, a bill is presented in parliament. The
constitution cannot be easily amended. First, the National Assembly analyses the
bill. If 2/3rd, majority approves it, it is sent to the Senate. And if 2/3 rd, majority of
the Senate approves it, it is further sent for the approval of the president. It is
necessary for the president to sign the Bill within 7 days. If any amendment is
required for the province, the parliament cannot make law without permission of
the concerned provincial assembly.
5-Electoral Powers: The parliament appoints people on different posts. The
president of the country is selected for five years in the joint session of both
Houses and all the four provincial assemblies. The prime minister and ministers
are selected by National Assembly. The parliament also has the power to dismiss
the president, prime minister and ministers. The 2/3rd, majority is required for
impeachment of the president. And for impeachment of the prime minister, the
simple majority is more than enough.
6-Eradication of Public Grievances: The members of parliament are public

representatives. They reach parliament through public votes. Therefore, they try
to resolve the issues of their constituencies. The members of parliament work as
a connection between administration and common people. They help the
administration in completing the tasks of public welfare.
7-Administrative Powers: With regard to administration, the parliament has so
many powers.
(i)-Selection of Prime Minister and Cabinet: The National Assembly selects
the prime minister and finalizes the list of ministers. The cabinet is also the
product of parliament.
(ii)-Vote of No Confidence: The National Assembly chooses the cabinet. It also
has the power to dissolve it through motion of no confidence. Even the prime
minister cannot ask the president to dissolve the assembly, if motion of no
confidence has been presented against him.
(iii)-Questions: The members of National Assembly have the right to ask
questions from any of the ministers with regards to the performance of his
department. Through questions, the mistakes of government officials are
highlighted and people are made aware of wrong policies of administration. The
questions make administration work properly.
(iv)-Adjournment Motion: Any member of parliament can request the speaker
to start discussion about any important matter and adjourn the present
proceeding. If the speaker feels necessary, he allows adjournment.
(v)-Resolution: The legislative assembly passes resolution about national affairs
for the guidance of administration. The resolution are usually about public
welfare. Although it is not the constitutional obligation for the administration to
act upon the resolution, but the importance of resolution cannot be ignored.
Through resolutions, the government is made aware of the public problems. The
speaker is given advance notice if there feels any need to present a resolution.
(vi)-Judicial and Accountability Powers: According to the constitution, the
parliament can hold the president accountable. If the president is involved in
corruption or any other severe crime, the parliament can dismiss the president.
The parliament fixes the number of the judges of Supreme Court and can bring
great changes while using its powers in this regard.
Provincial Assembly
The members of each provincial assembly are selected through public
votes. Under the 3 rd, clause of article 5 of the constitution of Pakistan, the
provincial seats are reserved on the base of population. The general elections
were held in October 2002. Under the General Election Order (2002), the
Government of Pakistan once again determined the seats. Here is detail:
Province General Seats Non-Muslims Females Total Seats
Punjab 297 8 66 371
Sindh 130 9 29 168
KPK 99 3 22 124
Balouchistan 51 3 11 65
The Speaker
The speaker is the selected member of provincial assembly and the majority
of selected members elect him.
Powers and Functions of Provincial Assembly
The powers and functions of the provincial assembly are given below:
1-Legislation: The provincial assembly can make laws about those affairs which
are placed in the list of concurrent affairs. The provincial assembly can make
laws about all affairs except those affairs which are part of the first and second
list of federal affairs. If both the assemblies make laws, the central law is
considered to be supreme. The bill approved in the provincial assembly is sent to
the governor for final approval. He has to take decision within 30 days. After 30
days, the bills becomes law on its own.
2-Approval of the Ordinance: The governor has the power to implement
ordinance in the province. Ordinance is a law made by administration. It is
implemented on temporary basis. Usually an ordinance is enforced for three
months. The governor can extend the period. After implementation of the
ordinance, whenever the session of provincial assembly is held, the ordinance is
presented for approval. If majority gives vote in favor of the ordinance, it
becomes law. Usually the ordinance is approved because the chief minister is the
leader of the winning party.
3-Financial Powers: All financial bills are presented by the government. They
are related to loans, financial aids, and provincial consolidated funds. Further, the
yearly budget is presented by finance minister. The assembly members analyze
the bill in detail. They express their views about the budget. After the approval of
assembly, the budget is sent to the governor for final approval.
4-Eradication of Public Grievances: The members of provincial assembly are
usually aware of the problems of their concerned areas. They get votes from
public. That is why, they try to satisfy their voters.
5-Electoral Powers: After the 8th, amendment, all four provincial assemblies got
the power to select president of the country along with Senate and National
Assembly.
6-Administrative Powers: The administrative powers are
(i). Selection of chief minister (ii). Motion of no confidence
(iii). Questions (iv). Adjournment Motion
(ii). EXECUTIVE
The President of Pakistan
The President of Pakistan is the ceremonial head of state and represents
the unity of the country. While the role is largely symbolic, the President holds
certain key constitutional powers, such as the ability to dissolve the National
Assembly under specific circumstances, usually on the advice of the Prime
Minister. The President is elected by an electoral college comprising the
members of the national and provincial legislatures for a five-year term. In
Pakistan's parliamentary system, executive powers are primarily vested in the
Prime Minister, but the President has important functions such as signing bills
into law, representing the nation in diplomatic matters, and being the supreme
commander of the armed forces, though these powers are typically exercised in
consultation with the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The office of the President
also plays a role in upholding the Constitution, ensuring smooth transitions of
power, and maintaining the country's federal structure. The President may also
grant pardons and commute sentences. Though not involved in day-to-day
governance, the President serves as a stabilizing figure in the political system,
balancing the executive's authority and ensuring that governance adheres to
constitutional principles.
The Prime Minister
The third constitution of Pakistan was parliamentary in nature. And the
prime minister was made the centre of administrative machinery just like British
Prime Minister. This post was considered to be most important while the post of
the president was nominal. But the 8th, constitutional amendment has tried to
maintain balance between the powers of the president and prime minister which
decreased the authorities of the prime minister, to some extent. The 13 th,
amendment once again gave significance to the prime minister but the
presidential order of 2002 helped in maintaining the supremacy of the president
in altogether new manner. The 17th, amendment continued 58(2) B. In 2010, the
18th, amendment gave more powers to the prime minister and 58(2) B was taken
back. Now the prime minister enjoys those powers which were granted to him
back in 1973.
The philosophers call the British Prime Minister a “shinning moon
among stars.” They have titled him as “important stone of the alcove of British
Cabinet.‟‟
Thus, the British Prime Minister is at the centre of the whole system.
After the amendment of 1997, the Prime Minister of Pakistan also has the same
powers. The British Queen is only the constitutional head. The real powers lie
with the prime minister. In Pakistan, the president of Pakistan does not have
limited powers just like British Queen and he is not bound to all suggestions of
the prime minister as well. The all increasing powers of the president helped
giving less importance to the powers of prime minister. But the 18 th, amendment
has once again regained the real parliamentary form of government where the
prime minister is all powerful.
The Governor
Pakistan is consisted of four provinces. The head of each province is
known as governor. He is appointed by the president. The governor shows unity
in the province. The governor is the representative of federal government in the
province.
The Chief Minister
Pakistan is a federation. The internal administration of all the four
provinces is run by provincial administration. The so called head of provincial
administration is governor while the real head is chief minister. The chief
minister runs the system of provincial government with the help of his cabinet.
According to the constitution, the chief minister and ministers are responsible to
run the system of government in the name of governor.
(iii). JUDICIARY
The judiciary is one of the three most important departments of the
government. For establishment of a just and welfare society, the existence of
judiciary is quite necessary. The judicial system proves to be helpful in providing
a fair life to human beings. It protects the basic rights of the citizens and helps in
developing high moral values. The judiciary has important role in democracy.
In Pakistan, the judiciary is formed in a way that it is the protector of
high social values. The constitution has given importance to Supreme Court and
all other courts. A federal state is usually in dire need of fair and impartial
judiciary. Pakistan is a federation where the powers are divided between the
centre and the provinces. The division of powers may develop conflicts and thus
the explanation of the constitution is necessary. The judiciary resolves the federal
problems, it explains the powers of the center and the provinces and decides the
international affairs. In Pakistan, the constitution has given significant position to
judiciary.
Supreme Court
Supreme Court is the highest court of Pakistan located in Islamabad.
Along with fulfilling the federal needs, the Supreme Court protects the public
rights as well as provides justice. Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and
some judges. The president is given the right to appoint judges. For the post of
chief justice, the PM gives suggestions while for the posts of other judges, the
suggestions of chief justice are kept in view. After the presidential order of 2002,
the president is not bound to the suggestions of prime minister.
The permanent office of Supreme Court is in Islamabad. The permanent
benches are in Lahore and Karachi. The Chief Justice has the power to call the
session of Supreme Court anytime.
High Court
The highest court of the province is known as High Court. There are five
High Courts in Pakistan. Along with the four provinces, there is a separate high
court for Islamabad. Each High Court consists of a chief justice and some judges.
The number of the judges is fixed.
Federal Shariat Court
Pakistan is a Muslim county. People of Pakistan always demand an
establishment of Islamic courts so that Islamic laws may be implemented. For
this purpose, Shariat benches are formed in every province. According to the
presidential order of May, 1980, the Federal Shariat Courts were established all
over the country which were later replaced by Shariat benches. The Federal
Shariat Courts have so many powers.
PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM
Parliamentary system is also known as ministerial form of government. It
is often called a responsible government. This system exists in many countries
other than Britain, India, Canada and Australia. There is semi parliamentary
system in France and Sri Lanka. In parliamentary system of government, the
parliament holds the supreme power. The members of parliament are selected by
public as there is a proper electoral system for this purpose. One member or the
leader of the winning party is offered the prime minister ship. Then the prime
minister selects ministers from the selected members of his party. If any
government does not have the required majority, two or more than two parties
form mixed government.
Both the prime minister and the cabinet consisted of ministers are
answerable to the legislature. The legislature can terminate the cabinet any time
if needed. In parliamentary system of government, president has no powers. Real
authorities are granted to prime minister and federal and provincial ministers.
They take their charge on the will of legislature and the legislature can terminate
them at any time.
Features of Parliamentary System
1-Head of the State: In parliamentary system of government, president has no
authorities. Real powers are given to the prime minister, his cabinet and
parliament. In Britain, once the king was all powerful and sovereign. But then
there were changes due to public desires and the powers were shifted to the
parliament. When the parliamentary system of government was introduced in
other countries, president was also selected for the purpose of formality. The
position of the president in India is just like that of a king in Britain.
2-Prime Minister and his Cabinet: Elections in parliament are usually held on
the base of political parties. Each political party selects a member before
elections. It gives tickets to the candidates for elections and runs an electoral
campaign.
The leader of the winning party is selected as the Prime Minister.
President of the country asks him to form a government. The prime minister
selects his ministers. Usually it is necessary for the ministers to be the members
of parliament. However, if the prime minister wants to give ministry to someone
who is not the Member of Parliament, he can do so for six months only. If any
political party does not have required majority, then two or more than two parties
form mixed government. In parliamentary system of government, prime minister
is called a „key stone‟. With the time, he is given the rank of most important and
efficient officer. If he resigns, the whole assembly is broken. In British system,
the prime minister is recognized as „moon in the stars‟
2-Relationship between Prime Minister and Parliament: Prime minister is the
leader of the house. He gives the advice of calling the procession of legislature as
well as its cancellation. The whole process of legislation is performed under an
agenda designed by the prime minister. More bills are presented by prime
minister and his ministers and are called official bills. No bill is accepted in the
house without the support of prime minister. If this happens, it is considered the
failure of prime minister.
3-Harmony: In parliamentary system of government, there is a great harmony
among the administration and legislation. If there is any conflict, one has to
loose. In this way, the legislature terminates the cabinet or the prime minister
advices the president to break the assembly.
4-Common Responsibility: In parliamentary system of government, both the
prime minister and parliament are equally responsible. The minister together
swim and together are drowned. The whole cabinet works as a team. And cabinet
is answerable to the legislature.
5-Oneness of though and Action: Harmony and oneness of thought are very
common among all ministers of the cabinet. They can disagree with one another
while discussing different problems in the house. But when the cabinet reaches
any conclusion, the decision is not only taken keeping in view the view point of
ministers of the winning party.
6-Difference between Concept and Reality: In parliamentary system of
government, the constitutional position of the president and parliament are quite
different as compared to the one in reality. Formally, the president makes all
decisions and no bill is accepted without his approval but this is actually not the
case. His contribution is just a formality. The main role in this regard is played
by the prime minister and other ministers.
7-Effective Opposition: Opposition plays an important role in parliamentary
system of government. Because it is recognized as a substitute to the government.
Whenever the winning party loses in parliament, the leader of the opposition is
allowed to form the government.
Merits of Parliamentary System
1-Harmony: In Parliamentary system, there is complete harmony among the
administration and legislation. Both the units perform national affairs with
mutual cooperation. Prime Minister and other ministers are the part of the
legislature, and the legislature select only those people whom it considers
eligible.
In presidential system, harmony among the administration and legislation
is not a compulsion. Legislature neither selects the president nor can terminate
him easily. President is selected directly by the public. Therefore, both the units
remain stable. And if there is any conflict among two, it causes distress on
national level.
2-Risk of Dictatorship: In parliamentary system, there is no risk of dictatorship
because parliament is all the time busy in the accountability. The members of
parliament continue creating hurdles for the prime minister through questions,
privilege movement, adjournment motions and issues of reliability. He cannot
dismiss the hopes of whole nation. Whenever a prime minister tries to take over
the control, legislature checks him.
In presidential system, legislature can neither check the president nor
terminate him. The president is free and independent in his affairs therefore, he
can become dictator.
3-Guidance in Legislation: In parliamentary system, Prime Minister and other
ministers attend the meeting of legislation. They themselves present the bills. The
make the stand of government clear. They also counter the objections of
opposition. This promotes the environment of apprehension and discernment.
In presidential system, the president does neither have the opportunity to
express his views, nor, his ministers take part in sessions of the house. And
legislation becomes quite difficult in this way.
4-Changing an Ineligible Government: In parliamentary system of
government, if any ineligible person becomes the Prime Minister, the members
of legislature can force him to resign. While in presidential system, the president
enjoys his position for complete four years, and any institution cannot terminate
him. If the President proves to be ineligible, people still have to bear him.
5-Responsible Government: Parliamentary form of government is a responsible

government. It is answerable to the public and representatives of the public.
Prime minister and other ministers are called in legislative council for giving the
report of their performance.
On the other hand, presidential system of government is not usually
responsible. Once the president is selected, his tenure has to be completed. He
continues his authority whether the public or their representatives are satisfied or
not. He does not consider it necessary to satisfy the public and their
representatives. He can make decisions on his own.
6-Political training of People: The political process continues in parliamentary
system. Political parties seem to be active even after elections. They continue to
make people aware of their political, economic and social problems. They also
guide the citizens on local, national and international levels. While in presidential
system, political parties curtail their activities after the electoral process. The
opposite parties know the fact that they cannot terminate the president before
completion of his tenure. Therefore, they avoid unproductive efforts.
7-Role of Opposition: If the role of opposition is effective, it proves to be very
beneficial in democracy. In parliamentary system, opposition is properly formed
and is called a substitute to the government. But in presidential system, the
concept of Opposition does not exist if it exists, it is not an effective one.
Opposition plays role only in the days of elections.
8-Better Leadership: In Parliamentary system, political parties always remain
active. Every political party, whether it wins or loses the elections, maintains its
organization. The meetings of parties are held time and again and the politicians
get the chance to share their viewpoints. The whole process polishes the
individuals and prepares them for leadership.
While in presidential system, the political parties select their candidates near
elections. Sometimes, the tickets are granted to those people who are not fully
eligible. Because in this form of government, the political party does not have
time to check his candidate.
9-An Experienced Leadership: In parliamentary system, usually the prime
ministers are quite older and experienced politician. They have much experience
of politics.
De-merits of Parliamentary System
Parliamentary and presidential systems of government are opposite to
each other. Though, both the systems are democratic but the characteristics of
one system cannot be observed in the other system. Therefore, the qualities of
one system can be considered the drawbacks of the other system.
1-Stability: Presidential System causes the establishment of a stable government
because the president is selected for limited time. He cannot be terminated
therefore, he performs his duties whole heartedly. He has no fear that legislature
or any other institution can terminate him, therefore, he works for the
establishment of stable government. Parliamentary system of government is
unstable. Legislature can terminate the prime minister and his government at any
time.
2-Eligibility of Ministers: In presidential system, ministers are eligible and able.
President grants the membership of his cabinet only to those people whom he
considers eligible. He selects few ministers among the population of millions and
grants each department to the concerned minister. Due to proper discussion and
best advices, the working of government becomes more effective.
In parliamentary system of government, the prime minister has very limited
options. It is necessary for him to choose ministers from the members of the
legislature as well as to choose ministers from his own party or any supportive
party. In this way, political limitations are kept in view rather than eligibility and
capability.
3-Relationship with the Public: In presidential system, the public itself selects
the president. Therefore, he can claim to be the representative of the whole
nation. He is the portrayal of hopes and unity of the nation. On the other hand,
the Prime Minister and his cabinet ministers consider themselves only the
representatives of the legislature. They cannot claim the public representation
wholly as the president does in presidential system of government.
4-Distribution of Responsibilities: In presidential system, responsibilities are
divided between the president and the legislature. The president performs
administrative responsibilities only. He and his ministers neither attend the
summit of the legislature nor provide any guidance in legislation. In
parliamentary system of government, the Prime Minister has number of
responsibilities. He performs administrative and legislative responsibilities at the
same time. He also has to make decisions about approval of the sessions of
legislature as well as its cancellation.
5-Fast Decisions: In presidential system, all administrative decisions are taken
by the president himself. He only takes advices from his ministers and is not
bound to their will. Therefore, whenever he reaches any conclusion, he
announces his decision. This situation causes prompt implementation of the
orders. In emergency situations, especially the president does not have any fear
of delay in decision making. On the other hand, in parliamentary system, the
prime minister alone cannot make the decisions. He has to cooperate with the
majority of his cabinet and legislature. And this process takes much time.
6-Completion of Projects: In presidential system, the period for the completion
of Projects is fixed in accordance with the tenure of the president. It is observed
that whether this project will be completed in the tenure of the president or not.
In parliamentary system, there is continuous risk of change of the government.
Prime Minister does not know about his tenure. He begins different projects. The
projects are usually in the process when there comes the end of his government.
And in this way, the projects are left incomplete and fragmentary.
7-Opposition for Opposition: There is no opposition in presidential system of
government. After losing the presidential elections, the opposition limitizes its
activities. Because it knows that a president cannot be terminated before fulfilling
the tenure of his government. In parliamentary system, opposition tries to take
the control of government all the time and continues to defame the winning party
by hook and by crook. For this purpose, there is great propaganda and criticism
for criticism. Even the good projects of the government are criticized. These
things cause chaos and disappointments in public.
8-Party Discipline: In presidential system, the members of the legislature are
free to express their viewpoints. There is neither any restriction on them by their
political party nor they are forced to agree with the leadership. On the contrary,
party discipline is very necessary in parliamentary system of government. It is
expected from each member of the parliament to adopt the views in accordance
with the party line. It is possible that whatever a member says in parliament, his
speech is only a party stand and not his personal opinion.
9-Determining the Responsibility: In presidential system of government, all
duties are granted to the president. He discusses with the leaders of his party,
members of cabinet and other advisors and then announces the final decision.
However, the decision is solely his own and he cannot avoid the responsibility.
In parliamentary system of government, the prime minister has to value the
advices of his ministers. He respects the opinions of members of parliament and
cabinet. He even sometimes has an approach which he personally does not like.
This situation gets worst in a mixed government.
10-Party Affiliation: In presidential system of government, political parties are
not so much active other than elections. After the elections, the activities are very
limited. All the Political parties know the fact that it is not possible to terminate
the president before the completion of his tenure. Therefore, they cooperate for
national stability and integration leaving enmity and clashes behind. In
parliamentary system of government, political parties are always active. The
losing party plays the role of opposition and continues a propaganda against
winning party which results in division of public in different groups.
11-Political Bribery: In presidential system, the members of legislature cannot
terminate the president. Therefore, not any individual or party tries to bribe them.
In parliamentary system, political bribe is very common. Opposition parties pay
off to weaken the winning party and continues to change their affiliations. This
whole process is cheap and quite immoral from National point of view.
DEMOCRACY AND CIVIL SOCIETY
The relationship between democracy and civil society is integral and
mutually reinforcing. Democracy, as a system of government, is built on the
principles of citizen participation, accountability, and the protection of individual
rights and freedoms. Civil society, on the other hand, refers to the realm of
organized groups and institutions that operate independently of the state. These
include non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, religious
institutions, professional associations, and other voluntary organizations that
work to address social, economic, and political issues.
In a democracy, civil society plays a crucial role in fostering citizen
participation. It provides a platform for people to engage with issues affecting
their communities and participate in decision-making processes outside of formal
political structures like elections. Civil society organizations (CSOs) mobilize
citizens to express their views, advocate for their rights, and engage in public
debates. This engagement is vital for a healthy democracy because it ensures that
governance is not limited to periodic voting but involves continuous interaction
between the government and the governed.
Accountability is another key area where civil society enhances
democracy. In a democratic system, it is essential that leaders and institutions
remain accountable to the people. Civil society organizations often serve as
watchdogs, monitoring the actions of the government and exposing corruption,

inefficiency, or human rights abuses. By holding the government to account, civil
society helps ensure that democratic institutions function effectively and remain
responsive to the needs of the citizens.
Civil society also plays an important role in protecting human rights and
freedoms, which are central to democracy. NGOs and advocacy groups work
tirelessly to promote and defend civil liberties, ensuring that all individuals,
regardless of their background, are treated fairly and justly. These groups often
lead campaigns against discrimination, promote equality, and safeguard
marginalized populations, contributing to a more inclusive democratic society.
Further more, civil society promotes public debate and political
engagement, key aspects of a functioning democracy. By organizing forums,
workshops, and campaigns, civil society creates spaces where citizens can
discuss political and social issues, share ideas, and challenge governmental
policies. This fosters a more informed and engaged citizenry, which is crucial for
the vitality of democratic life.
In essence, democracy provides the framework within which civil society
operates, while civil society ensures that democracy remains vibrant, inclusive,
and accountable. Together, they create a dynamic system that promotes freedom,
equality, and participation, ensuring that the voice of the people is always present
in governance.
Relationship between Democracy and Civil Society in the Context of
Pakistan
In Pakistan, the relationship between democracy and civil society is both
complex and evolving. As a nation with a turbulent political history marked by
military interventions, fragile democratic institutions, and periods of authoritarian
rule, civil society has played an important role in shaping Pakistan’s democratic
trajectory. Over the years, civil society organizations (CSOs) have become key
actors in advocating for democratic governance, human rights, and
accountability, while also facing challenges due to political instability and
government restrictions.
* Role of Civil Society in Strengthening Democracy: Civil society in Pakistan
has consistently been a champion of democracy, particularly during times of
military rule or authoritarian governance. During the late 1980s and early 2000s,
civil society, including lawyers, journalists, and human rights activists, were
instrumental in advocating for the restoration of democratic rule. The Lawyers'
Movement (2007–2009) is a significant example, where civil society mobilized
massive public support to challenge General Pervez Musharraf’s suspension of
the judiciary and call for the restoration of Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry. This
movement reflected how civil society could rally citizens in defense of
democratic values and the rule of law, eventually leading to Musharraf's
resignation and the return of democratic governance.
* Promoting Accountability and Transparency: In Pakistan, civil society plays
a critical role in promoting accountability and transparency, which are essential
elements of a functioning democracy. NGOs, media outlets, and human rights
organizations often act as watchdogs, exposing government corruption,
inefficiency, and violations of human rights. Organizations such as the Human
Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) and Transparency International Pakistan

have been active in advocating for better governance and exposing malpractice
within both the government and state institutions.
Civil society has also been involved in election monitoring to ensure
free and fair elections, which is vital for a democratic system. For example, the
Free and Fair Election Network (FAFEN) has been active in observing elections
in Pakistan, identifying irregularities and calling for electoral reforms to improve
the democratic process.
* Defending Human Rights and Social Justice: A core function of civil society
in Pakistan is defending human rights and promoting social justice. Pakistan has
a history of political repression, minority marginalization, and gender inequality,
and civil society groups have often been at the forefront of addressing these
issues. For example, organizations advocating for women's rights, such as Aurat
Foundation, have worked tirelessly to bring attention to issues like domestic
violence, child marriage, and unequal political representation. Similarly, groups
advocating for the rights of religious minorities and marginalized communities
have played a significant role in pushing for more inclusive policies within
Pakistan's democratic framework.
* Challenges Faced by Civil Society: Despite its crucial role, civil society in
Pakistan faces significant challenges. The operating space for civil society
organizations has frequently been constrained by government regulations,
harassment, and censorship, especially when they criticize the state or the
military. Laws regulating NGOs, such as restrictions on foreign funding and
registration requirements, have often been used to suppress dissenting voices.
Moreover, civil society organizations working on sensitive issues, such as human
rights, press freedom, or minority rights, sometimes face intimidation or
violence.
Additionally, political instability and frequent changes in government
make it difficult for civil society to engage in long-term advocacy and policy
reform. In some cases, civil society organizations have been co-opted by political
elites, reducing their effectiveness in promoting democratic principles and
serving as independent voices for accountability.
* Civil Society‟s Role in the Future of Democracy: For Pakistan's democracy
to flourish, the relationship between civil society and the state must be one of
mutual respect and cooperation. An empowered civil society can help strengthen
democratic institutions, advocate for transparency, and hold the government
accountable. It can also play a pivotal role in promoting political participation at
the grassroots level, educating citizens about their rights, and encouraging youth
involvement in the political process.
As Pakistan continues to grapple with issues like poverty, inequality, and
regional instability, civil society remains a critical player in pushing for reforms
and addressing the needs of the most vulnerable. Moreover, in the face of
growing authoritarian tendencies and censorship, a vibrant civil society is
essential for preserving the democratic space and ensuring that citizens’ voices
are heard.
Conclusion: In Pakistan, the relationship between democracy and civil society
has been marked by both collaboration and tension. Civil society has played a
key role in advocating for democratic principles, human rights, and transparency,
even in the face of challenges such as government restrictions and political
instability. For Pakistan’s democracy to strengthen, civil society must be allowed
to function freely, as it is vital to holding power accountable and ensuring that
the democratic process reflects the will and rights of the people.
Importance of the Relationship between Democracy &
Civil Society in the Context of Pakistan
The relationship between democracy and civil society is crucial for
Pakistan's political stability, development, and governance. As a country that has
experienced frequent disruptions to democratic rule, the interaction between
these two entities is essential for building a resilient and inclusive democratic
system. Here’s why this relationship is particularly important for Pakistan:
1-Safeguarding Democracy: In Pakistan, civil society plays a pivotal role in
safeguarding democracy during periods of political upheaval or authoritarian
rule. Throughout its history, Pakistan has seen multiple instances of military
interventions and the suspension of democratic processes. Civil society has often
been the leading force advocating for the return of democracy. For example,
during General Musharraf's regime, the Lawyers' Movement was instrumental in
restoring judicial independence and pushing for democratic elections. This
highlights how civil society can act as a guardian of democratic values and resist
autocratic tendencies.
2-Promoting Accountability and Transparency: The role of civil society in
promoting accountability and transparency is critical in Pakistan, where
corruption and mismanagement have historically weakened democratic
institutions. Civil society organizations (CSOs) such as Transparency
International Pakistan and the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan regularly
expose corruption and human rights violations, keeping the government
accountable. By doing so, civil society strengthens democratic institutions and
ensures that the government remains answerable to the people.
In a country where governance can sometimes lack transparency, the
ability of civil society to act as a watchdog is essential for the effective
functioning of democracy. Civil society helps ensure that elected officials fulfill
their mandates and that public resources are used responsibly.
3-Strengthening Electoral Processes: Free and fair elections are the foundation
of any democracy. In Pakistan, civil society has been active in monitoring
elections, ensuring the transparency of the electoral process, and advocating for
electoral reforms. Organizations such as the Free and Fair Election Network
(FAFEN) have been involved in observing elections and reporting irregularities.
Their work helps build public trust in the democratic process, ensuring that
elections reflect the true will of the people.
In a country where electoral fraud and manipulation have been recurring
issues, civil society’s involvement in monitoring and advocating for fair electoral
practices is crucial for legitimizing democratic governance.
4-Advocating for Human Rights and Social Justice: Pakistan’s democratic
system can only be considered complete when it ensures the protection of human
rights and the promotion of social justice. Civil society plays an indispensable
role in advocating for the rights of marginalized groups, such as women,

minorities, and underrepresented communities. Organizations like Aurat
Foundation have worked extensively on women’s rights, while others focus on
the rights of religious minorities and the marginalized.
In a diverse society like Pakistan, where inequality and social injustice
can lead to political and social unrest, civil society’s advocacy for inclusivity
ensures that democracy serves all citizens, not just the privileged few. This
inclusive approach helps reduce tensions and fosters social cohesion, both of
which are essential for the long-term stability of democracy.
5-Encouraging Political Participation: Civil society in Pakistan also
encourages grassroots political participation, educating citizens about their
rights and responsibilities. By organizing forums, workshops, and awareness
campaigns, civil society empowers ordinary citizens to engage in political
discourse and participate in elections. In a country where political participation
can sometimes be limited to elites, civil society creates a bridge for
underrepresented groups to have their voices heard.
By fostering political awareness and engagement, civil society
strengthens the democratic fabric of Pakistan, ensuring that democracy is
participatory and representative.
6-Promoting Pluralism and Dialogue: Civil society promotes pluralism by
fostering dialogue among different ethnic, religious, and social groups. Pakistan
is a diverse country with significant cultural, linguistic, and religious differences.
Civil society organizations encourage dialogue and understanding between these
groups, helping to mitigate conflict and promote national unity.
In a democracy, where the peaceful coexistence of different communities
is essential, civil society’s role in promoting pluralism ensures that diverse voices
are heard and respected, thus enhancing social harmony and reducing political
polarization.
7-Countering Extremism and Promoting Peace: Pakistan has been battling the
challenge of extremism and terrorism for decades. Civil society plays a vital role
in countering extremist ideologies by promoting tolerance, education, and
peaceful coexistence. By offering alternative narratives and engaging with youth,
civil society helps in building a democratic culture that rejects violence and
embraces peaceful solutions to conflict.
This aspect of civil society's work is particularly important for the
stability of Pakistan‟s democracy, as extremism poses a direct threat to
democratic governance and social order.
Conclusion: The relationship between democracy and civil society in Pakistan is
vital for the country’s political development, governance, and social cohesion.
Civil society acts as a protector of democratic principles, an advocate for human
rights, a promoter of political participation, and a watchdog for transparency and
accountability. In a nation with a complex political history and diverse
population, the harmony between democracy and civil society ensures that
Pakistan moves toward a more inclusive, just, and stable democratic system.
For democracy to fully flourish in Pakistan, the space for civil society
must be preserved and respected. This partnership is essential for building a
vibrant, resilient democracy that serves the interests of all its citizens, especially
in a country facing both internal and external challenges.
Right to Vote, Importance of Political Participation
& Representation
The right to vote and political participation are fundamental elements of
any democratic society, providing citizens with the power to influence their
government and its policies. The right to vote, also known as suffrage, is a
universal right that allows individuals to elect their representatives through free
and fair elections. This right ensures that governments are formed based on the
will of the people, making voting the most direct and vital form of political
participation. Voting empowers citizens to have a say in the political direction of
their country, and it serves as a tool for the public to choose leaders who will
represent their interests. A high voter turnout reflects a healthy democracy, where
people actively engage in the political process. Without equal access to voting,
segments of the population may be excluded from decision-making, which
weakens the representativeness and fairness of governance.
Beyond voting, political participation includes a broader range of
activities that allow citizens to engage with and influence the political system.
This includes standing for election, joining political parties, participating in
campaigns, attending rallies, signing petitions, and engaging in public discourse
through debates, protests, or social media. Political participation extends to
informal activities as well, such as grassroots movements, advocacy, and
community organizing. These forms of engagement are crucial for the
functioning of democracy because they provide continuous oversight and input,
ensuring that elected officials remain accountable to the people between
elections. Active political participation also fosters a more inclusive democracy,
ensuring that the voices of marginalized groups, such as women, minorities, and
the economically disadvantaged, are heard and considered in policy-making.
In addition to strengthening democracy, political participation enhances
civic education. It encourages individuals to be informed about political
processes, government policies, and their own rights and responsibilities as
citizens. This, in turn, leads to more engaged and aware voters who can make
informed choices. Furthermore, political participation serves as a mechanism for
social change, allowing citizens to advocate for reforms, challenge injustices, and
shape the laws and policies that govern their lives. In conclusion, the right to vote
and broader political participation are essential for ensuring that a democracy
remains vibrant, inclusive, and responsive to the needs and aspirations of its
citizens.
Importance of Political Participation and Representation
Political participation and representation are crucial elements in any
democratic society. They ensure that individuals and groups within a society
have a say in decision-making processes, hold leaders accountable, and influence
the laws and policies that govern their lives. Without active participation and fair
representation, democracy becomes hollow, as it no longer reflects the true will
and diversity of its citizens. Here’s a detailed explanation of why these concepts
are important:
1-Empowerment of Citizens: Political participation gives citizens the power to

influence government decisions directly or indirectly. This involvement can be
through voting, running for office, engaging in public debates, or joining political
movements and organizations. When people participate in politics, they feel more
empowered and connected to their government. It transforms them from passive
observers to active participants in shaping their society, ensuring that governance
is responsive to their needs and aspirations. Participation reinforces the idea that
the government is "by the people, for the people," as every citizen has the
opportunity to have their voice heard.
2-Accountability and Transparency: Active political participation holds
elected officials and institutions accountable. When citizens are engaged in the
political process, whether through voting or other means, they can monitor the
actions of their representatives and ensure that they fulfill their campaign
promises and act in the public interest. Citizens can demand transparency,
investigate corruption, and press for reforms. This continuous oversight from the
public helps prevent abuses of power and encourages good governance. Without
participation, governments are more likely to act without accountability, leading
to inefficiency, corruption, and unresponsiveness to the needs of the population.
3-Representation of Diverse Interests: Political participation ensures that
different groups within society are represented in decision-making. In a
pluralistic society, people come from diverse backgrounds, whether based on
ethnicity, gender, class, or religion, and they often have varying needs and
priorities. For democracy to be fair, all these groups must have the opportunity to
be heard and included in governance. Representation guarantees that no single
group dominates the political process, and decisions reflect the interests of a
broader section of society. When marginalized groups are represented, policies
become more inclusive, addressing issues like poverty, inequality, and
discrimination. This leads to a more just and balanced society where everyone
has a stake in the political system.
4-Social Cohesion and Stability: Political participation fosters social cohesion
by creating a sense of ownership and responsibility among citizens. When people
are actively involved in politics, they feel connected to the community and the
larger political system. This sense of involvement can reduce feelings of
alienation or disenfranchisement, which are often sources of social unrest.
Political participation can also provide peaceful outlets for expressing grievances,
reducing the likelihood of conflict. When citizens know that their voices matter,
they are more likely to work within the political system to achieve their goals
rather than turning to protests or violent means.
5-Improvement of Public Policy: Political participation leads to better public
policy by ensuring that it is informed by the lived experiences of the population.
When citizens engage with their representatives and provide input on issues such
as education, healthcare, or the economy, the policies that emerge are more likely
to meet the actual needs of the people. Civic engagement through community
organizations, advocacy groups, and direct communication with political leaders
ensures that policies are grounded in the realities of everyday life. Without
participation, governments may implement policies that are disconnected from or
even harmful to the population, as they lack the necessary feedback from those
they are meant to serve.
6-Legitimacy of the Political System: A political system gains legitimacy when
it is seen as inclusive and representative. High levels of participation in elections
and political processes indicate a healthy democracy, where citizens believe in
the system and its capacity to address their needs. On the other hand, low
political participation or lack of representation can lead to public disillusionment
with the political system. If people feel excluded or see their government as
unrepresentative, they may lose trust in the institutions of democracy, leading to
political instability or even authoritarianism. By ensuring that political
participation is widespread and that all groups are represented, governments can
maintain public trust and the legitimacy of the democratic process.
7-Encouraging Civic Responsibility: Political participation instills a sense of
civic responsibility in citizens. When individuals engage with politics, they learn
about their rights and duties, the functioning of government, and how policies
affect their communities. This civic education promotes responsible citizenship,
encouraging people to contribute to the well-being of society through actions
such as voting, volunteering, or running for office. It also teaches citizens the
importance of compromise, debate, and understanding different perspectives, all
of which are crucial for the functioning of democracy.
8-Strengthening Democracy: Ultimately, the importance of political
participation and representation lies in their ability to strengthen democracy. A
robust democracy depends on the active engagement of its citizens and the fair
representation of all segments of society. When people participate, they not only
exercise their rights but also contribute to the overall health of the political
system. Political representation ensures that democracy is not limited to the elite
or majority groups but is an inclusive system where everyone has a stake. As
citizens participate and engage, democratic values such as freedom, equality, and
justice are reinforced, and the political system becomes more resilient to
challenges such as corruption, authoritarianism, or populism.
Conclusion: Political participation and representation are critical for the
effective functioning of democracy. They empower citizens, hold leaders
accountable, ensure that diverse interests are represented, and improve public
policies. Moreover, they foster social cohesion and stability, enhance the
legitimacy of political systems, and promote civic responsibility. A democracy
without broad political participation and inclusive representation risks becoming
disconnected from the needs and interests of its people. In contrast, a system
where all citizens are engaged and represented leads to a healthier, more
responsive, and resilient democratic society.
………………………………..
CHAPTER NO. 4
RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Civic Responsibility & Duties
Meaning and Nature of Rights: Man is far superior to other creatures because
of his social and political life. He lives with other human beings and fulfills his
needs in this way. The facilities which are granted to an individual in society and
state are known as the Rights. Without basic rights, a man neither gets a chance
to polish his skills nor can protect his life. Rights are another name of freedom
and are linked with both the society and state. We all know that state and society
are developed by people. If people are facilitated, it means they have freedom.
The rights are not only linked with the state instead they are an individual’s
demands from other individuals. The condition is that state should fulfill these
demands. And if a citizen cannot get his demands fulfilled, he can seek help from
the state. Aristotle said that “A state is formed to live a better life, and it
continues to work for providing better life.” It is very much possible to have
mutual conflicts among people living in a society. To resolve these issues, a
society sets some rules and regulations. If a person violates laws, the society can
force him to restrain from doing so. Thus, state cannot usurp the rights of any
citizen. State is for public, public is not for state. Therefore, it provides the
opportunities for development to the citizens to polish their skills.
In west, the written form of peace appeared in 1215 by the name of
„Magna Carta‟ originally issued by king John of England (1199-1216). Later, it
was included in the constitution of Great Britain. Same was the case in France
after French Revolution. Now a days, basic rights are given special place in
constitution of each country. And the government takes the responsibility of
protecting people by accepting their basic rights. There are happening great
changes in human societies and public demands are increasing day by day.
Whatever is the new demand of citizens, it becomes their right when the state
accepts it. So, we can say that rights are getting increased day by day.
Definitions
Aristotle: “Rights are the base of political institutions and justice lies in
provision of rights.”
Bob House: “Rights are what we expect from others and what others expect
from us.”
Laski: “The basic conditions for collective life are known as rights so that
people may express their talent.”
T.H.Green: “The Rights complete human life and personality.
Features of Rights
1-Rights are given in a society. Without society, no one can get his rights.
2- The government accepts and protects the rights.
3- Rights are given to all citizens on equal bases.
4-Rights and duties are part and parcel for each other. The citizens have to
perform their duties to get their rights. An individual’s right is the duty for
another person.
5-Rights are the conditions necessary for public welfare. The individual demands
cannot be viewed as rights.
6- Rights guarantee a better lifestyle.
7-It is necessary to demand. If people are not aware of their rights, they may
harm themselves in some way.
8-Rights are specified, however, they grow with the passage of time.
Kinds of Rights
Rights are basically divided into three kinds.
1-Natural Rights: Faith in natural rights is strongly expressed by several
scholars. They hold that people inherit several rights from nature. Before they
came to live in society and state, they used to live in a state of nature. In it, they
enjoyed certain natural rights, like the right to life, right to liberty and right to
property. Natural rights are parts of human nature and reason. Jean Bodin,
Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau and Cicero were the advocates of natural rights.
2-Moral Rights: Moral Rights are those rights which are based on human
consciousness. They are backed by moral force of human mind. These are based
on human sense of goodness and justice. These are not backed by the force of
law. Sense of goodness and public opinion are the sanctions behind moral rights.
If any person violates any moral right, no legal action can be taken against him.
The state does not enforce these rights. Its courts do not recognize these rights.
Moral Rights include rules of good conduct, courtesy and of moral behavior.
These stand for moral perfection of the people.
3-Legal Rights: Legal rights are those rights which are accepted and enforced by
the state. Any defilement of any legal right is punished by law. Law courts of the
state enforce legal rights. These rights can be enforced against individuals and
also against the government. In this way, legal rights are different from moral
rights. Legal rights are equally available to all the citizens. All citizens follow
legal rights without any discrimination. They can go to the courts for getting their
legal rights enforced.
Legal Rights are of Four kinds
(i)-Civil Rights
Civil rights are those rights which provide opportunity to each person to
lead a civilized social life. These fulfil basic needs of human life in society. Right
to life, liberty and equality are civil rights. Civil rights are protected by the state.
The detail is given below:
1-Right to Live: This means that nobody, including the Government, can try to
end human life. It also means the Government should take appropriate measures
to safeguard life by making laws to protect people and, in some circumstances,
by taking steps to protect if their life is at risk. Public authorities should also
consider the right to life when making decisions that might put citizens in danger
or that affect their life expectancy. If a member of our family dies in
circumstances that involve the state, we may have the right to an investigation.
The state is also required to investigate suspicious deaths and deaths in custody.
The courts have decided that the right to life does not include a right to die.
2-Individual Right: It is not enough to provide the right to live to an individual.
It is also necessary to give him opportunities to make his life safe and happy. He
may live according to his will. He should not be forced to live like a slave. It is
the civil right of an individual that he is free, has no restrictions on moving from
one place to another, may not be imprisoned or detained. If the citizens are afraid
of other citizens or administrative machinery, they can seek help from judiciary
in this regard.
3-Right of Property: In democratic countries, every citizen has the right to
acquire, hold and dispose of property in any part of the country, subject to the
Constitution and any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the public
interest. Further, no person can be deprived of his property.
4-Right of Family: The right to family life is the right of all individuals to have
their established family life respected and to have and maintain family
relationships. This right is recognized in a variety of international human rights
instruments. A state makes law regarding issues like marriage, divorce,
inheritance and other such matters. Thus, it tries to provide opportunities for
better life.
5-Right to Self-Expression: It is a principle that supports the freedom of an
individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of
retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The term „freedom of expression‟ also
includes any act of seeking, receiving, and imparting information or ideas,
regardless of the medium used.
Freedom of expression is recognized as a human right under article 19 th
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which states that
“everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference” and
“everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include
freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds,
regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or
through any other media of his choice”
6-Right of Organization and Meetings: Every citizen has the right to form or
be a member of a political party, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed
by law in the interest of the sovereignty or integrity of state. A society may have
political, religious, economic, welfare, professional and cultural organizations.
These organization work for their rights. Some intellectuals even view state as an
organization.
Each party or organization has its own formula. It needs to hold sessions
and meeting so that it may spread its motto among common people. The citizens
have right to hold political meetings and processions. But if there is any anti-state
talk, or discussion which may lead to differences among people, those who
arrange these meetings are punished.
7-Right of Education: Education as a human right means the right to education
is legally guaranteed for all without any discrimination. The state has the
obligation to protect, respect, and fulfil the right to education. And there are ways
to hold states accountable for violations or deprivations of the right to education.
8-Right of Movement: In democratic states, no one can impose restrictions on
movement of people. They can live where they want to live and it is legal right of
every citizen. Further, no one can be imprisoned or detained without information.
If a person is imprisoned, his family can seek help from court. This right is
known as Habeas Corpus in British constitution. Now it is part of the
constitutions of all democratic countries.
9-Right of Pacts: People make pacts for trade and economic development. The
state grants the right to make pacts. If a person violates the rules of pact, the state
can intervene and resolve the issue by punishing the one who breaks laws. The
rights of making pacts are very limited. If people sign on any agreement which is
against the sovereignty and integrity of the state, the state inflict a penalty on
both parties. The pacts opposing public and anti-government pacts cannot be
made.
10-Right of Language and Culture: There is no doubt that language is a key
aspect in the development of an individual. It is clear that language, as a
fundamental element of the human condition, allows us to acknowledge
ethnicities and groups. An individual cannot have access or enjoy his rights
without the use of language. It is also an important cognitive component of
cultural identification. It is the duty of state to protect the language and culture of
its citizens. Many languages are spoken in Pakistan and each region has its own
culture. According to the second constitution of Pakistan, people of every region
had the right to speak their language and live in accordance with their culture. It
was made compulsory for government to provide opportunities for regional
development.
11-Right of Equality and Law: One measure of equality suggested by the
British sociologist T.H. Marshall is “citizenship” - the “basic human equality
associated with full membership of a community.” Democracy stresses the
equality of all individuals and insists that all men are created equal. Democracy
does not persist on an equality of condition for all people or argue that all persons
have a right to an equal share of worldly goods. Rather, its concept of equality
insists that all are entitled to equality of opportunity and equality before the law.
12-Right of Self-Respect: Self-respect is the positive side of continuum between
the extremes of high and low, or ambivalent, self-esteem. As every person is
assumed to have self-esteem, whether positive or negative, other people are
assumed to esteem his self-respect favorably and unfavorably. Islam has also
stressed upon giving respect to others.
13-Right of Communication: Communication is a fundamental feature of
humanity. The ability to communicate to receive, process, store and produce
messages is central to human interaction and participation. To understand and to
be understood not only enables expression of basic needs and wants; but also
enables interaction and participation at a family, community, national and global
level. All humans, regardless of their age or capacity, send and receive
communicative messages. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression; this
right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive
and impart information and ideas through any medium.
(ii)-Religious Rights
Freedom of religion is a principle that supports the freedom of an
individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in
teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedom to
change one’s religion or beliefs.
Freedom of religion is considered by many people and most of the
nations to be a fundamental human right. In a country with a state religion,
having religious rights means that the government permits religious practices of
other sects besides the state religion, and does not persecute believers in other
faiths.
(iii)-Economic Rights
1-Fixation of Labor Hours: A laborer works for fixed time. The fixation of
working time is one of the oldest concerns of the labor legislation. According to
international law, a laborer has to work for 8 hours a day. As they also have the
right to enjoy their life and leisure time.
2-Safeguard from Compulsory Labor: It is not permitted to get you work done
without payment. A person who does so can be summoned by court.
3-Reasonable Pay: A person should have a reasonable pay. Every laborer has
this right and the government protects it. Now a days, the minimum wage is fixed
in almost all democratic countries.
The advocates of communism give more importance to economic rights
than civil and political rights. The government is responsible to fulfill the daily
needs of the individuals as well as provide them opportunities for employment. A
person has the right to go for profession of his choice. Labor laws are developed
in other countries as well where now the laborers are facilitated and paid
properly.
4-Right of Union: In democratic countries, the laborers have the right to make
union in order to protect their rights. People have the right to form religious,
cultural, economic, literary, scientific and trade organization as well as political
parties.
5-Social Insurance: A democratic state also provides social protection to its
citizens. Laborers are supported through social security scheme. The government
helps people in case of emergency, sickness or death. The government officers
are rewarded through group insurance scheme. With the passage of time, there is
an increasing trend of providing resources to people. The developed countries
have taken so many steps to provide social and economic protection. The
developing countries are also taking steps in this regard.
(iv)-Political Rights
Political rights are those rights by virtue of which inhabitants get a share
in the political process. These allow them to take an active part in the political
process. These rights include right to vote, right to get elected, right to hold
public office and right to criticize and oppose the government. Political rights are
really available to the people in a democratic state.
1-Right to Vote: In a democratic state, every adult citizen is given the right to
vote. By the use of this right, citizens elect the government of their choice. This
right is given only to the adults i.e. persons above a particular age 18 years or 21
years.
2-Right of Representation: In a democratic state every citizen is also given the
right to get elected to any public office. He can get elected to a legislature, or
municipal corporation / municipal committee and work as its member. Some
qualifications are however fixed for seeking election. The citizens also have the
right to hold public offices after getting elected as representatives of the people.
While fixing qualifications, no discrimination is made and proper care is taken
that only competent persons may get elected.
3-Right of Government Job: In democratic countries, anyone can get the
government job if they are qualified. Every individual has equal right of getting
job in public sector. There is no discrimination of caste, color or creed in this
regard. Usually, there are Public Service Commissions and Selection Boards for
the appointment of government officers. Able people get selected. In Pakistan,
there are Federal and Provincial Public Service Commissions which select the
candidates after conducting the competition exams.
4-Right of Criticism over Government: In a democratic state, the citizens also
enjoy the right to criticize the policies of government. It is through the exercise
of this right that the government is made responsible. If people may not have this
right, the government can take wrong decisions. The criticism should be
constructive to offer well-reasoned opinions about the performance of
government. Laski gives much importance to it because mutual talk can resolve
any issue. John Stuart Mill and Abraham Lincoln also consider the right of
criticism necessary for evolution of democracy.
The citizens have the right of criticism over government only in
democracy. They cannot express their views in kingship or dictatorship. If a
person does so, the dictator threatens him and forces him to restrain from doing
so. There should be constructive criticism even in democracy.
5-Right of protection in Abroad: The state is responsible for protection of life
and property of a person living in his country or abroad. If a person lives in
abroad, the government of the other country will protect him like its own
citizens. Each state gives protection to foreigners. If a person wants to get the
citizenship of another country, he needs to take permission from the country.
6-Right of Protest: The Citizens of a democratic state have the right to oppose
the government when it may fail to protect their interests. However such a
resistance has to be peaceful and by constitutional means. All these civil,
economic and political rights are granted and guaranteed by the state, in fact by a
democratic state, to all its citizens without any discrimination.
7-Right of Formulation of Political Party: In every democratic state, people
have the right to form their political parties and to participate in the political
process through these. As they play an important role in formation of government
and opposition as well as political training of people. Political parties are often
consisted of people with same mentality who are elected through votes and make
government. Along with political parties, one can also develop pressure groups
for limited purposes.
8-Right of Conducting General Elections: People have the right to conduct
election after some time. General Elections are held after five years in Pakistan,
India, Britain and some other countries. In America, the president is selected for
four years. It is necessary to hold free, just and impartial elections. For this
purpose, there is an institution in Pakistan named as Election Commission. The
commission announces the electoral program and conducts the whole process.
CIVIC DUTIES
Meaning: Man in far superior to other creatures because of his social and
political life. He lives with other human beings and fulfills his needs in this way.
The facilities which are granted to an individual in society and state are known as
the Rights. People living together perform some duties and in return, the society
and state give them some ease. The responsibilities of citizens are known as
Duties and resulting facilities are known as the Rights. Without basic rights, a
man neither gets a chance to polish his skills nor can protect his life. Rights are
another name of freedom and are linked with both the society and state.
In west, the written form of peace appeared in 1215 by the name of „Magna
Carta‟ originally issued by King John of England (1199- 1216). Later, it was
included in the constitution of Great Britain. Same was the case in France after
French Revolution. Now a days, basic rights are given special place in
constitution of each country and government takes the responsibility of
protecting people by accepting their basic rights. There are happening great
changes in human societies and public demands are increasing day by day.
Whatever is the new demand of citizens, it becomes their right when the state
accepts it. So, we can say that rights are getting increased day by day.
Types of Duties
There are two types of duties: 1-Moral Duties 2-Legal Duties
1-Moral Duties: Islam has always stood for communities living in harmony and
for Muslims to exemplify the highest standards of care and concern toward
others. It includes the duties such as respecting the women and old people, taking
care of sick, loving the younger ones, respecting the parents and teachers, helping
the needy people. One of the most emphasized of all the Prophet’s teachings was
being good to people. “A person is not a believer who fills his stomach while his
neighbor is hungry.”
Quran also teaches us in this regard; “And help one another to do what is
right and good; do not help one another toward sin and aggression.”
2-Legal Duties: These are duties which are inflicted upon men by the state
government. A man has to perform these duties. If someone does not do so, the
state can force him to. Further, he may be punished in this regard. In the
following lines, we will discuss legal duties.
☆ Personal Duties: It is the duty of an individual to get settled with legal and
social principles. He should be aware of his basic rights, should take care of
himself as to polish his skills. He should also avoid intoxicating products and
adopt healthy activities in accordance with a proper time table to live a healthy
life.
☆ Duties towards others: A man should take care of rights, needs and comforts
of other people also. He must know the fact that his rights are supposed to be the
duties for other people and vice versa. If a person realizes that others also have
equal rights in society and state, then he cannot usurp their rights. Thus he can be
useful not only for himself but for the whole society by adopting a universal
approach.
Duties towards State
1-Loyalties towards State: “Surely Allah commands justice and the doing of
good (to others), and giving to the kindred, and He forbids indecency and evil
and rebellion. He admonishes you that you may be mindful. And fulfill the
covenant of Allah, when you have made a covenant, and break not your oaths
after confirming them; and you have indeed made Allah your surety. Surely
Allah knows what you do.” (Holy Quran)
These verses certainly train a Muslim in the best behavior, and order them
to form a strong Islamic society. They also order justice among the people. A
man is weak individually but the state makes him strong secure. Therefore, it is
the duty of every citizen to be loyal to the state either at the price of his life or
wealth.
2-The Right use of vote: To vote is a sacred right as well as an important duty. It
the duty of citizens to vote for the selection of government in a democratic state.
They must keep in mind the welfare of state, leaving behind their personal
interests. Because the wrong use of vote can lead a nation to complete destruction
and devastation.
3-Payment of taxes: The state inflicts taxes on the citizens. The money collected
in this way is used for welfare projects. The states makes developmental projects.
It provides educational and health facilities to the citizens. It takes many steps for
social welfare, sources of transportation, progress of industry, agriculture and
other fields. It is the strength of unity that individual money when collected is
spent for projects of common interests.
4-Following the Law: Law is another name of restrictions for organizing
collective life of people. It provides us an organized system. Therefore, it is the
duty of every citizen to follow the laws of state. Laws are designed for public
welfare and their violation causes problems for the citizens. If every citizen
follows the laws completely, it can put an end to all social evils.
5-Co-operation with government officials: In a democratic state, few selected
people run the system of government. The system of state cannot be possible
without government machinery. But the members of government are very few,
they alone cannot compete with the enemies of state. Therefore, they need the
support of public in this regard. It is the duty of citizens to cooperate with the
government for good administrative performance. As military cannot begin a war
alone and police cannot put an end to crimes alone.
6-Self Control: It is the duty of every citizen to ignore his personal or family
interests for common interests of state and society. The one who ignores common
interests for his personal interests does not prove to be a good citizen. People are
to give first priority to the state so that an organized political and social structure
may be built.
7-Seeking Halal earning: The citizens should not go for haram earning. Theft,
smuggling, adulteration, and corruption are prohibited in an Islamic state.
Therefore, it is the responsibility of the citizens to seek halal earning.
8-Education: It is the duty of every citizen to get education and play his role as
an active member of the society and state. Education plays vital role in letting
people perform their duties. Further, with knowledge, there comes ease in daily
life. Therefore it is right as well as duty of all the citizens to get education. As it
is the education which helps the citizens to understand the relationship of rights
and duties.
Civic Duties
1-Obey Laws 2-Pay Taxes 3-Vote 4-Serve on a Jury
5-Respect Rights 6-Engage in Civic Activities 7-Stay Informed
8-Respect Public Property 9-Report Crimes
10-Support National Defense 11-Comply with Legal Obligations
12-Participate in Political Processes 13-Act Ethically
14-Follow Public Health Regulations 15-Respect Institutions
16-Support and respect government institutions and officials acting within legal
bounds. 17-Participate in National Events
18-Be a Responsible Consumer 19-Promote Inclusivity
20-Support Environmental Stewardship 21-Advocate for Social Justice
22-Fulfill Education Requirements 23-Respect Cultural Norms
24-Engage in Public Discourse 25-Support Legal Reforms
26-Protect Public Order 27-Contribute to Civic Organizations
28-Exercise Rights Responsibly 29-Encourage Civic Education
30-Participate in Local Governance 31-Maintain Civic Duties
These points cover a broad spectrum of responsibilities, from legal
obligations and civic participation to ethical conduct and social responsibility.
Fundamental Rights in the 1973, Constitution
The constitution of 1973 is democratic, public, federal and Islamic in
nature. It specifically includes the fundamental rights of citizens. These rights
enrich the citizen with the blessing of freedom and he leads a happy life using
these rights free from all kinds of worries and dangers. The responsibility of
protecting the rights has been assigned to the judiciary. If any right of a citizen is
lost or revoked, he or someone else on his behalf can approach the city's
judiciary. Judiciary plays an important role for the maintenance of right or rights.
No constitution in the world can be considered complete and democratic unless
fundamental rights are enshrined in it. Fundamental rights are included in the
constitution of every known country in the world today. Not only the United
States, Great Britain, Germany, France and India, rights have been given a place
in the constitutions of many African countries. Although authoritarian style of
government was prevalent in Russia. But even there the rights were made part of
the constitution. Russia has more rights than Western countries.
Along with the rights, the duties were also listed in the Constitution. It is
enough to include the rights in the constitution. It is necessary that the citizens
have the opportunity to enjoy their rights in practice and reality. For this, the
presence of an independent and empowered judiciary and an informed public is
essential.
It is claimed in the West that the Magna Carta is the first document
regarding rights that was signed by the King of Great Britain in 1215, allthough
the first charter of rights was settled in Medina. The Prophet of Islam (PBUH)
determined the rights of the citizens of Madinah. Not only Muslims but also all
non-Muslims and Jews were given equal opportunity to enjoy the rights. Rights
were decided in Medina 1400 years ago while the Magna Carta was written in
1215. The draft rights are the product of a much later period. France was the
second country after Britain where citizens were granted basic rights.
Rights were given after the revolution of 1789, but when Napoleon
Bonaparte's monarchy was established, the rights were abolished. In 1789, the
people of America were given rights under the Constitution. After that, whatever
nation became independent and wherever democratic system was introduced.
Rights were enshrined in the Constitution. Now the rights are the adornment in
all democratic countries. Enshrining rights in the constitution is very encouraging
for the people. They begin to think of themselves as all-knowing and abusive.
Since Amen is above the general law and the legislature or the administration
should be careful not to exceed the constitutional limits, the rights in the
constitution are always available to the people. No institution can harm the
fundamental rights of the people. However, if the country is in danger of internal
disturbance or external attack, the administration may temporarily suspend rights
under certain circumstances. These rights are suspended in case of emergency
and as soon as the situation becomes normal, the Constitution and the rights
granted under it are restored. In order to make the Constitution of Pakistan 1973
more democratic, the Constituent Assembly has allotted more fundamental rights
to the citizens. Article 22 of the constitution deals only with fundamental rights.
These provisions are from 7 to 28. Constitution grants the following rights
1-Protection of life
2-Right of Property
3-Equality
4-Right of Speech and Writing
5-Right of Union
6-Right of Transportation
7-Right of Supremacy of Law
8-Getting rid of Beggar and Slavery
9-Cultural Rights
10-Religious Rights
11-Economic Rights
12-Religious Security in Educational Institutions
13-Right of Personal Freedom
Ethical Consideration in Civic Engagement
Meaning: Ethical consideration in civic engagement refers to the moral
principles that guide how individuals and groups participate in public life,
ensuring that their actions respect human dignity, promote fairness, and
contribute to the common good. Central to this is respect for autonomy, meaning
participation should be voluntary and informed, with individuals having access to
accurate information to make decisions freely. It also involves ensuring
inclusivity and equity, providing marginalized groups equal opportunities to
engage and preventing their exclusion from public processes. Transparency and
accountability are essential, as those involved in civic actions must clearly
communicate their intentions and be responsible for the outcomes of their
decisions. Additionally, avoiding harm, whether through misinformation,
exclusion, or divisiveness, is a key ethical responsibility, and efforts should aim
to enhance the well-being of the community as a whole. Respect for diversity is
another vital consideration, recognizing and valuing the cultural, religious, and
ideological differences within a society. Ethical civic engagement fosters open
dialogue and deliberation, encouraging reasoned decision-making rather than
confrontation, and prioritizes the empowerment of communities by building their
capacity to participate effectively. Lastly, ethical engagement takes a long-term
perspective, considering the environmental and societal impacts of actions to
ensure sustainability. Ultimately, these ethical principles ensure that civic
participation is fair, responsible, and oriented toward justice and positive societal
outcomes.
Ethical Considerations in Civics Engagement
Civic engagement refers to the active participation of individuals in
public life to improve society, whether through political, social, or community-
based activities. While engaging in civic duties is essential for the functioning of
a democratic society, there are various ethical considerations that must be taken
into account to ensure that participation is responsible, inclusive, and morally
sound. Below is a detailed exploration of the ethical considerations in civic
engagement:
1-Informed Participation
* Ethical Obligation to Be Informed: Citizens have a responsibility to make
informed decisions when participating in civic life. This includes researching the
issues, understanding the different perspectives, and being aware of the possible
consequences of their actions.
* Avoiding Misinformation: With the proliferation of fake news and biased
media, there is an ethical duty to critically evaluate information sources and
avoid spreading false or misleading information, which can harm the democratic
process.
2-Respect for Diversity and Inclusivity
* Equity and Access: Civic engagement must ensure that all individuals,
regardless of race, gender, class, or other identities, have equal access to
participate. This includes advocating for systems and platforms that promote
inclusivity.
* Cultural Sensitivity: In multicultural societies, engaging in a manner that is
respectful of various cultures, traditions, and values is important. Civic
engagement that disregards or disrespects minority cultures can lead to exclusion
or social fragmentation.
* Representation of Marginalized Groups: Ethical civic participation often
means amplifying the voices of underrepresented or marginalized groups to
ensure their needs and concerns are addressed.
3-Transparency and Accountability
* Transparency in Motives: When engaging in civic actions, especially in
leadership or organizational roles, participants must be transparent about their
intentions and the possible impacts of their actions. Hidden agendas or
misleading motivations undermine trust.
* Public Accountability: Engaged citizens and leaders must be accountable for
the decisions they advocate for or implement. This includes being open to
scrutiny and accepting responsibility for mistakes or negative consequences of
actions.
4-Nonviolence and Peaceful Participation
* Commitment to Nonviolence: Ethical civic engagement promotes peaceful
methods of participation, such as dialogue, voting, advocacy, and protest.
Violence undermines the democratic process and can exacerbate conflicts.
* Civil Disobedience: In some cases, ethical considerations may justify civil
disobedience when laws are unjust or oppressive. However, even in these cases,
the methods should strive to minimize harm and promote peaceful resolutions.
5-Balancing Individual and Collective Good

* Ethical Decision-Making for the Common Good: Civic participation often
involves a balance between individual interests and the collective well-being.
Engaging ethically means considering how one’s actions affect others and society
as a whole, rather than focusing solely on personal benefits.
* Avoiding Self-Serving Behavior: Civic engagement should not be primarily
driven by personal gain, power, or recognition. Instead, it should focus on the
welfare of the community, society, or public interest.
6-Fairness and Justice
* Upholding Justice: Ethical civic engagement means striving for fairness and
justice, particularly in addressing societal inequalities. This can involve
supporting policies or movements that promote equal opportunity, fair
distribution of resources, and protection of rights.
* Opposing Discrimination: Engaging in civic activities requires challenging
discriminatory practices, policies, and behaviors, and advocating for the inclusion
and protection of all individuals, particularly vulnerable or historically
marginalized populations.
7-Environmental Responsibility
* Sustainability: In modern civic engagement, there is an increasing ethical
responsibility to consider the environmental impact of civic actions. This
includes supporting policies that protect the environment and advocating for
sustainable practices that will benefit future generations.
* Stewardship of Resources: Ethical participation also includes being responsible
stewards of community and natural resources, ensuring they are used wisely and
conserved for future needs.
8-Respecting the Rule of Law
* Lawful Engagement: Ethical civic engagement generally means working
within the framework of the law to effect change. While civil disobedience can
sometimes be ethically justified, the general principle is to respect the rule of law
as a means of maintaining social order and protecting rights.
* Challenging Unjust Laws: When laws are unjust, it may be ethical to challenge
them through legal reform, advocacy, or nonviolent protest. Engaged citizens
have a duty to resist laws or policies that infringe on basic human rights or
dignity.
9-Conflicts of Interest
* Avoiding Conflicts of Interest: Ethical engagement requires individuals and
organizations to avoid conflicts of interest that might compromise the integrity of
their civic work. This can include financial interests, personal relationships, or
other external pressures that could bias decision-making.
* Transparency in Personal Gain: If personal gain is involved in civic activities
(e.g., monetary gain from political campaigns or public office), this should be
transparently disclosed to ensure trust and accountability.
10-Ethical Communication
* Honest Advocacy: Advocacy is a key component of civic engagement, but it
must be grounded in honesty and truth. Manipulating facts, spreading
misinformation, or using deceptive rhetoric undermines ethical communication.
* Constructive Dialogue: Ethical engagement encourages open, respectful, and

constructive dialogue. Participants should be willing to listen to differing
viewpoints and avoid harmful or inflammatory language that polarizes or
alienates others.
11-Long-Term Commitment vs. Short-Term Action
* Sustainable Impact: Ethical civic engagement should focus on long-term
solutions rather than temporary fixes. This involves understanding the root
causes of issues and committing to lasting change, even if it requires sustained
effort and time.
* Avoiding “Performative” Activism: In some cases, civic engagement can
become performative, where individuals or organizations participate for the sake
of appearances rather than true commitment to the cause. Ethical engagement
requires genuine, sustained efforts, rather than symbolic actions for social
approval.
Conclusion: Civic engagement is vital for the health of any democracy, but it
must be guided by ethical principles to ensure it is responsible, inclusive, and
focused on the common good. Informed participation, respect for diversity,
accountability, nonviolence, and a commitment to justice are some of the key
ethical considerations in ensuring that civic engagement contributes positively to
society. These considerations serve as a moral compass to guide individuals and
organizations in their actions, ensuring that their participation strengthens
democratic values and promotes the well-being of all members of the
community.
......................
CHAPTER NO. 5
COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT
Community
The term „Community‟ is used in our society in various ways.
Sometimes, it is called „society‟. Sometimes, a group of people related to a
particular profession is called ‘community’ i.e. community of teachers or
lawyers. The word „community‟ is also used for a nation i.e. Pakistani
community or Iranian community. The terms „Civics community‟ and „Rural
community‟ are also in use by dividing the whole population in two categories.
This word is used on religious bases two, i.e. Muslim community or Christian
community. But the term „Community‟ can be more appropriately attributed to
the division on the base of area. A group of people living in a particular area
are called „community‟. An area where there are common values and people are
culturally connected with one another. When some families have same emotions,
interests, values and they have been living in a place unitedly, such group of
people is called „community‟.
Difference between Society &Community
A society is a broad, organized group of people who share common
institutions, laws, and cultural practices. It encompasses multiple communities,
including various social, political, and economic systems, and can span large
geographic areas, such as nations or regions. Society provides a framework for
governing behavior and ensuring stability through laws, institutions, and norms.
A community, on the other hand, is a smaller, more localized group of
people who share a common identity, interests, or values. Communities often
involve close personal connections and frequent interaction, and they can form
based on geography (e.g., a neighborhood) or shared interests (e.g., an online
group).
In short, society is a larger, more complex structure that encompasses many
communities, while a community is a smaller, more intimate group of individuals
united by shared characteristics or goals within a society.
Definitions
MacIver: “Wherever the members of any group… small or large … live
together in such a way that they share, not this or that particular interest, but
the basic conditions of life, we call that group a community.”
Ginsburg: “The whole population living in a particular area who has common
principles of life.”
Osborne: “Community is the collection of people who live in one geographical
area, have same interests and activities and collectively take part in routine
activities of daily life.”
Characteristics of a Community
● Community is consisted of people. Their number cannot be specified however,
it is less than a society.
● Common language is spoken which proves to be very helpful for mutual co-
operation.
● Aims and interests are the same.
●There is harmony among lifestyle and customs and traditions.
● Community is consisted of people belonging to a particular area.
● Collective struggle is their identity.

●There exist common emotions, feelings and values.
● People are emotionally linked with one another.
Kinds of Community
●On the base of religion i.e. Muslim, Christian, Hindu, Sikh.
●On the base of sects i.e. Sunni, Wahabi, Shia.
●On the base of caste i.e. Jaat, Arain, Syed or Rajpoot etc.
●On the base of gender i.e. male or female.
●On the base of area/region/province i.e. Punjabi, Balouchi, Sindhi or Pathan.
Some of other communities include international communities such as
western European countries, Latin American countries or Third world countries.
Rural Community: Rural community is a group of people who have been living
in a small area since centuries. Rural people are simple, loyal, honest, and trust
worthy. They have a deep inclination towards customs and traditions and are the
real interiors of moral values. People living in villages, that is, an open place,
also has openness when it comes to their approach towards life. Such community
is filled with the emotions of brotherhood, sacrifice, sympathy and comradeship.
Civic Community: There is a great number of people in civic community.
People have less connections and the emotions of brotherhood and loyalty are not
in plenty. Civic community is consisted of busy and all the time active people.
Most of the people are linked with trade or jobs. The life standard of citizens is
far better than the villagers. Civilized people are more smart and intelligent and
their lifestyle is very different from rural community.
Professional Community: People linked with one profession are considered one
community i.e. farmers, laborers, industrialists, traders and employees etc.
Sectarian Community: A religious group has its own separate identity i.e.
Christian community, Hindu community, Parsi community, Ahmadi community.
Muslims were given the right of separate elections in 1909 only because of being
a separate community.
Meaning of Community Engagement
Community engagement means getting people involved in improving
their local community by working together to address common issues, share
ideas, and take action. It is about citizens, groups, and organizations coming
together to solve problems, make decisions, and create positive changes that
benefit everyone. Community engagement allows people to participate in
decisions that affect their lives, whether it's about local schools, parks, public
safety, or other community services. By doing so, people feel empowered and
have a sense of ownership over what happens in their community.
There are many ways people can engage in their community. This could
include volunteering for local projects, attending town hall meetings, or
participating in discussions about changes to local policies or services. For
example, people might come together to organize a neighborhood cleanup,
improve a local park, or provide food for those in need. Others might join
committees, vote in local elections, or speak up during public meetings to share
their ideas and concerns. These activities give everyone a chance to contribute to
making their community a better place.
Community engagement is important because it brings diverse groups of

people together. When people with different backgrounds, experiences, and ideas
come together, they can create new solutions to problems that might not have
been thought of otherwise. It also ensures that the needs of the whole community
are represented, not just a few people. By including everyone, especially those
who are often left out of decision-making, communities can make fairer and
more effective choices that work for all.
Another benefit of community engagement is that it builds trust and
cooperation between citizens and local authorities or organizations. When people
feel their voices are heard, they are more likely to trust the decisions that are
made. This strengthens relationships and helps build a stronger, more connected
community where people feel responsible for each other's well-being.
Community engagement also empowers people. When citizens actively
participate, they gain confidence and skills that help them continue to make
positive changes. This can lead to more involvement from others, creating a cycle
of participation that strengthens the community over time. People learn to work
together, solve problems, and make decisions that improve their quality of life.
In conclusion, community engagement is about working together to improve the
places where we live. It involves collaboration, participation, and inclusiveness.
By volunteering, sharing ideas, and getting involved in decision-making, people
can make their communities stronger, safer, and more connected. When everyone
participates, the entire community benefits, creating a better place for everyone
to live.
Types of Community Engagement
Community engagement can take many different forms depending on the
goals, participants, and the issues being addressed. Here are some key forms of
community engagement:
1-Volunteering: Individuals contribute their time and skills to support local
projects, charities, or events. This could be helping at a food bank, cleaning up a
park, or tutoring students.
2-Public Consultations: Governments or organizations invite citizens to provide
feedback on proposed policies, projects, or changes. This can be through surveys,
focus groups, or public meetings.
3-Community Organizing: Citizens come together to address specific issues
affecting their community, such as organizing protests, petitions, or campaigns
for social change.
4-Civic Participation: Involvement in political processes like voting, attending
town hall meetings, or running for local office to influence decision-making and
policy development.
5-Collaborative Decision-Making: Community members actively participate in
planning and decision-making processes. This could involve joining advisory
boards, planning committees, or task forces to work on specific community
projects.
6-Community Events and Workshops: Organizing or attending local events,
such as festivals, cultural celebrations, or educational workshops, to foster a
sense of community and address common goals.
7-Online Engagement: Using social media, online forums, or virtual meetings to

share ideas, raise awareness, and mobilize support for community causes,
especially when physical meetings aren't feasible.
8-Grassroots Movements: Local movements driven by community members to
address issues like environmental sustainability, social justice, or healthcare
access.
9-Neighborhood Watch Programs: Citizens collaborate to improve safety and
reduce crime in their neighborhoods by coordinating with local law enforcement
and each other.
10-Advocacy and Campaigning: Raising awareness about social or political
issues to bring about change, often through rallies, petitions, lobbying, or media
outreach.
Each form of engagement serves different purposes, but they all aim to
involve community members in improving their environment, solving problems,
or influencing decisions that affect their lives.
Salient Features of Community Engagement
Community engagement involves actively working with a group of
people or an entire community to address issues, create solutions, and promote
collective well-being. Its salient features include:
1-Inclusivity: Community engagement actively involves all segments of the
population, especially marginalized and underrepresented groups. It ensures that
everyone has a voice in decision-making processes, promoting diversity of
thought and experience.
2-Collaboration: It fosters collaboration between community members,
organizations, local government, and institutions. This partnership allows for
shared responsibility, bringing together diverse resources, knowledge, and skills
to address common issues.
3-Empowerment: Community engagement empowers individuals by giving
them the skills, confidence, and tools to participate meaningfully in civic life. It
focuses on enabling communities to take control of their own development and
solutions.
4-Sustainability: Rather than focusing on short-term fixes, community
engagement seeks long-term, sustainable outcomes. It builds systems and
processes that can continue to operate and evolve, even after the initial
engagement effort has ended.
5-Transparency: Ethical engagement requires clear and open communication
regarding goals, processes, and outcomes. Transparency builds trust between
stakeholders and ensures that participants understand how decisions are made
and how their contributions are valued.
6-Trust-Building: Trust is a cornerstone of community engagement. It is built
through consistent, respectful interactions, honest communication, and by
honoring commitments. Trust fosters a sense of safety and belonging in the
process.
7-Active Participation: Community members are not passive recipients but
active contributors. Their lived experiences and local knowledge are crucial in
shaping the direction of engagement, ensuring that solutions are grounded in the
community’s reality.
8-Capacity Building: Engagement often focuses on building the capacity of
individuals and organizations to continue addressing challenges. This may
involve training, education, and the development of local leadership, fostering
resilience and long-term community strength.
9-Cultural Sensitivity: Effective community engagement respects the cultural
values, practices, and traditions of the community. It ensures that engagement
methods are appropriate to the local context and that cultural differences are
acknowledged and celebrated.
10-Shared Ownership: Community engagement emphasizes that all
stakeholders share ownership of both the problems and the solutions. When
community members feel a sense of ownership, they are more invested in the
success and sustainability of the initiatives.
11-Feedback and Adaptation: Successful engagement includes mechanisms for
ongoing feedback, allowing the community to provide input on the progress of
initiatives. This allows for continuous improvement and adaptation to the
community’s changing needs.
12-Accountability: All participants, from community members to external
organizations, must be accountable for their actions and commitments. Clear
expectations and responsibilities are established, and stakeholders are held
responsible for delivering on promises.
13-Mutual Learning: Engagement is a two-way learning process. While
external stakeholders may bring expertise, they also learn from the local
community’s unique insights and experiences. This mutual exchange of
knowledge creates richer, more effective solutions.
14-Shared Decision-Making: Community engagement prioritizes participatory
decision-making. Instead of top-down approaches, decisions are made
collectively, with community members having a significant say in shaping
strategies and policies.
15-Evaluation and Reflection: Regular evaluation and reflection are built into
the engagement process to assess whether goals are being met, what’s working,
and what needs improvement. This process helps refine strategies and ensures
accountability to the community.
Conclusion: These features highlight the holistic, inclusive, and collaborative
nature of community engagement, emphasizing its role in creating sustainable,
equitable, and locally grounded solutions.
Values of Community Engagement
The core values of community engagement serve as foundational beliefs
that guide the way organizations, governments, and individuals interact with
communities. These values emphasize respect, collaboration, and inclusivity,
ensuring that the engagement process is meaningful and impactful. Here are the
key core values of community engagement:
1-Inclusiveness: All community members should have the opportunity to
participate, regardless of background, identity, or socio-economic status.
Engagement efforts should actively seek out and involve underrepresented

groups.
2-Collaboration: Community engagement is based on partnerships. It involves
working together with community members, organizations, and stakeholders to
find solutions to common issues and make joint decisions.
3-Transparency: Open and honest communication is essential. Community
members should have clear access to information about the purpose of
engagement, the decision-making process, and how their input will be used.
4-Respect: Everyone’s opinions, experiences, and contributions are valuable. A
respectful environment fosters trust and encourages people to share their thoughts
openly and without fear of judgment.
5-Empowerment: Community engagement should empower individuals and
groups by giving them the tools and opportunities to influence decisions that
affect their lives. This promotes a sense of ownership and responsibility within
the community.
6-Accountability: Those who lead the engagement process must be accountable
to the community. This means taking responsibility for outcomes, following
through on commitments, and reporting back on how community input has
influenced decisions.
7-Sustainability: Community engagement should aim for long-term, ongoing
involvement rather than one-time actions. Building strong, lasting relationships
ensures that communities stay engaged over time.
8-Trust: Trust is essential for effective community engagement. Building trust
requires consistency, openness, and a genuine commitment to considering
community input in decision-making processes.
9-Cultural Sensitivity: Engagement efforts should be culturally aware and
respectful, recognizing the diversity of the community and working in ways that
honor different traditions, values, and languages.
10-Mutual Learning: Community engagement is a two-way process where both
the community and those leading the engagement learn from each other. It
involves sharing knowledge and gaining new insights from diverse perspectives.
By adhering to these core values, community engagement can create
positive, lasting change and build stronger, more resilient communities.
Principles of Community Engagement
Community engagement is guided by several key principles that help
ensure effective, inclusive, and meaningful participation. These principles serve
as a framework for fostering strong relationships between citizens, organizations,
and governments. Here are the main principles of community engagement:
1-Inclusivity: Ensure that all community members, regardless of their
background, identity, or status, have opportunities to participate. This involves
actively reaching out to underrepresented groups and making sure their voices
are heard.
2-Transparency: Be open and honest about the purpose of engagement, the
decision-making process, and the roles and expectations of participants. Clear
communication builds trust and ensures that everyone understands the goals and
outcomes.
3-Collaboration: Encourage working together as partners. Collaboration

between community members, organizations, and local governments ensures that
multiple perspectives are considered and that solutions are co-created.
4-Respect: Treat all participants with dignity and value their input, experiences,
and concerns. A respectful atmosphere promotes open dialogue and encourages
diverse viewpoints.
5-Empowerment: Enable individuals and communities to have real influence
over decisions and actions that affect them. This involves giving people the tools,
knowledge, and authority to participate meaningfully.
6-Accessibility: Ensure that engagement opportunities are easy for everyone to
access. This includes providing meetings at convenient times and locations,
offering materials in multiple languages, and ensuring accessibility for people
with disabilities.
7-Responsiveness: Actively listen to community feedback and demonstrate that
it has been considered and, where appropriate, acted upon. People need to see
that their input has an impact on decision-making.
8-Sustainability: Focus on long-term engagement rather than one-off events.
Building lasting relationships with the community creates trust and leads to
sustained collaboration.
9-Accountability: Those involved in community engagement should be
accountable for their actions, decisions, and the outcomes of the engagement
process. This includes providing feedback to participants about how their
contributions were used.
10-Cultural Sensitivity: Acknowledge and respect the diverse cultural
backgrounds of community members. Engage in ways that are culturally
appropriate and relevant to the community's values and traditions.
11-Adaptability: Be flexible and responsive to changing community needs and
circumstances. Tailor engagement strategies to fit the specific context of the
community.
12-Trust-building: Build and maintain trust through consistent, reliable actions
and communication. Trust is essential for open and effective collaboration in
community engagement.
By following these principles, community engagement efforts can be
more effective, equitable, and productive, leading to stronger, more connected
communities and better decision-making outcomes.
Importance of Community Engagement
Community engagement is important because it empowers citizens to
participate in decisions that impact their lives, creating more inclusive and
effective solutions. It builds trust between communities and decision-makers,
ensuring that diverse voices are heard and considered. Engaged communities are
more resilient, better able to address challenges, and work together for common
goals. This involvement fosters civic responsibility, strengthens social
connections, and improves the overall quality of life. By promoting
collaboration, transparency, and accountability, community engagement leads to
stronger, more connected, and inclusive communities.
1-Strengthens Democracy: Community engagement promotes active

participation in decision-making processes, ensuring that all voices are heard. It
encourages citizens to take part in local governance, which leads to more
transparent and democratic decision-making. When people engage, they hold
leaders accountable and contribute to the development of policies that better
reflect the needs of the entire community.
2-Builds Trust and Relationships: Engagement fosters trust between citizens,
organizations, and local authorities. By involving the community in decision-
making processes, people feel their concerns are being heard and respected,
which leads to stronger, more cooperative relationships. This trust is vital for
effective governance and for solving community challenges together.
3-Encourages Inclusivity & Diversity: Effective community engagement
ensures that underrepresented and marginalized groups have a voice in matters
that affect them. This creates a more inclusive environment where diverse
perspectives are considered, leading to fairer and more balanced outcomes that
reflect the needs of all community members.
4-Empowers Citizens: Community engagement empowers individuals by giving
them a platform to share their ideas, influence decisions, and take part in the
development of their community. When people see that their contributions can
make a difference, they are more likely to stay engaged and work toward
continuous improvement.
5-Leads to Better Decision-Making: When a wide range of community
members are involved in the decision-making process, their diverse perspectives
can lead to more innovative, practical, and effective solutions to community
problems. Local people often have a deeper understanding of the issues affecting
their community and can offer insights that improve planning and policy-making.
6-Improves Community Resilience: Engaged communities are more resilient in
the face of challenges, whether social, economic, or environmental. By working
together, communities can better plan for, respond to, and recover from crises.
The collective problem-solving that arises from community engagement fosters a
sense of shared responsibility and cooperation.
7-Promotes Civic Responsibility: Community engagement helps instill a sense
of civic duty and responsibility. When people are actively involved in improving
their community, they are more likely to care for public spaces, respect local
institutions, and contribute to the overall well-being of the area.
8-Builds Social Capital: Community engagement creates social networks and
relationships that are essential for social cohesion. Through collaboration, people
get to know their neighbors, build trust, and strengthen the social fabric of the
community. These connections can be vital for supporting one another in times
of need.
9-Enhances Quality of Life: When communities are engaged in decisions about
services, infrastructure, and development, the result is often improvements in
public spaces, education, healthcare, and overall well-being. Engagement ensures
that policies and projects directly reflect the needs and aspirations of the
community, leading to a better quality of life for all.
10-Increases Accountability: Community engagement increases the
accountability of decision-makers. When community members are involved in
the process, they expect transparency and follow-through, which pushes leaders
to be more responsible and responsive to the needs of the people they serve.
Conclusion: Community engagement is essential for fostering active citizenship,
improving decision-making, and building stronger, more inclusive communities.
It empowers individuals, promotes trust, and creates a shared sense of
responsibility, leading to better outcomes for everyone involved.
Key Measures for Successful Community Engagement
For community engagement to be successful, several key measures
should be implemented:
1-Clear Objectives: Define the goals and purpose of the engagement clearly so
that participants understand what is being aimed for and how their involvement
will contribute.
2-Effective Communication: Use clear, accessible language and various
channels (meetings, social media, newsletters) to inform and update community
members. Ensure that information is timely and relevant.
3-Inclusivity: Ensure that engagement efforts reach diverse groups within the
community, including marginalized or underrepresented populations. Provide
multiple ways for people to participate.
4-Transparency: Be open about decision-making processes and how community
input will be used. Share outcomes and feedback on how community
contributions have influenced decisions.
5-Respect and Trust: Treat all participants with respect and value their
contributions. Building trust is crucial for encouraging ongoing participation and
collaboration.
6-Empowerment: Provide community members with the tools, resources, and
authority to actively participate and influence outcomes. Empowering individuals
fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility.
7-Accessibility: Make engagement opportunities accessible to everyone by
considering factors like location, timing, and format. Offer accommodations for
people with disabilities and language barriers.
8-Feedback Mechanisms: Implement systems for collecting, analyzing, and
responding to feedback. This shows that participants' voices are heard and
considered, and helps improve future engagement efforts.
9-Capacity Building: Offer training and support to help community members
develop skills needed for effective participation. This could include workshops
on advocacy, public speaking, or understanding local government processes.
10-Sustained Efforts: Engage with the community consistently rather than as a
one-time event. Long-term commitment to engagement helps build stronger
relationships and better outcomes.
11-Evaluation and Adaptation: Regularly assess the effectiveness of
engagement strategies and be willing to adapt based on feedback and changing
needs. Continuous improvement ensures that engagement remains relevant and
effective.
By implementing these measures, community engagement can become
more effective, inclusive, and impactful, leading to stronger, more collaborative
communities.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Meanings: Community development refers to a process where individuals and
groups work together to improve the quality of life in their local areas. It involves
a range of activities and strategies aimed at building the social, economic, and
environmental well-being of a community. The goal of community development
is to create sustainable, thriving communities by addressing local needs,
empowering residents, and fostering collaboration.
At its core, community development focuses on strengthening the
capacity of communities to identify and solve their own problems. This involves
engaging community members in decision-making processes, encouraging their
active participation in local initiatives, and supporting them in taking ownership
of development projects. Community development can include efforts such as
improving local infrastructure, enhancing educational opportunities, creating
economic opportunities, and fostering social cohesion.
Community development also emphasizes the importance of inclusivity
and equity. It seeks to involve all segments of the community, including
marginalized and disadvantaged groups, ensuring that everyone has a voice and
benefits from development efforts. By addressing social inequalities and
promoting fair access to resources and opportunities, community development
aims to build more equitable and resilient communities.
Moreover, community development is often driven by collaboration
between various stakeholders, including local governments, non-profit
organizations, businesses, and community groups. These partnerships help
leverage resources, expertise, and support to achieve common goals and create
more impactful outcomes.
Core Principles of Community Development
Here are some of important principles of community development.
1-Participation: Actively involve Community members throughout all phases of
development, from planning and decision-making to implementation and
evaluation. Ensuring that everyone has a say helps to address real needs and
fosters a sense of ownership and commitment to the process.
2-Inclusivity: Include all segments of the community, particularly marginalized
and underrepresented groups, in development activities. This principle ensures
that diverse voices are heard and that development efforts are equitable and fair.
3-Empowerment: Strengthen the abilities of individuals and groups to take
control of their own development. Empowerment involves providing education,
resources, and opportunities that enable community members to lead initiatives
and make informed decisions.
4-Sustainability: Focus on long-term impacts by promoting environmental,
economic, and social sustainability. Sustainable development aims to create
enduring benefits while conserving resources for future generations and
maintaining ecological balance.
5-Collaboration: Promote teamwork and partnerships among community
members, organizations, and government entities. Collaboration leverages
diverse skills, knowledge, and resources, enhancing the effectiveness and reach
of development efforts.
6-Local Ownership: Encourage local leadership and initiative by involving

residents in managing and directing development projects. When people feel
ownership over initiatives, they are more likely to be invested in their success
and sustainability.
7-Capacity Building: Develop skills and resources within the community to
support effective action. Capacity building involves training, education, and the
provision of tools and resources that enhance the community’s ability to address
its own challenges.
8-Flexibility and Adaptability: Be responsive to changing conditions and
feedback. Effective community development requires adapting strategies and
approaches based on evolving needs, opportunities, and challenges.
9-Equity: Address and reduce inequalities by ensuring fair access to resources
and opportunities. Equity involves providing additional support to those who face
greater disadvantages and striving for fairness in all development efforts.
10-Transparency: Maintain openness about the goals, processes, and outcomes
of development activities. Transparency builds trust and ensures that community
members understand how decisions are made and how their contributions are
used.
11-Accountability: Hold all stakeholders accountable for their roles and
responsibilities. Accountability involves monitoring progress, evaluating
outcomes, and addressing any issues or concerns that arise during the
development process.
12-Self-Reliance: Promote independence by encouraging communities to
develop their own solutions and rely on local resources and expertise. Self-
reliance fosters resilience and reduces dependence on external aid.
13-Respect for Diversity: Acknowledge and value the cultural, social, and
economic diversity within the community. Incorporating diverse perspectives
helps to ensure that development efforts are relevant and sensitive to different
needs.
14-Engagement with Local Knowledge: Utilize local knowledge and traditions
to inform development efforts. Leveraging the community’s existing expertise
and cultural practices ensures that solutions are appropriate and culturally
relevant.
15-Integrated Approach: Address multiple aspects of community life
economic, social, and environmental through a holistic and integrated approach.
This ensures that development efforts are comprehensive and consider the
interconnections between different areas of community life.
16-Community-Driven Goals: Set goals and objectives based on the
community’s own priorities and aspirations rather than imposing external
mandates. Development should align with what the community values and strives
to achieve.
17-Resource Mobilization: Identify and leverage various resources—financial,
human, and material to support development initiatives. Effective resource
mobilization involves tapping into both local and external sources of support.
18-Partnerships with Local Institutions: Collaborate with local institutions,
such as schools, businesses, and religious organizations, to enhance development
efforts. Partnerships with these entities can provide additional resources and
support for community initiatives.
19-Evaluation and Learning: Regularly assess and review the effectiveness of
development activities. Use evaluations to gather insights, learn from successes
and challenges, and refine strategies to improve future efforts.
20-Promoting Social Cohesion: Foster a sense of unity and cooperation within
the community. Encouraging collective action, shared goals, and mutual support
helps to build a stronger, more connected community.
Importance of Community Development
Community development is vital for creating and maintaining healthy,
thriving, and resilient communities. Its importance can be understood through
several key aspects:
1-Enhancing Quality of Life: Community development initiatives improve
living conditions by addressing essential needs such as housing, education,
healthcare, and infrastructure. By improving these aspects, communities can offer
better opportunities and a higher quality of life for their residents.
2-Fostering Economic Growth: Development activities stimulate local
economies by creating jobs, supporting small businesses, and attracting
investment. Economic growth helps to reduce poverty and increase the financial
stability of community members.
3-Building Social Cohesion: Community development fosters social
connections and unity by bringing people together around common goals. Strong
social networks and a sense of belonging contribute to community resilience and
stability.
4-Empowering Residents: By involving community members in decision-
making and development processes, community development empowers
individuals to take control of their own lives and contribute to their community’s
growth. This empowerment enhances self-efficacy and fosters a sense of
ownership.
5-Addressing Inequality: Community development works to reduce social and
economic inequalities by ensuring that resources and opportunities are distributed
fairly. Targeted efforts can address the needs of marginalized or disadvantaged
groups, promoting greater equity.
6-Promoting Sustainability: Effective community development incorporates
sustainable practices that protect the environment and ensure resources are used
responsibly. This approach helps to create long-term benefits while preserving
the community’s natural resources for future generations.
7-Encouraging Civic Participation: Community development fosters active
civic engagement and participation. When residents are involved in shaping their
community, they are more likely to be invested in civic duties and
responsibilities, contributing to a more democratic society.
8-Improving Public Services: Development initiatives often focus on enhancing
public services such as transportation, sanitation, and safety. Improved public
services lead to better living conditions and overall community well-being.
9-Strengthening Local Governance: Community development encourages
effective and accountable local governance by promoting transparency and
involving residents in decision-making processes. Strong governance leads to

more responsive and effective administration.
10-Facilitating Social Change: Community development can drive positive
social change by addressing systemic issues, advocating for policy reform, and
promoting social justice. It helps communities adapt to evolving social and
economic conditions.
11-Building Resilience: By addressing vulnerabilities and preparing for potential
challenges, community development enhances a community’s ability to
withstand and recover from crises, such as natural disasters or economic
downturns.
12-Creating Opportunities for Education and Skills Development:
Development projects often include educational components that provide
training and skills development. Access to education and vocational training
equips individuals with the tools needed to succeed and contribute to their
community.
13-Fostering Innovation: Community development encourages innovative
solutions to local problems by leveraging the creativity and resourcefulness of
community members. This innovation can lead to new approaches and
improvements in various aspects of community life.
14-Enhancing Community Identity and Pride: Development efforts that
respect and celebrate local culture and history help to strengthen community
identity and pride. A strong sense of community identity fosters cohesion and
motivates collective action.
15-Attracting Investment: Well-developed communities are more attractive to
investors and businesses. By creating a supportive environment for economic
activity, community development can draw external investment and boost local
economic growth.
Conclusion: community development is crucial for improving the overall well-
being of residents, promoting economic growth, enhancing social cohesion, and
ensuring sustainable and equitable progress. It creates a foundation for vibrant,
resilient communities where people can thrive and work together to achieve
common goals.
......................... .
CHAPTER NO. 6
ADVOCACY & ACTIVISM
Public Discourse
Public discourse refers to the open exchange of ideas, opinions, and
arguments in public spaces, where individuals and groups engage in discussions
on matters of common interest, often related to politics, social issues, culture, or
policy. It is a crucial element of democratic societies, serving as a means for
citizens to express their views, deliberate on issues, and influence decision-
making processes.
At its core, public discourse involves a diverse range of voices, including
citizens, media, political leaders, activists, and scholars. This dialogue can take
place in various forums, such as public meetings, debates, social media
platforms, newspapers, or other media outlets. The goal is to foster collective
reasoning, allowing participants to consider different perspectives, challenge
assumptions, and reach a broader understanding of shared issues.
Key characteristics of public discourse include its openness and
accessibility. Ideally, it welcomes participation from all sectors of society,
ensuring that marginalized or underrepresented groups have an opportunity to
contribute. Civility and respect for opposing viewpoints are also essential, as
public discourse thrives when discussions are constructive rather than divisive.
However, public discourse faces challenges, especially in today’s digital
age. The rise of misinformation, echo chambers, and polarized debates can
undermine its effectiveness. When discussions are dominated by hostility,
manipulation, or false information, public discourse loses its ability to contribute
meaningfully to democratic processes.
In sum, public discourse is the foundation for democratic engagement
and collective problem-solving. By enabling open, respectful, and informed
dialogue, it plays a vital role in shaping public opinion, influencing policy, and
fostering social cohesion in diverse societies. Effective public discourse relies on
transparency, access to accurate information, and the willingness to engage
thoughtfully with opposing viewpoints.
Definitions
1-Habermas: "A domain of our social life in which such a thing as public
opinion can be formed. Access is guaranteed to all citizens. A portion of the
public sphere comes into being in every conversation in which private
individuals assemble to form a public body."
2-John Dewey: "The essential need... is the improvement of the methods and
conditions of debate, discussion, and persuasion. That is the problem of the
public." He further argues that "without such communication, public opinion
cannot be formed." on of public opinion in a democratic society.
3-Michel Foucault: "Discourse is not simply that which translates struggles or
systems of domination, but is the thing for which and by which there is
struggle. Discourse is the power which is to be seized."
These philosophers emphasize public discourse as a critical mechanism
for democratic participation, political action, and the shaping of knowledge and
power.
Importance of Public Discourse

Public discourse is vital for several reasons, particularly in democratic
societies and community engagement. Here are some key points highlighting its
importance:
1-Facilitates Democracy: Public discourse allows citizens to express their
opinions, engage in debates, and participate in decision-making processes. This
engagement is fundamental to democratic governance, ensuring that diverse
voices are heard and considered.
2-Promotes Informed Citizenship: Through open discussions, citizens gain
access to information and different perspectives. This informed citizenry is
crucial for making educated choices, whether in elections or public policy
decisions.
3-Encourages Critical Thinking: Engaging in public discourse fosters critical
thinking skills. Individuals learn to analyze arguments, evaluate evidence, and
articulate their thoughts, which contributes to a more thoughtful and engaged
populace.
4-Builds Community: Public discourse fosters social cohesion by bringing
people together to discuss shared concerns. It helps build relationships and a
sense of community, encouraging collaboration and collective action.
5-Enhances Accountability: Open dialogue holds public officials and
institutions accountable. When citizens engage in discourse about policies and
practices, they can demand transparency and accountability from those in power.
6-Drives Social Change: Public discourse is a platform for advocacy and
mobilization, allowing individuals and groups to challenge injustices and push
for social reforms. It plays a crucial role in raising awareness and rallying support
for important causes.
7-Encourages Tolerance and Understanding: Engaging with diverse
viewpoints through public discourse promotes empathy and understanding. It
encourages individuals to consider perspectives different from their own,
fostering a more tolerant society.
8-Shapes Public Opinion: Public discourse influences the development of
public opinion on various issues, affecting how policies are formed and
implemented. This influence can lead to significant societal changes based on
collective values and priorities.
9-Supports Pluralism: It embraces the idea of pluralism, recognizing that
multiple viewpoints contribute to a richer understanding of complex issues. This
diversity in discourse helps ensure that no single narrative dominates the
conversation.
10-Empowers Individuals: Participating in public discourse empowers
individuals by validating their voices and experiences. It encourages them to take
ownership of their role in society and contribute to meaningful discussions.
Conclusion: public discourse is essential for fostering democracy, enhancing
civic engagement, promoting social cohesion, and driving positive change within
communities and society at large. It serves as a cornerstone for informed, active,
and engaged citizenship.
PUBLIC OPINION
With the progress of democracy, the importance of public opinion has been
increased a lot. The views prevalent among public are recognized as public
opinion. But sometimes it becomes difficult to decide which opinion is the public
opinion. Gettel is of the view that what is commonly called public opinion, it
does neither have any concern with the Public nor it is the opinion.
Public opinion is not unanimous opinion of people because it is not
possible that all citizens will stand together on one issue. Each opinion of
majority cannot also be recognized as public opinion because there is possibility
of hidden common interests in it, and it may wholly neglect the minority. Lowell
is of the view that “To be the public opinion, any opinion does neither require
full majority nor complete unity.”
Sometimes, the opinion of minority has the ability to be recognized as public
opinion. Majority is usually illiterate and unaware of political and social issues.
Therefore, it does not have the ability to make sound decisions. Superfluous and
useless opinions of majority cannot obtain the rank of public opinion. Rousseau
is of the view that people usually have two opinion on any social issue. First
opinion is formed because of their selfish approach and second because of their
selfless approach. Rousseau calls the selfless opinion of majority the „General
Will‟. We can call it public opinion.
Definitions
Lord Bryce: “Public opinion contains majoritarian opinions and passions by
means of checking the national issues.”
Prof. Soltau: “Public Opinion is that desire of people which they wish to adopt
in practical life.”
Lippman: “Public Opinion is irrational and often self-serving social
perceptions that influence individual behavior and prevent optimal societal
cohesion.‟‟
Importance of Public Opinion
1-Base of Democracy: Sovereignty of the people, which is the very basis of
democracy, really means supremacy of the public opinion. In every democracy,
the government and its policies are continuously based on public opinion. The
government remains in power so long as it is backed by public opinion. Prof. V.
O. Key said in this regard; “If public opinion is not much regarded in common
political decisions, the democracy will only be a folk tale.”
2-Formation of Government: In democracy, government is formed through an
electoral process. General elections are the real source of public opinion. People
vote for the formation of government in their country. Only those representatives
can make the government who are selected by public itself.
3-Control over Government: Public opinion is the most effective instrument of
control over the government. The Government is really responsible to public
opinion.
4-Major Source of Legislation: The laws passed by the government are in-fact
based upon public demands. Not only public opinion is a source of law but also it
is an important sanction behind law. Only those laws get successfully
implemented and produce desired results, which are backed by public opinion.
5-Formation of State Policies: The government of the state formulates its

policies on the basis of the public opinion. All public policies are based on public
opinion. The government is supposed to do everything which the public opinion
demands.
6-Social Values: No law aimed at social change, no policy aimed at social
reforms and no action aimed at development can be really successful unless it is
backed by strong public opinion. Social values and principles are programmed
keeping in view public demands. Customs and traditions are usually the
reflection of public preferences.
7-International Rectitude: A government backed by strong public opinion
enjoys a high degree of credibility on international level even. A democratic
government stands high in the categories of different nations and international
institutions.
8-Public and Legal Sovereignty: As the people express their opinion on issues
of national importance, they are, at the same time, participating indirectly in
the governance of their country. As a result, there is harmony among the country
laws, sovereign authority and public sovereignty. In democracy, the
representatives run the government on public demands. Thus, people tend to
support the steps and policies of their representatives and let them succeed.
Realizing fully the importance of public opinion, J.S. Mill, a British
philosopher very strongly advocated the need for an absolutely free flow of
public opinion in the society. He was certain that each opinion should be allowed
to freely flow in the society as it is necessary for the emergency of a true public
opinion. Laski was of the view that even during a period of war, freedom of
public opinion should not be suppressed.
Formation of Public Opinion
How public opinion is formed? Who play their role in formation of public
opinion? If we critically analyze, we will come to know that firstly there
develops an opinion, later it grows and lastly it becomes the public opinion. In
order to become the public opinion, an opinion goes through three stages. If all
three categories approve the opinion, it takes the form of public opinion.
1-Politicians and Thinkers: It is the first category which develops an opinion.
This group consists of politicians, thinkers, intellectuals, teachers, lawyers,
writers and scholars. It presents different opinions. These people discuss
miscellaneous issues. Different opinions reach the public through books, articles,
speeches and negotiations. Newspapers, magazines, radio, and television etc.
prove to be helpful in this regard. The politicians express their views in public
meetings and the opinion starts its journey towards public.
2-People who take Interest in Public Issues: The views of the first group come
to these people through newspapers, magazines, radio, television and other
sources. These people take interest in public issues and critically analyze the
opinions of politicians and intellectuals. They minutely examine the causes and
outcomes of opinions. If they like it, they adopt it and if they do not like it, they
reject it.
3-Public: After going through two stages, opinion comes to public. If people
accept the opinion, it becomes the public opinion, otherwise, it gets expired.
The Sources of Formation and Demonstration of Public Opinion

Various agencies support in the formation of public opinion. The
political parties, pressure groups and unions spend much money for the purpose
of propaganda. On international levels, the states interact with public with the
help of specific institutions. To make an opinion a public opinion, the following
sources and units help;
1-Press: Press means newspapers, magazines, books, booklets, pamphlets,
advertisements and Gazettes. With time, education is increasing the importance
of printed things. People wait for newspapers and magazines. Essays, articles,
discussions and news cause an increase in public information. Political parties
and pressure groups publish their own newspapers and magazines for publication
of their ideas and development of their interests and convey their views to the
public.
2-Platform: Platform means the place where processions and public meetings
are held. The society where majority of people is illiterate, there platform is
supposed to be an important source of public opinion where the speaker directly
addresses the public and shares his views.
3-Radio and Television: Radio and Television are supposed to be the sources of
entertainment but they spread information as well. There are the programs of
political discussions on radio and television. National and international issues
including political, economic, social, religious and moral affairs are discussed
which enhances the public opinion. In west, television and radio are freely used
by different political schools of thought and they communicate their point of
view to the public in this way.
4-Cinema: Cinema had great importance in past times. Television has replaced
cinema to the great extent but still many people prefer going to cinema.
Alongside the entertainment, the feature films can also spread the message of
good governance. The concept of good and evil can be presented. Cinema can
also educate people to avoid dowry, child marriage, crimes and irregularities.
Thus, it can be helpful in prevention of so many social evils.
5-Educational Institutes: In educational institutions, students get the knowledge
of political, economic, social and other problems. The teachers present both the
sides of an issue on the base of their experiences. The students discuss certain
things and reach an outcome. In formation of public opinion, the role of
intellectuals, philosophers and mentors is more positive because they do not have
any personal interests just like political leaders.
6-Political Parties: Political parties are part and parcel of the democracy. In
formation and good performance of democratic governments, political parties
play the most vital role. A political party is actually a group of those people who
are selected by public itself to represent public in affairs of government. Each
political party interacts with public for its own political purposes. They convey
their views to the public through their own newspapers and magazines.
Processions are also held for the purpose of communication where different
political parties make people aware of their problems.
7-Group of Profiteers: In western countries, especially in America, the group of
profiteers has been increased a lot. People belonging to one profession influence
the public opinion. They spread the propaganda to get the support of the
members of legislature as well as common people. In America, there are

organized groups for traders, industrialists, laborers and other professions.
8-Legislative Assemblies: Legislative assembly consists of public
representatives and makes laws for country and nation. The members of
assembly share their views in the parliament where government representatives
are also present. They together find solutions. Opposition criticizes the
performance of government. Daily proceeding is covered by media. People
themselves comment on duties of their leaders and make an opinion after
analyzing the causes and outcomes.
9-Personal Observations: Our personal observations and experiences help a lot
in shaping a proper view point. Through the daily interactions, people learn about
their circumstances.
10-Religious Institutions: Religion effects human life. In East, People are being
organized on the base of religion even today. The religious scholars convey their
ideas in mosques, temples and churches. In mosques, there are special sermons
after the prayer of Jummah where the scholars analyze different problems and
mentally prepare the Muslims to adopt a correct way by guiding them.
The Ways to Measure the Public Opinion
In modern times, it is much needed to measure the public opinion. In
west, there are different ways to know about public opinion on different issues.
These ways are now exercised in East as well.
1- Electoral Process: The most simple and traditional way of knowing the public
opinion is the general elections which are being held on regular basis in
democratic countries. People vote those parties whom they consider eligible for
their representation. The rescript of winning party is often recognized as public
opinion.
2-Election before General Elections: In America and European countries, there
are mock elections. Political parties arrange polling stations and invite people to
vote. These mock elections forecast about winning party or candidate for future
general elections. Units like Harris Survey and Gallup Poll are famous for
conducting elections before General Elections in America.
3-Interviews: Public interviews help a lot in collecting data. Such interviews are
also organized by newspapers and magazines. Some analysts conduct the
research and reach an outcome after having the opinion of people on different
social issues. Television and Radio play an important role in this regard as well.
4-Questionnaires: The researchers usually make questionnaires containing fifty
or hundred questions. Through obtaining the opinion of few thousand people, the
general opinion of public is measured.
5-Press Forum: Press Forums invite people belonging to different professions
and conduct their discussions. Thus, different point of views come in the light
and public leaders get to know about public attitudes and behaviors. Daily Jang
and Nawa-i-Waqt arrange such forums time and again.
ADVOCACY
Advocacy means taking action to support a specific cause or help people
who may not have a strong voice. It involves speaking up for individuals or
groups, especially those who are vulnerable or marginalized, to make sure their
needs and rights are heard and considered. Advocacy can include different types
of support, such as helping one person with a problem, bringing a group together
to address shared issues, or working to change laws and policies that affect many
people. The main goal of advocacy is to create positive change in society. This
can involve raising awareness about important issues, influencing government
decisions, and promoting fairness and justice for everyone. There are many ways
to advocate, including organizing community events, using social media to
spread the word, and talking to leaders or lawmakers about specific needs.
Advocacy is important in a democracy because it empowers people to participate
in shaping the rules and decisions that affect their lives. By advocating for
change, individuals and groups can push for better policies, ensure that everyone
has access to resources, and help build a society where everyone’s voice matters.
Overall, advocacy is a powerful way to drive progress and make the world a
more fair and inclusive place for everyone. It helps to create a society where
people can come together, support each other, and work toward common goals,
making sure that no one is left behind.
Definitions
1-John Stuart Mill: In his work On Liberty, Mill states, “He who knows only
his own side of the case knows little of that. His reasons may be good, and if he
were to be put to the proof, he would be unable to refute them. But if he is not
aware of the reasons which can be given against the views he defends, he has
no ground for preferring them.”
2-Hannah Arendt: “The life of the mind is not only about thinking; it‟s also
about how to think together, which allows us to share our opinions, our beliefs,
and our judgments.”
3-Mahatma Gandhi: “You must be the change you wish to see in the world.”
This highlights the idea that advocacy starts with personal commitment and
action to inspire broader societal change.
These definitions illustrate that advocacy is not only about supporting
specific causes but also about fostering dialogue, understanding diverse
perspectives, and committing to social justice and change.
Types of Advocacy
Advocacy can take many forms, each with its own focus and methods.
Here are some key types of advocacy:
1-Individual Advocacy: Supporting and representing the needs of an individual.
Helping someone navigate systems like healthcare, education, or legal services.
This often involves providing information, resources, or direct assistance to
empower the individual.
2-Group Advocacy: Mobilizing a community or group of individuals to address
common issues or injustices. Organizing community meetings, campaigns, or
petitions that reflect the collective voice and concerns of the group.
3-Systemic or Policy Advocacy: Aiming to change policies, laws, or
institutional practices at a broader level. Lobbying government officials,
engaging in public campaigns, and working with policymakers to influence

legislation that addresses systemic issues.
4-Legal Advocacy: Using legal systems to protect rights and achieve justice for
individuals or groups. Providing legal representation, filing lawsuits, or engaging
in litigation to address violations of rights.
5-Public Advocacy: Raising awareness and influencing public opinion on
specific issues. Utilizing media, public speaking, social media campaigns, and
community outreach to educate the public and generate support.
6-Grassroots Advocacy: Mobilizing community members at the local level to
effect change. Organizing local events, campaigns, and initiatives that empower
community members to advocate for their own interests.
7-Media Advocacy: Using media platforms to shape public discourse and
influence policymakers. Writing articles, participating in interviews, or creating
content that highlights specific issues and advocates for change.
8-Research and Data Advocacy: Using research and data to inform and support
advocacy efforts. Conducting studies, gathering statistics, and presenting findings
that highlight the need for change and support advocacy claims.
9-International Advocacy: Addressing global issues and advocating for human
rights, environmental justice, or social equity on an international scale.
Collaborating with global organizations, participating in international forums,
and raising awareness about issues that transcend national borders.
10-Youth Advocacy: Engaging and empowering young people to advocate for
their rights and interests. Creating platforms for youth voices, organizing
workshops, and encouraging youth participation in civic activities.
Conclusion: These types of advocacy can often overlap and work together to
achieve common goals, leveraging the strengths of different approaches to create
meaningful change.
Significance of Advocacy
Advocacy holds significant importance in various aspects of society,
contributing to positive change and the promotion of justice. Here are some key
points highlighting its significance:
1-Empowerment of Individuals: Advocacy empowers individuals, especially
those from marginalized communities, by giving them the tools and support to
voice their needs and rights. This empowerment fosters confidence and
encourages active participation in societal issues.
2-Promotion of Social Justice: Advocacy addresses systemic inequalities and
injustices, working to create a fairer society. Advocates challenge discriminatory
practices and fight for policies that promote equity and inclusion.
3-Influence on Policy and Legislation: Advocates play a crucial role in shaping
public policy and legislation. By engaging with lawmakers and providing
research and testimonies, they help craft laws that reflect the needs of the
communities they represent.
4-Raising Public Awareness: Advocacy campaigns raise awareness about
pressing social issues, educating the public and informing them of the challenges
faced by certain groups. This heightened awareness can mobilize community
support for change.
5-Encouragement of Civic Engagement: Advocacy encourages individuals to

engage in the democratic process, including voting, attending public meetings,
and participating in discussions. This civic engagement strengthens democracy
and promotes accountability.
6-Facilitation of Access to Resources: Advocacy improves access to essential
services such as healthcare, education, and housing. Advocates work to break
down barriers that prevent individuals from receiving the support they need.
7-Building Community Solidarity: Advocacy fosters a sense of community by
uniting people around common causes. This solidarity creates stronger social ties
and enhances the ability of communities to address shared challenges.
8-Support for Sustainable Change: Advocacy focuses on long-term solutions
to social problems, addressing root causes rather than just symptoms. This
sustainable approach ensures that changes are effective and enduring.
9-Encouragement of Accountability: Advocacy holds institutions,
organizations, and leaders accountable for their actions. By demanding
transparency and ethical practices, advocates ensure that those in power are
answerable to the public.
10-Driving Innovation and Improvement: Advocacy can lead to new ideas and
approaches for addressing social issues. By challenging existing norms and
practices, advocates encourage innovative solutions that improve community
well-being.
11-Protection of Human Rights: Advocacy is vital for protecting human rights
and freedoms. Advocates work to raise awareness about violations and push for
policies that safeguard the rights of individuals and communities.
12-Strengthening Democracy: By fostering public debate and participation,
advocacy strengthens democratic processes. It encourages diverse perspectives
and ensures that a wide range of voices are considered in decision-making.
13-Enhancement of Social Capital: Advocacy builds social capital by creating
networks of support and collaboration. These connections can lead to greater
community resilience and the ability to mobilize resources for social change.
14-Encouraging Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Advocacy often involves
collaboration across various sectors, including healthcare, education, and social
services. This interdisciplinary approach can lead to more comprehensive
solutions to complex social issues.
15-Inspiration for Future Generations: Advocacy sets an example for future
generations by demonstrating the importance of civic responsibility and social
engagement. It inspires young people to become active participants in shaping
their communities and the world.
Conclusion: Advocacy is significant because it empowers individuals, promotes
justice, influences policy, and strengthens communities. It serves as a critical
mechanism for driving social change and fostering a more equitable society.
Steps for Public Advocacy
Public advocacy involves a structured approach to effectively promote a
cause, influence public opinion, and drive social change. Here are the key steps
typically involved in public advocacy:
1-Identify the Issue: Clearly define the issue you want to address. Understand
its significance, the stakeholders involved, and the impact it has on individuals or
communities.
2-Research and Gather Information: Conduct thorough research to gather
data, statistics, and case studies related to the issue. Understand existing laws,
policies, and the positions of key stakeholders to build a strong foundation for
your advocacy efforts.
3-Set Clear Goals: Establish specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and
time-bound (SMART) goals for your advocacy campaign. Determine what you
want to achieve, such as influencing legislation, raising awareness, or mobilizing
community support.
4-Identify Target Audiences: Determine who needs to be influenced to achieve
your goals. This may include policymakers, community leaders, the general
public, or specific organizations. Tailor your messaging to resonate with each
audience.
5-Develop a Strategic Plan: Create a detailed advocacy plan outlining your
goals, target audiences, key messages, and tactics. Consider how you will engage
stakeholders, raise awareness, and mobilize support.
6-Build Alliances and Coalitions: Collaborate with other organizations, groups,
or individuals who share similar goals. Building coalitions can amplify your
efforts, combine resources, and strengthen your message.
7-Craft Your Message: Develop clear, compelling messages that communicate
the urgency and importance of the issue. Use storytelling and data to make your
case relatable and impactful.
8-Utilize Multiple Channels: Employ a variety of communication channels to
reach your audience, including social media, traditional media, public speaking,
community events, and direct outreach. Diversifying your methods can enhance
visibility and engagement.
9-Engage in Direct Action: Organize activities that directly engage the public
and decision-makers. This could include rallies, petitions, letter-writing
campaigns, or public forums to raise awareness and advocate for your cause.
10-Monitor and Evaluate Progress: Continuously assess the effectiveness of
your advocacy efforts. Track progress toward your goals and gather feedback to
refine your strategies as needed.
11-Follow Up and Maintain Engagement: After initial advocacy efforts,
maintain communication with stakeholders and supporters. Share updates on
progress, celebrate successes, and keep the issue alive in public discourse.
12-Be Persistent: Advocacy is often a long-term effort. Stay committed to your
cause, adapt your strategies as needed, and continue to engage with your
audience to keep momentum going.
13-Educate and Empower Others: Equip others with knowledge and tools to
advocate for the cause. Training sessions, workshops, and informational
resources can empower community members to become advocates themselves.
14-Build a Support Network: Cultivate a network of supporters who are
committed to your cause. This network can provide resources, share information,
and amplify your advocacy efforts.
15-Celebrate Achievements: Recognize and celebrate milestones and successes,

no matter how small. Celebrating achievements can motivate supporters and
reinforce the importance of continued advocacy.
By following these steps, advocates can effectively raise awareness,
influence decision-makers, and drive meaningful change in their communities
and beyond.
Salient Features of Public Advocacy
Public advocacy has several salient features that define its approach and
effectiveness. Here are some key characteristics:
1-Purpose-Driven: Public advocacy is focused on specific issues or causes,
aiming to bring about social change, influence policy, or raise awareness about
important matters affecting individuals or communities.
2-Inclusivity: Effective advocacy seeks to include diverse voices and
perspectives, particularly those from marginalized or underserved communities.
This inclusivity ensures that advocacy efforts reflect the needs and concerns of
all stakeholders.
3-Research-Based: Public advocacy relies on thorough research and evidence to
support its claims. Data, statistics, and case studies provide credibility and
strengthen arguments, making the case for change more compelling.
4-Strategic Communication: Advocacy employs strategic messaging tailored to
various audiences. Clear, persuasive communication is essential for raising
awareness, mobilizing support, and influencing decision-makers.
5-Coalition-Building: Successful advocacy often involves forming coalitions
with other organizations, groups, or individuals who share similar goals.
Collaborative efforts can amplify voices, combine resources, and enhance the
overall impact of advocacy initiatives.
6-Engagement and Mobilization: Public advocacy actively engages individuals
and communities, encouraging them to participate in the advocacy process.
Mobilization efforts, such as rallies, campaigns, and community events, foster a
sense of collective action.
7-Accountability and Transparency: Advocates hold institutions,
organizations, and decision-makers accountable for their actions. Transparency in
processes and outcomes builds trust and reinforces the integrity of advocacy
efforts.
8-Long-Term Focus: Advocacy often aims for sustainable, long-term change
rather than immediate fixes. This long-term perspective involves addressing root
causes of social issues and creating policies that promote lasting solutions.
9-Public Awareness and Education: A key feature of public advocacy is its
focus on educating the public about specific issues. Raising awareness helps
inform community members and encourages informed discussions and actions.
10-Adaptability: Effective advocacy is flexible and can adapt to changing
circumstances, emerging challenges, and new opportunities. This adaptability
allows advocates to respond to current events and shifts in public sentiment.
11-Use of Multiple Channels: Public advocacy employs a variety of
communication channels, including social media, traditional media, public
events, and direct outreach. This multi-channel approach helps reach a wider
audience and increases visibility.
12-Empowerment: Advocacy seeks to empower individuals and communities,

providing them with the tools and resources needed to voice their concerns and
advocate for their rights and needs.
13-Networking and Relationship Building: Building relationships with
stakeholders, including policymakers, community leaders, and other advocates, is
crucial for effective advocacy. Networking enhances collaboration and
strengthens advocacy efforts.
14-Ethical Considerations: Ethical practices are fundamental in advocacy,
ensuring that advocates respect the dignity and rights of those they represent.
This includes being truthful, transparent, and responsible in communications and
actions.
15-Evaluation and Reflection: Public advocacy involves ongoing evaluation of
its effectiveness. Reflecting on successes and challenges helps refine strategies
and improve future advocacy efforts.
These salient features collectively enhance the effectiveness of public
advocacy, enabling advocates to create meaningful change and foster a more just
and equitable society.
SOCIAL ACTION MOVEMENT

A social action movement refers to organized, collective efforts by
individuals or groups to bring about social, political, economic, or environmental
change. These movements typically arise in response to perceived inequalities,
injustices, or unmet needs within society. Social action movements can take
many forms, including protests, advocacy campaigns, civil disobedience, and
community organizing.
The primary goal of a social action movement is to create a shift in
public policy, cultural norms, or societal behaviors. Such movements are driven
by a desire to address systemic issues, such as racial discrimination, gender
inequality, environmental degradation, or labor rights violations. They often
work to raise awareness, mobilize communities, and put pressure on
governments, corporations, and institutions to enact change.
Social action movements rely on collective action, meaning they involve
collaboration among people who share common concerns or goals. These
movements are characterized by grassroots participation and often use a variety
of strategies, from peaceful demonstrations to digital activism.
A key aspect of social action movements is their emphasis on
empowerment and justice. They seek to give voice to marginalized or oppressed
groups, challenging the status quo and advocating for more equitable systems.
Examples of well-known social action movements include the Civil Rights
Movement, the environmental movement, and the feminist movement.
Social action movements play a critical role in driving societal progress
by fostering dialogue, challenging injustices, and encouraging civic engagement.
Definitions
1-Herbert Blumer: "A social movement is a collective enterprise motivated by
a common purpose, where individuals come together to pursue shared beliefs
and identities."
2-Charles Tilly:"Social movements are a series of contentious performances,
displays, and campaigns by which ordinary people make claims on others in
the pursuit of their goals."
3-Martha Nussbaum: "Social movements arise from the collective emotions
and capabilities of individuals who seek justice and a better understanding of
moral issues in society."
Kinds of Social Movements
Social action movements can be categorized in various ways based on their
goals, methods, and characteristics. Here are some common types:
1-Reform Movements: Aimed at making gradual changes within existing social
and political systems. Examples include the civil rights movement and women's
suffrage.
2-Revolutionary Movements: Seek to completely overthrow existing structures
and create a new political or social order. The Russian Revolution is a notable
example.
3-Resistance Movements: Focus on opposing or resisting specific policies or
changes imposed by authorities, such as the anti-globalization movement.
4-Expressive Movements: Concerned primarily with personal or collective
identity and cultural expression rather than specific policy changes.
5-Redemptive Movements: Aim to bring about significant personal change in
individuals, often with a spiritual or religious focus, such as the temperance
movement.
6-Environmental Movements: Focused on issues related to environmental
protection and sustainability, like the climate action movement.
7-Labor Movements: Centered on workers' rights and improving conditions in
the workplace, including unions and strikes.
8-Global Movements: Transnational efforts that address global issues, such as
human rights campaigns or anti-poverty initiatives.
9-Youth Movements: Involve young people advocating for change, often
focusing on issues like education reform or climate change, exemplified by
movements like Fridays for Future.
These categories highlight the diverse objectives and strategies employed
by social movements in their quest for change.
Salient Features of Social Action Movement
Social action movements have distinct characteristics that differentiate them
from other forms of collective action. Here are the salient features of social
movements:
1-Collective Action: Social movements are driven by the collective efforts of
individuals or groups who share a common interest or cause. They involve
organized participation in activities like protests, rallies, or advocacy campaigns.
2-Common Purpose: Participants in a social movement are united by a shared
goal, often seeking to bring about social, political, or cultural change. This can
involve promoting reforms, resisting policies, or advocating for marginalized

groups.
3-Organized Structure: While social movements may vary in formality, they
generally have some level of organization, leadership, or coordination. This
structure helps mobilize resources, strategize, and communicate effectively.
4-Sustained Activity: Unlike spontaneous or short-lived protests, social
movements persist over time. They involve sustained efforts to achieve long-term
objectives, often requiring resilience and adaptability.
5-Social Change Orientation: Social movements aim to challenge existing
power structures, policies, or cultural norms. They seek to address issues of
inequality, injustice, or environmental degradation, among others.
6-Mass Mobilization: Successful social movements involve large numbers of
people. Mass participation provides visibility, legitimacy, and pressure on
institutions or authorities to take action.
7-Ideological Framework: Social movements are often guided by a set of
beliefs or ideologies, such as equality, justice, or environmentalism, which shape
their goals and strategies.
8-Conflict and Opposition: Social movements often arise in opposition to
established authorities, institutions, or social norms. They typically face
resistance from those benefiting from the status quo.
9-Use of Multiple Tactics: Social movements employ a variety of tactics, such
as peaceful protests, civil disobedience, lobbying, media campaigns, and
sometimes even legal action, to advance their causes.
10-Grassroots Nature: Many social movements begin at the grassroots level,
involving ordinary people rather than political elites, making them a powerful
force for bottom-up change.
These features help define the dynamics and structure of social
movements and contribute to their ability to effect change in society.
............................
CHAPTER NO. 7
DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP AND TECHNOLOGY
Digital Platform
A digital platform is an online space or technology that enables users to
connect, interact, and exchange information, goods, or services over the internet.
Think of it as a virtual environment where people can come together for different
purposes, such as communicating, buying and selling products, sharing content,
or collaborating on projects. Digital platforms can take many forms, such as
websites, apps, or social media, and are designed to make these interactions
easier and more efficient. For example, e-commerce platforms like Amazon or
eBay allow buyers and sellers to meet online and exchange goods, while social
media platforms like Facebook or Instagram enable users to share updates,
photos, and videos with friends or followers. There are also platforms designed
for specific tasks, like Uber, which connects drivers with people needing rides, or
Airbnb, where homeowners can rent out their spaces to travelers.
What makes digital platforms powerful is that they provide a framework
where various parties such as individuals, businesses, and developers can create,
share, or offer something valuable to one another, without needing to meet in
person. Most platforms also allow users to create profiles, join communities, and
interact in real-time, making them convenient and widely used in our daily lives.
Another important aspect is that digital platforms often use algorithms to
personalize content or services based on users' preferences and behaviors,
creating a tailored experience for each person. This could be the
recommendations you see on Netflix or the ads you come across while browsing
a website.
In addition to facilitating exchanges, digital platforms also collect data
about users' activities, which helps them improve their services or target specific
groups with advertisements. Platforms can be open, where anyone can join (like
YouTube), or more closed, where only certain groups are allowed access (like
corporate software platforms). Overall, digital platforms are reshaping how we
communicate, work, shop, and entertain ourselves, bringing convenience and
connection to almost every aspect of life.
Definitions
1-Shoshana Zuboff: "Digital platforms are ubiquitous infrastructures for the
extraction, analysis, and monetization of behavioral data, shaping our digital
experiences and the markets that surround them."
2-Nick Srnicek: "Platforms are digital infrastructures that enable two or more
groups to interact. They provide the basic infrastructure for a wide range of
activities, but they also collect, analyze, and use the data generated in these
interactions."
3-Manuel Castells: "Platforms are the technical and social architectures
through which flows of information, power, and culture are distributed,
enabling the network society."
4-Trebor Scholz: "Digital platforms are systems designed to connect users to
services or goods, but they often rely on exploiting labor and data for profit,
prompting the need for more equitable, cooperative alternatives."
5-Jean Tirole: "Platforms are multi-sided markets that create value by

facilitating interactions between different user groups, often extracting value
through network effects and data-driven insights."
These definitions reflect the multifaceted nature of digital platforms,
focusing on aspects like data, power structures, economics, and social impact.
Types of Digital Platform
1-Social Media Platforms: These platforms enable users to create profiles, share
content, and interact with others through likes, comments, and messages. They
focus on fostering communication and community building. Examples:
Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn.
2-E-commerce Platforms: E-commerce platforms allow businesses and
individuals to buy and sell goods and services online. They offer tools for
transactions, customer support, and logistics. Examples: Amazon, eBay, Alibaba,
Shopify.
3-Content Sharing Platforms: These platforms let users create, upload, and
share various types of content such as videos, photos, articles, and music. They
are often monetized through ads, subscriptions, or user-generated content.
Examples: YouTube, Vimeo, Sound Cloud, Medium.
4-Collaborative Economy Platforms (Sharing/Gig Economy): These
platforms connect individuals offering services with people needing those
services. They enable peer-to-peer exchanges, often disrupting traditional
industries like transportation, lodging, or freelance work. Examples: Uber,
Airbnb, TaskRabbit, Fiverr.
5-Cloud Computing and SaaS Platforms: These platforms offer software and
services over the internet, eliminating the need for installation or management on
individual computers. They provide scalable computing resources and tools for
businesses and individuals.
Examples: Google Cloud, Microsoft Azure, Dropbox, Salesforce.
6-Marketplace Platforms: Marketplaces connect multiple sellers with buyers in
a central location. These platforms act as intermediaries for a wide range of
goods and services, providing payment processing and customer support.
Examples: Etsy, eBay, Alibaba.
7-Financial Platforms (FinTech): These platforms focus on providing financial
services such as payments, banking, investing, and money transfers. They are
often regulated by financial authorities and focus on simplifying financial
transactions. Examples: PayPal, Stripe, Robin Hood, Square.
8-Educational Platforms (EdTech): These platforms provide online learning
through virtual courses, tutorials, and resources, catering to both students and
professionals. Many offer certifications, degrees, and interactive learning
experiences. Examples: Coursera, Khan Academy, Udemy, Duolingo.
9-Streaming Platforms (Entertainment): Streaming platforms offer on-demand
access to digital media, including movies, TV shows, music, and live broadcasts.
Most operate on a subscription or ad-based model. Examples: Netflix, Spotify,
Hulu, Twitch.
10-Search Engines: Search platforms allow users to search for information,
products, or services on the internet. They use algorithms to index and rank
content, making it accessible to users based on relevance. Examples: Google,

Bing, Yahoo.
11-Developer Platforms: Developer platforms provide tools, libraries,
frameworks, and environments for software developers to create, test, and deploy
applications. They often feature collaboration tools and a community for sharing
resources. Examples: GitHub, Heroku, Microsoft Azure.
12-Job and Freelance Platforms: These platforms connect employers and
employees or freelancers, offering job postings, hiring tools, and profiles for
candidates. They streamline the job search and hiring process.
Examples: LinkedIn, Indeed, Up work, Freelancer.
13-Health and Fitness Platforms: Health platforms focus on providing access
to medical services, fitness tracking, or wellness programs. They include
telemedicine, fitness apps, and mental wellness resources.
Examples: MyFitnessPal, Fitbit, Headspace, WebMD.
14-Gaming Platforms: These platforms provide an environment for users to
play video games, either by downloading, streaming, or accessing them online.
They often offer multiplayer interaction, in-game purchases, and gaming
communities. Examples: Steam, PlayStation Network, Xbox Live.
15-Crowdfunding Platforms: Crowdfunding platforms allow individuals or
businesses to raise money from the public for a specific project, cause, or
business idea. They operate by pooling small amounts of money from many
contributors. Examples: Kickstarter, GoFundMe, Patreon, Indiegogo.
16-Advertising Platforms: Advertising platforms are designed to connect
businesses with audiences through targeted ads. These platforms collect user data
to allow businesses to run ad campaigns based on specific demographics and
interests. Examples: Google Ads, Facebook Ads, AdSense.
17-Communication Platforms: These platforms provide users with tools for
real-time communication via text, voice, or video. They are essential for both
personal and professional communication and collaboration.
Examples: WhatsApp, Zoom, Slack, Microsoft Teams.
18-Data and Analytics Platforms: Data platforms aggregate and analyze data
from various sources, offering insights that can be used to make informed
decisions. They are used in industries like marketing, healthcare, and business
intelligence. Examples: Google Analytics, Tableau, Splunk.
19-Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) Platforms: These
platforms create immersive virtual environments or overlay digital elements onto
the real world. They are used in gaming, education, and industries like real estate
and healthcare. Examples: Oculus, Google ARCore, Magic Leap.
20-Logistics and Supply Chain Platforms: Logistics platforms facilitate the
management of supply chains, inventory, and shipping processes. They connect
suppliers, manufacturers, and retailers to ensure smooth transactions and
deliveries. Examples: Flexport, ShipBob, Alibaba’s Cainiao.
Conclusion: These types of digital platforms illustrate the broad range of
functionalities they offer, revolutionizing industries, simplifying daily tasks, and
enabling new forms of interaction and business opportunities.
Utility & Importance of Digital Platform

The utility and importance of digital platforms have grown tremendously
in today's interconnected world. Here’s an in-depth look at their utility and
significance across various domains:
1-Global Connectivity and Communication: Digital platforms enable people
across the globe to communicate and interact in real-time, regardless of
geographical boundaries. Social media platforms like Facebook, WhatsApp, and
LinkedIn help individuals and businesses connect, share information, and
collaborate seamlessly.
2-Convenience and Accessibility: Digital platforms provide convenient access
to services and products from anywhere, at any time. For instance, e-commerce
platforms like Amazon or Alibaba allow users to shop from the comfort of their
homes, making the process easier and faster. Similarly, cloud platforms like
Google Drive give access to files and software remotely.
3-Economic Growth and Job Creation: Digital platforms play a crucial role in
fostering economic development by creating new business opportunities, jobs,
and revenue streams. Gig economy platforms such as Uber, Fiverr, and Upwork
empower freelancers and small businesses to offer services to a global market.
These platforms democratize access to income by breaking down traditional
employment barriers.
4-Innovation and Business Transformation: Digital platforms encourage
innovation by providing a space for developers, startups, and entrepreneurs to
create, launch, and scale new products or services. Platforms like GitHub and
Google Cloud offer developers the tools to build applications, while platforms
like Shopify enable businesses to easily set up online stores.
5-Efficient Service Delivery: Digital platforms streamline service delivery,
making it more efficient. For example, fintech platforms such as PayPal and
Stripe simplify financial transactions, while healthcare platforms like
telemedicine apps allow patients to access medical consultations online,
improving healthcare accessibility and response times.
6-Data-Driven Decision Making: By aggregating vast amounts of user data,
digital platforms provide valuable insights that help organizations make informed
decisions. Analytics platforms such as Google Analytics and Tableau analyze
user behavior and market trends, enabling businesses to optimize marketing
strategies, improve products, and enhance user experience.
7-Facilitating Education and Learning: Educational platforms like Coursera,
Udemy, and Khan Academy democratize learning by offering access to courses
and resources to people around the world, regardless of their financial or
geographical limitations. This promotes lifelong learning and skill development.
8-Cost Savings for Businesses: Digital platforms reduce the need for physical
infrastructure, significantly lowering operating costs for businesses. For instance,
SaaS (Software-as-a-Service) platforms like Salesforce or Microsoft 365
eliminate the need for on-premise software, reducing maintenance and hardware
expenses.
9-Scalability: Businesses and services can easily scale using digital platforms.
Platforms like AWS (Amazon Web Services) offer scalable cloud solutions for
storage and processing, while e-commerce platforms enable companies to
quickly reach larger audiences without the traditional limitations of brick-and-

mortar stores.
10-Personalization and Customer Experience: Digital platforms use
algorithms and data analytics to personalize user experiences. For example,
streaming platforms like Netflix recommend content based on viewing history,
while e-commerce sites provide tailored product recommendations, enhancing
customer satisfaction and retention.
11-Enhanced Collaboration: Collaboration platforms such as Slack, Microsoft
Teams, and Zoom improve workplace productivity by providing tools for
communication, document sharing, and real-time collaboration. They make
remote work feasible and efficient, which has become particularly important in
the post-pandemic world.
12-Environmental Sustainability: Digital platforms contribute to sustainability
by reducing the need for physical resources. For example, e-books and digital
content eliminate paper use, while teleconferencing platforms reduce the need for
travel, lowering carbon emissions.
13-Market Expansion for Small Businesses: Digital platforms allow small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to access global markets, leveling the playing
field with larger competitors. Platforms like Etsy or Shopify provide an
opportunity for artisans and small-scale manufacturers to sell their products to a
global audience without the need for physical storefronts.
14-Flexibility and Adaptability: Digital platforms offer immense flexibility to
businesses and individuals. Whether it’s setting up an online store, booking a
service, or accessing software, platforms provide customizable solutions that can
be adapted to specific needs, reducing the time and effort needed for complex
operations.
15-Fostering Communities and Social Movements: Social media and digital
advocacy platforms facilitate the creation of communities and the mobilization of
social movements. Activist groups use platforms like Twitter and Change.org to
spread awareness, garner support, and drive action for various causes.
16-Security and Compliance: Many digital platforms provide built-in security
measures like encryption, multi-factor authentication, and compliance tools,
which help businesses and individuals protect their data. Financial platforms like
PayPal and Stripe also ensure that transactions are secure and compliant with
legal regulations.
17-Entertainment and Engagement: Platforms like YouTube, Netflix, and
Spotify offer vast amounts of digital content, providing entertainment and
cultural engagement. These platforms have transformed how people consume
media, shifting from traditional TV and radio to on-demand streaming.
18-Data Monetization and New Revenue Streams: Digital platforms allow
businesses to monetize user data in ethical and profitable ways. For instance,
advertising platforms like Google Ads generate revenue by targeting consumers
with personalized ads, while e-commerce platforms use purchase data to suggest
products.
19-Crisis Management and Rapid Response: Digital platforms have proven
essential in crises, providing real-time information and coordination. During the
COVID-19 pandemic, telemedicine, remote work, and educational platforms
ensured continuity of services, while social media platforms helped disseminate

critical health information.
20-Global Reach: Digital platforms provide instant global reach, enabling
businesses, educators, artists, and individuals to connect with audiences
worldwide. This global accessibility breaks down traditional barriers, opening up
new markets, ideas, and collaborations.
Conclusion: The utility and importance of digital platforms lie in their ability to
foster connectivity, facilitate innovation, drive economic growth, enhance service
delivery, and provide access to information and services on a global scale. They
are reshaping how individuals and businesses operate, collaborate, and thrive in
the digital age.
CYBER ETHICS & RESPONSIBLE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA
Cyber ethics refers to the rules and moral principles that guide behavior
and decision-making in the online world. Just like in real life, where we have
social norms and laws to tell us what’s right and wrong, the internet has its own
set of ethical guidelines. These rules help individuals and organizations use
technology responsibly, ensuring that online activities respect the rights and
safety of others.
In simple terms, cyber ethics is all about doing the right thing online. It
covers a wide range of issues, such as privacy, security, and digital
communication. For example, when you are on the internet, it’s ethical to protect
your personal information, avoid hacking into other people’s accounts, and not
spread harmful or false information. Following these rules helps create a safe and
trustworthy online environment for everyone.
Key Areas of Cyber Ethics
1-Privacy: Respecting privacy means not snooping into other people’s data or
personal information without their permission. Ethical internet users understand
that everyone has the right to keep certain details about themselves private.
Sharing someone’s personal details, like their address or photos, without their
consent is a violation of their privacy and is considered unethical.
2-Cyberbullying and Online Behavior: Treating people with kindness and
respect online is a core part of cyber ethics. Just because we’re behind screens
doesn’t mean we can hurt or bully others. Cyberbullying involves harassing or
attacking someone online through harmful comments or messages. Ethical
behavior online is about being respectful in your communication and
understanding that your words and actions can affect real people.
3-Intellectual Property: Ethical online behavior also includes respecting
intellectual property. This means not copying or stealing someone else’s work,
like music, movies, or articles, without permission. Downloading pirated
software or sharing copyrighted content without permission is against the
principles of cyber ethics.
4-Security: Keeping your devices and accounts safe from hackers and viruses is
another important aspect of cyber ethics. This includes using strong passwords,
updating your software regularly, and not engaging in activities like spreading
malware or hacking other people's systems.
5-Digital Footprint: Everything you do online leaves a trail, called a digital

footprint. Ethical internet users are aware of how their actions can have long-
term consequences, so they think carefully before posting, commenting, or
sharing anything online.
Conclusion: Cyber ethics is about responsible and respectful behavior on the
internet. Following ethical guidelines makes the online world a better place for
everyone by promoting fairness, honesty, and safety in all digital interactions.
Branches of Cyber Ethics
Cyber ethics is a broad field that touches on many aspects of online
behavior and technology. The main branches of cyber ethics focus on various
issues that arise in the digital world. Here are the key branches:
1-Privacy Ethics: This branch deals with the protection of personal data and the
ethical handling of private information. It raises questions like:
* How should personal data be collected, stored, and shared?
* What rights do individuals have over their data?
* Is it ethical for companies to track user behavior without consent?
2-Intellectual Property Ethics: This focuses on the ethical use of digital
content, such as music, videos, software, and written works. It explores:
* How to respect copyrights, patents, and trademarks online.
* The ethics of file sharing, piracy, and downloading illegal content.
*Protecting the rights of creators while ensuring fair access to information.
3-Hacking and Security Ethics: This branch involves the ethical use of hacking
skills and ensuring cybersecurity. It includes:
* The morality of hacking, both legal (white hat) and illegal (black hat).
* Ethical hacking for security testing versus malicious attacks.
* Responsibilities in preventing and protecting against cyberattacks.
4-Cybercrime Ethics: Cybercrime ethics addresses illegal activities that happen
online, such as:
* Hacking, phishing, and fraud.
* The ethical considerations of cyber law enforcement.
* Issues of jurisdiction in cross-border cybercrimes.
5-Freedom of Speech and Censorship: This branch deals with the ethical
balance between free speech and regulation on the internet. It explores:
* The limits of freedom of speech online, such as hate speech and
misinformation.
* Ethical issues surrounding government censorship or corporate content
moderation.
6-Social Media and Communication Ethics: Focusing on ethical behavior in
digital communication, this includes:
* Cyberbullying, trolling, and harassment.
* The spread of fake news and misinformation.
* Responsible use of social media platforms.
7-Digital Divide and Access Ethics: This branch addresses the ethical issue of
unequal access to technology and the internet. Key topics include:
* The ethics of ensuring fair access to digital resources.
* How technology can bridge or widen the gap between different socioeconomic
groups.
8-Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Automation Ethics: As technology advances,

this branch looks at the ethical implications of AI and automation, including:
* The ethical use of AI in decision-making, such as facial recognition or data
analysis.
* Concerns over job displacement due to automation.
* Ensuring that AI development aligns with human rights and ethics.
9-Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) Ethics: This branch
covers ethical concerns in immersive digital environments, such as:
* The impact of VR/AR experiences on psychological well-being.
* The ethics of simulating real-world activities in virtual environments.
* Data privacy in VR/AR applications.
10-Digital Identity and Digital Footprint Ethics: This deals with how
individuals manage their digital identities and the long-term consequences of
their online actions, such as:
* The ethical responsibility of managing one's digital footprint.
* The potential misuse of online identities, like identity theft.
* Ethical concerns around anonymity and pseudonymity online.
Conclusion: These branches of cyber ethics guide responsible use of the internet,
ensuring that individuals, businesses, and governments behave ethically in the
digital space. Each branch addresses specific moral dilemmas and challenges that
arise with new technologies.
Ensuring the Right & Responsible Use of Social Media
1-Think before Posting: Reflect on how your post may be perceived by others.
2-Verify Sources: Check the credibility of information before sharing.
3-Protect Personal Information: Avoid sharing sensitive personal details.
4-Use Privacy Settings: Adjust privacy settings to control who sees your
content.
5-Engage Positively: Foster constructive conversations and interactions.
6-Be Respectful: Treat others online as you would in person.
7-Avoid Oversharing: Share selectively to maintain your privacy.
8-Report Harmful Content: Use reporting tools for harassment or hate speech.
9-Limit Screen Time: Set boundaries to avoid excessive use.
10-Educate Yourself: Stay informed about social media trends and safety
practices.
11-Be Authentic: Share content that reflects your true self and values.
12-Think about Long-term Impact: Consider how posts may affect your
future.
13-Avoid Engagement with Trolls: Don’t feed negative or disruptive behaviors.
14-Check Facts: Fact-check news articles before sharing them.
15-Avoid Spamming: Don't post excessively or irrelevant content.
16-Use Block/Mute Features: Manage your feed by blocking or muting
negative influences.
17-Promote Positive Content: Share uplifting and informative material.
18-Be Mindful of Mental Health: Curate your feed for positivity and limit
exposure to negativity.
19-Stay Aware of Trends: Understand trending topics and how they may affect
discussions.
20-Engage with Empathy: Approach discussions with understanding and
kindness.
Conclusion: Ensuring the right and responsible use of social media requires a
collective effort involving individuals, companies, governments, and educators.
By fostering digital literacy, enforcing cyber laws, promoting ethical behavior,
and providing tools to protect privacy and security, we can create a safer and
more respectful digital world. Everyone has a role to play in making the internet
a place of responsible and ethical interaction.
DIGITAL DIVIDE & DISPARITIES
The "digital divide" means that some people have easy access to
computers, the internet, and technology, while others do not. This difference
creates gaps in opportunities, education, and work. People with access to the
internet can do things like learn online, search for jobs, and connect with others
easily. However, those without access, often in poorer areas or rural places, miss
out on these opportunities. Even when people have access to technology, they
may not know how to use it well, which is called a lack of digital skills or
literacy. Older people or those who haven't grown up with technology may find it
harder to use computers or navigate the internet. Another big part of the digital
divide is cost. Not everyone can afford a computer or pay for reliable internet
service, which limits what they can do. For example, students without internet at
home may fall behind in school because they can’t complete online assignments.
Adults without internet access or computer skills may have trouble finding jobs
or accessing important services like online healthcare. During the COVID-19
pandemic, this divide became more noticeable as many people couldn’t work or
attend school from home due to a lack of technology. Fixing the digital divide
involves making technology and internet access more affordable, providing free
Wi-Fi in public areas, and offering training programs to help people develop
digital skills. Governments, companies, and communities all have a role to play
in closing this gap. Overall, the digital divide is about the unequal access to
technology and the opportunities that come with it, which affects how people
live, learn, and work.
Origin: The term "digital divide" originated in the 1990s, when technology,
especially the internet, began to play a larger role in everyday life. As computers
and the internet became more widespread, researchers, policymakers, and
educators noticed that not everyone had equal access to these new tools. The term
was coined to describe the growing gap between those who could afford and use
digital technology, and those who could not.
Definitions
1-Manuel Castells (Sociologist): "Access to the Internet has become a critical
factor for social inclusion in the Information Age. The digital divide is not only
a divide in access to the network, but also a divide in the ability to process and
produce the knowledge that runs economies and societies."
2-Mark Warschauer (Digital Literacy Scholar): "The real issue is not the
'haves' versus the 'have-nots' in terms of access to computers or the internet,
but rather the 'cans' versus the 'can-nots' in terms of ability to use and benefit
from the technology." nology.
3-Henry Jenkins (Media Scholar): "The digital divide is not simply about
access to technology but about access to the skills, knowledge, and
opportunities that are needed to participate fully in the digital world."
4-Jan van Dijk (Sociologist and Communication Theorist): "The digital
divide is a social and political problem resulting from the unequal distribution
of access to digital technology, which in turn reinforces existing social
inequalities."
Conclusion: These scholars, while not classic philosophers in the traditional
sense, are influential thinkers who have contributed to our understanding of the
digital divide. They explore it as a complex issue that involves not just access to
technology, but also deeper structural inequalities, digital literacy, and
participation in the digital world.
Kinds of Digital Divide
The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals, groups, or
communities who have access to information and communication technology
(ICT) and those who do not. There are several kinds of digital divide, each
focusing on different aspects of this inequality. These divisions go beyond just
physical access to technology and involve skills, usage, and social factors. Below
are the key types of digital divides:
1-Access Divide (Physical Divide): This is the most basic form of the digital
divide and refers to the gap between those who have access to computers, the
internet, and other digital devices, and those who do not. It is usually based on
geography (urban vs. rural areas), socio-economic status, or availability of
infrastructure. Examples: Urban areas often have high-speed internet, while rural
areas may lack reliable or affordable internet services. Wealthier families can
afford computers, while poorer families cannot.
2-Skills Divide (Digital Literacy Divide): Having access to technology doesn't
guarantee that people know how to use it effectively. The skills divide refers to
the gap between those who have the ability to use digital technologies and those
who do not, often due to a lack of digital literacy or educational opportunities.
Examples: Older adults or people with less formal education may struggle to use
computers, apps, or websites. On the other hand, younger generations, exposed to
technology early on, often find it easier to adapt.
3-Usage Divide (Quality of Use Divide): Even if someone has access and basic
skills, there’s a divide in how people use digital technologies. This refers to the
difference between those who use the internet for advanced tasks (e.g.,
professional work, research, content creation) and those who use it only for
simple tasks (e.g., social media, watching videos).
Examples: Some individuals use the internet to access educational platforms or
start businesses, while others may use it only for entertainment. This divide
reflects not just skills, but also the purpose of use.
4-Economic Divide: This divide concerns the affordability of digital technology.
Even when technology is available, not everyone can afford high-quality devices,
data plans, or fast internet connections. Lower-income individuals may only be
able to afford basic internet or cheaper, outdated devices, limiting their digital
experiences. Examples: A person may have a smartphone with limited data but
cannot afford a laptop or high-speed internet, reducing their ability to participate
fully in online learning or remote work.
5-Geographical Divide: Access to digital technology can vary greatly based on
location. Rural and remote areas often face challenges with infrastructure, such
as a lack of broadband or high-speed internet, compared to urban areas where
technology infrastructure is more developed. Examples: Rural areas in
developing countries may not have the necessary infrastructure for internet
access, while cities in the same country may have modern, fast broadband
connections.
6-Gender Divide: In some regions, especially in developing countries, there is a
digital divide based on gender. Women are often less likely to have access to
digital technology due to cultural, social, or economic factors. Examples: In parts
of Africa and South Asia, cultural norms may limit women's access to education
and, by extension, to technology, further widening the gap between men and
women in digital participation.
7-Age Divide: The age divide refers to the generational gap in technology usage.
Younger people, often referred to as "digital natives," tend to adopt new
technologies more quickly and use them more frequently, while older generations
may find it more challenging to adapt to rapidly changing technologies.
Examples: Younger generations use smartphones and social media as part of
their daily routines, while older adults may struggle with smartphones or prefer
traditional means of communication.
8-Disability Divide: People with disabilities often face challenges in accessing
and using technology due to a lack of accessible digital resources and tools.
Many websites and digital services are not designed with accessibility in mind,
creating a barrier for individuals with disabilities. Examples: Websites that are
not compatible with screen readers make it difficult for visually impaired
individuals to access information. Lack of closed captions or subtitles may limit
content for people with hearing impairments.
9-Language and Content Divide: This divide refers to the availability of digital
content in different languages and the relevance of that content to specific
communities. English is the dominant language of the internet, which creates a
barrier for people who are not fluent in English or for communities whose
cultural content is underrepresented online.
Examples: Many educational resources and websites are available only in
English or a few major languages, making it difficult for non-English speakers to
access information or learn online.
10-Institutional Divide: Institutions, such as schools, businesses, and
governments, can also experience a digital divide based on their access to and
adoption of technology. Well-funded schools may provide students with
computers and internet access, while underfunded schools may lack such
resources. Examples: A well-equipped school with internet access and digital
devices will offer its students more learning opportunities compared to a school
in a poorer neighborhood without such resources.
Conclusion: The digital divide is a multi-dimensional issue that involves not

only physical access to technology but also social, economic, and educational
factors. Bridging this divide requires addressing these different types of divides
through inclusive policies, investments in infrastructure, and education aimed at
increasing digital literacy and access for all.
Effects & Impacts of Digital Divide
The digital divide has profound socio-economic effects, as it contributes
to widening inequalities between individuals, communities, and even nations. In
a world where technology plays a central role in almost every aspect of life, those
without access to digital resources face significant disadvantages. Below are the
socio-economic effects of the digital divide on different fields of life:
1-Education: The digital divide significantly affects educational opportunities
and outcomes, deepening socio-economic disparities.
* Unequal Access to Education: Students from low-income families or rural
areas who lack access to digital devices or high-speed internet are unable to
participate in online learning. This became especially apparent during the
COVID-19 pandemic when education shifted online, leaving many students
behind.
* Widening Achievement Gaps: The digital divide exacerbates educational
inequalities, as students with access to technology can benefit from additional
learning resources (like online tutoring or research materials), while others
cannot. This results in long-term socio-economic consequences, as those with
better education are more likely to secure higher-paying jobs.
* Digital Literacy Divide: Students without access to technology miss out on
developing essential digital literacy skills, which are increasingly important in
the modern economy. This can limit their ability to compete in the job market
later in life.
2-Employment and Income: The digital divide has a direct impact on job
opportunities, career growth, and income levels, perpetuating socio-economic
inequality.
* Limited Job Opportunities: Many job applications, especially for higher-
paying or remote jobs, are now online. Individuals without internet access or
digital skills are at a disadvantage when searching for jobs, filling out
applications, or attending virtual interviews.
* Skills Gap: Workers without access to digital technologies or training are often
left behind in terms of skill development, particularly in industries that rely on
technology. This skills gap means that lower-income individuals may remain
stuck in low-paying jobs with fewer opportunities for advancement.
* Remote Work Disparities: The rise of remote work during the pandemic
highlighted the digital divide. Employees without reliable internet or proper
technology could not take advantage of remote work opportunities, leaving them
at a disadvantage compared to their peers. This further impacts income and
career mobility.
3-Healthcare: The digital divide creates barriers to accessing healthcare, which
can deepen existing health and economic inequalities.
* Access to Telemedicine: People in underserved areas or low-income households
may not have access to telemedicine services, which are increasingly important
in healthcare. This can lead to delayed diagnoses or a lack of preventative care,

ultimately worsening health outcomes.
* Healthcare Information: The digital divide limits access to important health
information and online health management tools, such as patient portals, medical
apps, or online research about symptoms and treatments. Those without access
may struggle to manage chronic conditions or make informed healthcare
decisions.
* Cost of Care: Poorer health outcomes due to the digital divide can result in
higher healthcare costs over time, disproportionately affecting low-income
individuals and exacerbating their financial struggles.
4-Economic Development: The digital divide slows down economic growth and
development, particularly in disadvantaged regions and communities.
* Barriers to Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurs and small businesses in areas
without reliable internet access or digital tools face significant challenges in
starting or scaling their businesses. This limits job creation and economic
opportunities in these communities.
* Regional Economic Disparities: Urban areas with better digital infrastructure
tend to experience faster economic growth, while rural or underdeveloped areas
lag behind. This exacerbates regional inequalities and limits national economic
competitiveness.
* Innovation Gap: The digital divide can stifle innovation in economically
disadvantaged areas. Lack of access to digital tools and information means that
fewer people in these areas can contribute to or benefit from technological
advancements, leading to a widening economic gap between regions and nations.
5-Social Mobility: The digital divide contributes to lower social mobility by
limiting access to the resources and opportunities necessary for socio-economic
advancement.
* Inequality in Access to Opportunities: Individuals without access to
technology face barriers in education, employment, and healthcare, making it
harder to break the cycle of poverty. They miss out on scholarships, job postings,
networking opportunities, and government services that are increasingly provided
online.
* Perpetuation of Poverty: Without access to technology and digital skills, low-
income families remain trapped in a cycle of poverty. The inability to access
better education and job opportunities results in continued financial struggles for
future generations.
6-Civic Engagement and Political Participation: The digital divide also has
socio-economic consequences for civic engagement, as it limits access to
political information and participation.
* Limited Access to Information: People without internet access miss out on
important political news, government services, and opportunities to engage in
civic activities. This limits their ability to participate in decision-making
processes that affect their socio-economic conditions.
* Disenfranchisement: Digital access is becoming increasingly important for
voter registration, staying informed about policies, and engaging in political
discourse. People who lack access are often excluded from these processes,
weakening their voice in the political sphere and reducing their ability to
advocate for policies that could improve their socio-economic standing.
7-Social Inequality and Exclusion: The digital divide deepens social inequality
and exclusion, reinforcing existing socio-economic disparities.
* Social Isolation: Individuals without access to digital tools and platforms may
become socially isolated, especially in an increasingly digital world. This can be
especially true for older adults or people living in rural areas, affecting their
mental well-being and social inclusion.
* Cultural Exclusion: The inability to participate in digital spaces, such as social
media or online communities, can marginalize certain groups and limit their
participation in cultural and social discussions. This creates a divide not only in
socio-economic status but also in social integration and community participation.
* Generational Divide: Older generations, particularly those with lower incomes,
are often more affected by the digital divide, making it harder for them to access
information, stay connected with family, and engage in modern services. This
further contributes to intergenerational socio-economic inequality.
Conclusion: The digital divide creates and exacerbates socio-economic
inequalities by limiting access to critical resources and opportunities in
education, employment, healthcare, and civic participation. It affects individuals'
ability to improve their socio-economic standing, perpetuating cycles of poverty
and limiting social mobility. Addressing the digital divide is crucial for ensuring
equitable socio-economic development and fostering inclusion in an increasingly
digital world.
Causes of Digital Divide
The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals, households, or
regions with access to digital technologies (like the internet and computers) and
those without. It can be influenced by several factors, which include:
1-Socioeconomic Factors
* Income Level: People with lower incomes often cannot afford internet
services, computers, or smartphones.
* Education: Lower levels of education can limit people's digital literacy,
affecting their ability to use technology effectively.
* Employment: Occupations with limited or no access to digital tools further
widen the divide.
2-Geographical Location
* Urban vs. Rural Divide: People in rural or remote areas often lack high-speed
internet infrastructure, while urban areas tend to have better connectivity.
* Developed vs. Developing Countries: Developing nations may have limited
technological infrastructure, making internet access more expensive or
unavailable.
3-Age
* Generational Gaps: Older generations may have less experience with digital
technologies, making it harder for them to engage in the digital world.
4-Gender: In some regions, cultural or societal norms may result in women
having less access to digital tools compared to men, further widening the gender
gap in the digital divide.
5-Infrastructure
* Broadband and Wireless Access: The availability of reliable and affordable

internet services, like broadband or mobile networks, varies greatly across
regions.
* Electricity: In areas where electricity is inconsistent or unavailable, digital
access is severely limited.
6-Government Policies
* Lack of Investment: Insufficient public investment in digital infrastructure can
lead to areas being underserved.
* Censorship and Regulations: In some countries, strict internet regulations and
censorship can limit access to global information and digital resources.
7-Digital Literacy
* Skills Gap: Without the necessary skills to navigate the internet or use digital
devices, even those with access to technology might not be able to fully
participate in the digital world.
8-Cultural and Language Barriers
* Linguistic Differences: Much of the online content is in dominant languages
(e.g., English), limiting access for people who speak less widely used languages.
* Cultural Norms: In some cultures, there may be a lack of interest or trust in
digital technologies.
9-Disabilities
* Accessibility: People with disabilities may face additional challenges if digital
devices and platforms are not designed with accessibility features, such as screen
readers or alternative input methods.
10-Technological Obsolescence
* Outdated Equipment: Those who have access to technology but use outdated
devices may find it difficult to benefit from modern applications and services,
which can further increase the digital divide.
Conclusion: These factors contribute to the disparities in digital access, creating
significant implications for economic development, education, healthcare, and
social inclusion in both local and global contexts.
Measures to Minimize the Effects of Digital Divide
Reducing the effects of the digital divide requires addressing its root
causes while creating inclusive solutions that allow everyone to benefit from
digital technologies. Here are 15 actionable ways to reduce the effects:
1-Promote Digital Literacy
* Training Programs: Implement widespread digital literacy programs,
targeting both youth and adults, to ensure people can use digital tools effectively.
* School Initiatives: Integrate digital skills training into school curriculums from
early education to bridge generational knowledge gaps.
2-Provide Affordable Internet Access
* Subsidized Internet Plans: Work with internet service providers (ISPs) to
offer low-cost or subsidized internet plans for low-income households.
* Public Wi-Fi Hotspots: Expand free or low-cost public Wi-Fi hotspots in
community centers, parks, libraries, and transportation hubs.
3-Increase Access to Devices
* Device Donation Programs: Encourage device donation and refurbishing

programs to provide affordable or free laptops, smartphones, and tablets to
underserved populations.
* Government-Subsidized Devices: Launch government initiatives to provide
discounted or free devices for students and low-income families.
4-Support Remote Learning
* Hybrid Learning Models: Establish hybrid models of in-person and online
learning, ensuring that students with limited access to technology can still
participate.
* Educational Grants: Offer grants or scholarships for students to acquire the
necessary technology for remote learning.
5-Expand Infrastructure in Underserved Areas
* Broadband Expansion: Invest in broadband infrastructure in rural and remote
areas to ensure reliable, high-speed internet access.
* Community Networks: Support the creation of community-owned or
cooperative internet networks in areas where private ISPs are less willing to
invest.
6-Develop Mobile Solutions
* Mobile Data Programs: Promote the expansion of mobile data networks,
especially 4G and 5G, to increase internet access through mobile devices in
underserved regions.
* Affordable Mobile Devices: Support the production and distribution of
affordable smartphones to enable greater access via mobile technology.
7-Enhance E-Government Services
* Accessible Digital Platforms: Make government services available online,
ensuring they are user-friendly and accessible even to those with limited digital
skills.
* Digital IDs and Services: Create digital identity systems that allow citizens to
access government services online without the need for in-person visits.
8-Provide Technical Support
* Tech Support Hotlines: Establish free or low-cost tech support services for
people who are new to technology or struggling to use digital tools.
* Community Tech Hubs: Set up community technology hubs where people
can receive hands-on assistance and training with digital devices.
9-Promote Accessibility
* Design for All: Ensure that websites, apps, and devices are accessible to
people with disabilities by following inclusive design principles (e.g., screen
readers, text-to-speech tools).
* Assistive Technologies: Fund and distribute assistive technology that helps
people with disabilities access and use digital services.
10-Reduce Data Costs
* Zero-Rated Services: Encourage ISPs to offer zero-rated services, allowing
users to access essential websites (education, healthcare, government) without
using up data.
* Community Data Sharing: Support community data-sharing programs where
pooled resources provide internet access to those who can’t afford it individually.
11-Promote Digital Inclusion for Marginalized Groups
* Gender-Inclusive Programs: Design and promote programs to enhance digital

literacy and access for women and girls in regions where they face additional
barriers.
* Ethnic and Linguistic Inclusivity: Offer digital content in local languages and
create culturally relevant platforms to increase engagement among marginalized
ethnic communities.
12-Encourage Public-Private Partnerships
* Collaborative Projects: Foster partnerships between governments, NGOs, and
the private sector to fund and develop initiatives that close the digital gap.
* Corporate Social Responsibility: Encourage tech companies to develop
initiatives as part of their corporate social responsibility efforts aimed at
increasing digital inclusion.
13-Strengthen Cybersecurity Awareness
* Security Training: Provide training on cybersecurity, especially for older
adults and vulnerable populations, to ensure they can use the internet safely.
* Trust in Technology: Promote public awareness campaigns to build trust in
technology, emphasizing safe and secure online practices.
14-Create Inclusive Job Opportunities
* Remote Work Access: Promote digital skills development to enable people in
underserved areas to access remote job opportunities that rely on technology.
* Tech Apprenticeships: Create apprenticeships and internships in the tech
sector to give low-income or rural populations access to digital career paths.
15-Advocate for Policy and Legal Frameworks
* Pro-Digital Policies: Push for government policies that mandate affordable
internet access and infrastructure development in underserved areas.
* Regulatory Frameworks: Advocate for legal frameworks that protect users'
digital rights, ensuring they can access online resources without discrimination or
barriers.
Conclusion: By implementing these strategies, the effects of the digital divide
can be significantly reduced, allowing more people to access the educational,
economic, and social benefits of digital connectivity.
........................
CHAPTER NO. 8
DIVERSITY, INCLUSION AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
Diversity and Inclusion
Diversity and Inclusion refer to the principles and practices that aim to
create a workplace or community that values and incorporates a wide range of
human differences. Diversity encompasses the presence of various identities,
including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age,
religion, disability, socioeconomic status, and cultural background. It recognizes
that individuals come from different backgrounds and experiences, which shape
their perspectives and contributions. Embracing diversity means actively
acknowledging these differences and fostering an environment where everyone
feels represented and valued.
Inclusion, on the other hand, focuses on the practices and policies that ensure all
individuals feel welcomed, respected, and empowered to participate fully in an
organization or community. It involves creating an atmosphere where diverse
voices are not only heard but actively sought out and integrated into decision-
making processes. Inclusion goes beyond mere representation; it requires
cultivating a culture of belonging where individuals can express their authentic
selves without fear of discrimination or exclusion. Together, diversity and
inclusion enhance creativity, innovation, and problem-solving by bringing
together varied viewpoints and experiences, ultimately leading to more equitable
and effective organizations.
Diversity in society: refers to the variety of distinct identities, backgrounds, and
perspectives present within a community or population. This includes differences
in race, ethnicity, culture, language, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age,
socioeconomic status, and abilities. The presence of such diversity enriches
social interactions and contributes to a more vibrant and dynamic community. It
allows for a multitude of viewpoints and experiences, fostering creativity,
innovation, and a deeper understanding of complex social issues.
Moreover, embracing diversity in society promotes social cohesion and
mutual respect among different groups. It encourages dialogue and collaboration,
helping to break down stereotypes and prejudices. By recognizing and valuing
the contributions of diverse individuals, societies can work towards greater
equity and inclusion, leading to enhanced community well-being. Ultimately, a
diverse society is better equipped to address challenges, celebrate cultural
richness, and create opportunities for all its members to thrive.
Different Shapes of Diversity
Diversity can be understood through various dimensions or "shapes,"
each representing different aspects of human identity and experience. Here are
some key shapes of diversity:
1-Cultural Diversity: Encompasses the variety of cultural identities within a
society, including customs, traditions, languages, and artistic expressions. It
highlights how different cultural backgrounds influence perspectives and
practices.
2-Racial and Ethnic Diversity: Refers to the representation of different racial
and ethnic groups within a community or organization. This shape emphasizes
the importance of recognizing and valuing the unique experiences and histories
of various racial and ethnic populations.
3-Gender Diversity: Involves the representation and inclusion of different
genders, including male, female, and non-binary identities. Gender diversity
promotes equity in opportunities and challenges traditional gender norms.
4-Age Diversity: Reflects the inclusion of individuals from different age groups,
including children, young adults, middle-aged individuals, and seniors. This
diversity brings varied perspectives and experiences based on generational
differences.
5-Ability Diversity: Involves the inclusion of individuals with varying physical,
cognitive, and sensory abilities. It emphasizes the need for accessibility and
accommodations to ensure everyone can participate fully in society.
6-Socioeconomic Diversity: Refers to the representation of individuals from
different socioeconomic backgrounds, including varying levels of income,
education, and occupation. This diversity highlights the impact of economic
status on opportunities and experiences.
7-Religious Diversity: Involves the presence of various religious beliefs and
practices within a community. Recognizing religious diversity fosters tolerance
and understanding among different faith groups.
8-Intellectual Diversity: Reflects the inclusion of different thought processes,
problem-solving approaches, and intellectual backgrounds. This diversity
encourages innovation and creativity by valuing varied perspectives in decision-
making.
9-Geographical Diversity: Represents the differences in people based on their
geographic locations, such as urban versus rural settings or regional cultures.
This shape acknowledges how location influences experiences and viewpoints.
Each of these shapes of diversity plays a crucial role in creating a more
inclusive society, enhancing collaboration, and driving innovation by bringing
together a wide range of perspectives and experiences.
Salient Features of Diversity in the Society
1-Cultural Variety: Different cultures coexist, bringing unique traditions,
customs, and values.
2-Ethnic Diversity: A mix of ethnic groups contributes to a rich tapestry of
identities and experiences.
3-Religious Pluralism: Multiple faiths and belief systems exist, fostering
dialogue and understanding.
4-Language Diversity: A range of languages spoken enhances communication
and cultural exchange.
5-Social Class Differences: Varied socioeconomic backgrounds influence
perspectives and opportunities.
6-Gender Diversity: Recognition and representation of different gender
identities and expressions.
7-Age Diversity: Different age groups contribute unique insights and
experiences.
8-Disability Representation: Inclusion of people with disabilities promotes
accessibility and awareness.
9-Geographical Variation: Urban and rural differences in lifestyles, resources,

and challenges.
10-Political Beliefs: A spectrum of political ideologies encourages debate and
democratic engagement.
11-Historical Context: Different historical experiences shape identities and
societal roles.
12-Innovation and Creativity: Diverse perspectives lead to greater creativity
and problem-solving.
13-Economic Contributions: Varied backgrounds can enhance economic
productivity and growth.
14-Social Cohesion and Tension: Diversity can promote unity through shared
goals, but may also lead to conflict if not managed well.
These features highlight the complexity and richness of societal
diversity, illustrating both its potential benefits and challenges.
Diversity in Pakistani Society & Culture
Diversity in Pakistani society and culture is characterized by a rich
tapestry of ethnicities, languages, religions, and traditions. Here are 18 points
highlighting this diversity:
1-Ethnic Diversity: Pakistan is home to numerous ethnic groups, including
Punjabis, Sindhis, Pashtuns, Baloch, Muhajirs, and others, each with distinct
cultural identities and traditions.
2-Linguistic Variety: Over 70 languages are spoken in Pakistan, with Urdu
being the national language, while Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi, and English
are also widely spoken.
3-Religious Pluralism: While Islam is the dominant religion, Pakistan also has
minority communities, including Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, and others,
contributing to the country’s religious diversity.
4-Cultural Traditions: Each ethnic group has its own cultural practices, rituals,
and festivals, reflecting unique historical and social contexts, such as Basant
(spring festival) in Punjab and Sindhi festivals.
5-Cuisine Diversity: Pakistani cuisine varies significantly across regions,
featuring dishes like biryani, karahi, nihari, and various types of bread,
showcasing local ingredients and cooking styles.
6-Traditional Clothing: Traditional dress varies by region, with Punjabis often
wearing shalwar kameez, Sindhis donning ajrak, and Baloch people wearing
distinctive embroidered garments.
7-Festivals and Celebrations: Major religious and cultural festivals like Eid ul-
Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, Diwali, Christmas, and Basant highlight the diverse cultural
fabric of the country.
8-Art and Crafts: Pakistan boasts rich artistic traditions, including intricate
truck art, pottery, textiles, and traditional crafts, reflecting the skills and
creativity of various communities.
9-Music and Dance: Music genres such as qawwali, ghazal, folk, and classical
music are integral to Pakistani culture, with each region contributing its unique
styles and instruments.
10-Literary Heritage: Pakistan has a rich literary tradition, with poets like
Allama Iqbal and Faiz Ahmed Faiz reflecting diverse cultural and philosophical
influences through their works.
11-Historical Influences: The historical influences of various civilizations,
including the Indus Valley Civilization, Persian, Mughal, and British Empires,
have shaped the cultural landscape of Pakistan.
12-Geographical Diversity: The country’s diverse geography, ranging from
mountains to deserts, impacts local lifestyles, agriculture, and traditions,
fostering regional identities.
13-Social Structure: Different communities have distinct social structures,
customs, and practices, influencing family dynamics, marriage rituals, and
community interactions.
14-Religious Practices: Various sects within Islam, such as Sunni and Shia, as
well as different interpretations, contribute to the religious diversity and practices
observed in the country.
15-Urban vs. Rural Dynamics: There are significant cultural differences
between urban centers like Karachi and Lahore, and rural areas, affecting
lifestyles, education, and economic opportunities.
16-Gender Roles: Diverse gender roles and expectations exist across different
communities, influencing women's participation in education, employment, and
public life.
17-Sports and Recreation: Popular sports like cricket, field hockey, and
traditional wrestling reflect regional preferences and cultural significance,
bringing people together in celebration.
18-Civic Participation: Diverse communities engage in various forms of civic
participation, influencing local governance, political representation, and
advocacy for rights and resources.
Conclusion: These points illustrate the complexity and richness of diversity in
Pakistani society and culture, reflecting a vibrant mix of identities that contribute
to the nation's unique character.
SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Development refers to the process of growth, progress, and positive
transformation in various aspects of society, economy, and human well-being. It
involves improvements in infrastructure, education, healthcare, governance, and
living standards, aiming to enhance the quality of life for individuals and
communities. Economic development is often measured through increases in
income, industrialization, and job opportunities, which help reduce poverty and
create wealth. Social development focuses on equitable access to resources,
education, gender equality, and healthcare, fostering social inclusion and
reducing inequalities. Political development ensures the establishment of fair
governance, democratic institutions, and the protection of human rights.
Sustainable development, a more recent focus, emphasizes growth that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs, balancing economic progress with environmental
protection. Technological advancements, innovation, and globalization are key
drivers of development, enabling societies to adapt and compete in a rapidly
changing world. However, development is not uniform; it varies across regions

and can be influenced by political, cultural, and geographic factors. Challenges
such as corruption, inequality, and environmental degradation can impede
development, while good governance, education, and investment can accelerate
it. Ultimately, development is a multidimensional and dynamic process aimed at
creating a more prosperous, just, and sustainable world.
Definitions
1-Karl Marx: "Development is the movement towards the realization of
human potential."
2-Joseph Schumpeter: "Development is the process of carrying out new
combinations, including innovation and technological advancement."
3-Walter Rodney: "Development in human society is a many-sided process. It
implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline,
responsibility, and material well-being."
These definitions reflect different perspectives on development, ranging
from economic progress to social and moral growth, freedom, and human
potential.
Important Indicators of Social Development
Indicators of social development reflect the progress and well-being of a
society, particularly in terms of quality of life, equity, and social inclusion. Here
are 18 key indicators of social development:
1-Life Expectancy: Measures the average number of years a person is expected
to live, reflecting the overall health and quality of healthcare in a society.
2-Literacy Rate: The percentage of people who can read and write, indicating
the level of access to education and educational quality.
3-Education Enrollment Rates: The proportion of children and young adults
enrolled in primary, secondary, and tertiary education, reflecting access to
educational opportunities.
4-Infant Mortality Rate: The number of deaths of infants under one year of age
per 1,000 live births, indicating the quality of maternal and child healthcare
services.
5-Gender Equality: Measured by indicators such as the gender wage gap,
representation in leadership positions, and equal access to education, reflecting
the status of women and gender equity in society.
6-Access to Clean Water and Sanitation: The percentage of the population
with reliable access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities, indicating
living standards and public health infrastructure.
7-Poverty Rate: The percentage of people living below the poverty line,
reflecting the economic disparity and social safety nets available in society.
8-Employment Rate: The proportion of the working-age population that is
employed, indicating economic participation and opportunities for livelihood.
9-Housing Quality: Indicators of adequate housing conditions, including access
to safe and affordable housing, proper sanitation, and electricity.
10-Crime Rate: The level of crime and violence in society, reflecting social
stability, law enforcement, and the overall safety of citizens.
11-Access to Healthcare: The availability and quality of healthcare services,

measured by healthcare coverage, doctor-to-patient ratios, and access to essential
medications.
12-Social Inclusion: The degree to which marginalized or disadvantaged groups,
such as ethnic minorities, disabled individuals, and LGBTQ+ populations, are
integrated and treated equally in society.
13-Income Inequality: Measures the distribution of income across the
population, with lower inequality indicating more equitable economic
development.
14-Child Malnutrition Rates: The prevalence of underweight, stunted, or
malnourished children, indicating the nutritional status and food security in
society.
15-Access to Social Services: Availability of government-provided social
services such as pensions, unemployment benefits, and welfare programs for
vulnerable populations.
16-Political Participation: Indicators such as voter turnout, representation in
government, and civic engagement, reflecting democratic processes and citizen
involvement in governance.
17-Environmental Sustainability: The level of environmental preservation and
sustainable use of natural resources, which affects the long-term health and well-
being of the population.
18-Cultural Participation: Access to and engagement in cultural activities,
including arts, music, and heritage, reflecting the enrichment of social and
cultural life.
These indicators together provide a comprehensive understanding of a
society's social development, highlighting the quality of life, equity, and the
extent to which all members of society can participate and benefit from progress.
Role of Youth, Women and Minorities in Social Development
i. Role of Youth in Social Development
The role of youth in social development is both dynamic and
transformative, as they are key agents of change, innovation, and progress. Their
contributions span across various dimensions of society, from political activism
and economic development to social reform and environmental sustainability.
Here’s an outline of how youth play a pivotal role in social development:
1-Agents of Change and Advocacy: Youth are often at the forefront of social
movements, advocating for justice, equality, and human rights. Whether its
climate change, gender equality, or racial justice, young people push for societal
reforms and challenge the status quo.
Youth-led organizations and initiatives bring attention to pressing issues,
inspiring broader community engagement and policy changes.
2-Innovation and Entrepreneurship: With access to technology and new ideas,
youth bring creativity and innovation to the economy and society. They drive
entrepreneurship, creating startups and new businesses that address societal
needs, promote job creation, and foster economic growth.
Young innovators are also at the heart of technological advancements,
shaping the future of industries like tech, healthcare, and education.
3-Political Participation and Leadership: Youth engagement in politics,

whether through voting, participating in civil society, or running for public
office, is crucial for ensuring that policies reflect the needs and aspirations of
future generations.
By taking active roles in decision-making, youth advocate for inclusive
policies, social justice, and reforms that prioritize education, healthcare, and
employment opportunities.
4-Education and Skill Development: Education is a key driver of social
development, and youth participation in learning, skill-building, and innovation
leads to a more knowledgeable, skilled workforce. By prioritizing education,
young people contribute to the overall intellectual and economic growth of a
society.
Educated youth also serve as role models and mentors, helping to uplift
and empower younger generations.
5-Volunteering and Community Service: Many young people actively engage
in volunteerism, contributing to the welfare of their communities through social
work, environmental conservation, and humanitarian efforts.
Youth involvement in community service fosters social cohesion, builds
empathy, and helps address local challenges such as poverty, inequality, and
environmental degradation.
6-Promoting Social Inclusion: Youth often work to break down barriers related
to gender, race, religion, and class, promoting a more inclusive society. By
embracing diversity and advocating for equal opportunities, young people help
build a more just and equitable world.
Through cultural exchanges, social media activism, and grassroots
organizing, they work toward dismantling stereotypes and promoting
understanding among different social groups.
7-Environmental Sustainability: Youth are key advocates for environmental
protection and sustainability. They actively participate in movements aimed at
combating climate change, conserving natural resources, and promoting
sustainable development practices.
Young environmental activists play a crucial role in raising awareness
about the long-term impacts of environmental degradation and pushing
governments and corporations to take responsibility for protecting the planet.
8-Economic Growth and Employment: As future workers and entrepreneurs,
youth are central to economic development. Their entry into the labor force fuels
economic growth, while their entrepreneurial ventures drive innovation and
create new employment opportunities.
By focusing on skill development and vocational training, youth
contribute to building a competitive and dynamic economy.
Conclusion: The youth play a critical role in shaping the present and future of
society. Through their energy, innovation, and commitment to justice and
sustainability, they drive social development forward, ensuring progress in
governance, economy, environment, and culture. Investing in youth
empowerment is essential for achieving long-term, sustainable development
across the world.
ii. Role of Women in Social Development

The role of women in social development is fundamental and
transformative. Women contribute significantly to the progress of societies
through their participation in various sectors, ranging from education and
healthcare to governance and the economy. Empowering women leads to more
equitable, prosperous, and stable societies. Below are the key ways in which
women contribute to social development:
1-Economic Growth and Workforce Participation: Women's involvement in
the labor force is crucial for economic development. As workers, entrepreneurs,
and business leaders, women contribute to increased productivity, innovation,
and economic growth.
Research shows that when women are economically empowered,
household incomes rise, poverty declines, and overall national productivity
improves.
2-Leadership and Governance: Women in leadership roles in politics,
government, and civil society are vital for shaping policies that address social
welfare, education, healthcare, and gender equality.
Women leaders often advocate for inclusive and equitable policies,
ensuring that the needs of marginalized and vulnerable groups, including children
and minorities, are met.
3-Promoting Gender Equality: Women play a central role in advocating for
gender equality, fighting against discriminatory practices, and ensuring that
women have equal access to education, employment, healthcare, and political
representation.
Through activism and leadership, women challenge societal norms that
restrict their participation and promote legal reforms that enhance women's
rights.
4-Education and Skill Development: Educated women contribute significantly
to societal development. They are more likely to invest in the education and well-
being of their children, leading to improved social outcomes for future
generations.
Women's access to education enhances their ability to participate in the
workforce and leadership roles, contributing to social and economic progress.
5-Healthcare and Family Welfare: Women, particularly as caregivers, play a
key role in maintaining family health and well-being. Their knowledge of health
and nutrition often leads to better child-rearing practices, improved infant health,
and reduced child mortality.
Women's involvement in healthcare professions also contributes to the
development of health systems, improving access to healthcare services and
promoting public health.
6-Social Cohesion and Community Building: Women are often the glue that
holds communities together, playing key roles in social cohesion, conflict
resolution, and peacebuilding.
Through their participation in local and community organizations,
women contribute to the resolution of conflicts and the promotion of unity and
cooperation within diverse communities.
7-Advocacy for Human Rights: Women are at the forefront of advocating for
human rights, including reproductive rights, domestic violence laws, and rights
for marginalized groups. Women's rights movements have led to critical changes
in social policies, enhancing protection and opportunities for all citizens.
Through activism, women promote greater social justice, equality, and
human dignity in society.
8-Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Women entrepreneurs drive innovation
and create employment opportunities, particularly in industries such as
agriculture, textiles, and technology. Their participation in business not only
boosts the economy but also promotes sustainable development by introducing
environmentally friendly and socially responsible practices.
9-Social Services and Volunteering: Women contribute to the development of
social services by working in education, healthcare, and social work. Their roles
in these sectors help address critical social challenges, such as poverty
alleviation, elder care, and mental health support.
As volunteers, women often engage in charitable work, contributing to
community development and helping to uplift vulnerable populations.
10-Empowerment of Future Generations: Women play a vital role in shaping
future generations through their influence as mothers, teachers, and mentors.
Their empowerment leads to positive outcomes in child development, family
well-being, and social values.
Educated and empowered women are more likely to raise children who
are healthier, better educated, and more socially conscious, contributing to long-
term social development.
11-Peace and Conflict Resolution: Women are active participants in
peacebuilding efforts and post-conflict reconstruction. Their involvement in
peace processes has been shown to result in more durable and inclusive peace
agreements.
Women's participation in decision-making in conflict situations ensures
that the perspectives and needs of all members of society are considered.
12-Cultural Preservation and Innovation: Women play an important role in
preserving cultural heritage through storytelling, arts, and traditional practices. At
the same time, they contribute to cultural innovation by challenging outdated
customs and introducing progressive social norms.
13-Sustainable Development: Women are key advocates for sustainable
development, particularly in sectors like agriculture, where they manage
resources and promote environmentally friendly practices.
Women's leadership in sustainable development initiatives contributes to
the fight against climate change and the promotion of environmental
conservation.
Conclusion: Women’s involvement in social development is essential for
creating inclusive, equitable, and prosperous societies. Empowering women not
only benefits them individually but also has a profound impact on families,
communities, and entire nations, driving progress in economic growth, social
justice, health, education, and sustainability.
iii. Role of Minorities in Social Development

The role of minorities in social development is vital as they contribute to
the cultural, social, and economic fabric of society. Their participation and
inclusion lead to a more diverse, equitable, and just social order. By bringing
unique perspectives and experiences, minorities help foster innovation, challenge
social inequalities, and promote cultural richness. Here’s a detailed look at how
minorities contribute to social development:
1-Cultural Diversity and Enrichment: Minorities bring unique traditions,
languages, and cultural practices, enriching the social fabric of a society. This
diversity promotes understanding and tolerance, fostering social cohesion.
Through festivals, art, music, and culinary traditions, minority groups
contribute to the cultural vibrancy and dynamism of their communities.
2-Economic Contributions: Minority groups often play significant roles in local
economies, contributing through entrepreneurship, innovation, and workforce
participation. By starting businesses and creating jobs, they help reduce
unemployment, stimulate economic growth, and contribute to the overall
prosperity of society.
3-Innovation and Creativity: The distinct experiences and perspectives of
minorities often lead to creativity and innovation in various fields, including arts,
technology, and business. This diversity of thought drives social and economic
development.
Minorities in academia, science, and industry have been known to
contribute groundbreaking ideas and solutions that benefit society at large.
4-Challenging Social Inequalities: Minorities often face systemic challenges
and discrimination, making their advocacy for equal rights and social justice
crucial to societal progress. Their struggles and movements for civil rights, anti-
discrimination laws, and equitable access to resources play a pivotal role in
shaping fairer social policies and promoting inclusivity.
5-Promoting Social Inclusion: The active participation of minorities in public
life ensures that diverse voices are represented in decision-making processes,
leading to more inclusive governance. By advocating for their own rights,
minorities also push for policies that benefit other marginalized groups, creating
a more inclusive society for all.
6-Educational Impact: Many minorities place a strong emphasis on education
as a means of empowerment. By excelling in education and contributing to
academic research, minorities enhance social development by bringing new
knowledge, perspectives, and innovations.
Minority educators and scholars also play a key role in promoting
intercultural understanding and social harmony.
7-Political Participation: Minority groups actively participate in political
processes, advocating for laws and policies that address their specific needs and
contribute to the overall well-being of society. Their involvement in politics
ensures that governments are more representative and democratic, fostering
accountability and equality in governance.
8-Social Justice and Human Rights: Minority groups often lead movements
that advocate for human rights and equality. Their efforts in combating racism,
sexism, and other forms of discrimination are key to fostering social justice.
Through legal activism, community organizing, and participation in

international forums, they contribute to global efforts toward human rights and
dignity.
9-Community Building and Social Solidarity: Minority communities often
have strong social bonds and networks that contribute to community resilience
and support. These networks help in times of economic hardship or social crises,
fostering mutual aid and social solidarity.
Their models of community organization can inspire broader societal
efforts in areas such as poverty alleviation, education, and healthcare.
10-Peacebuilding and Conflict Resolution: Minorities often play key roles in
peacebuilding efforts, especially in regions affected by conflict. Their
participation in dialogue and reconciliation processes helps to heal divided
societies and foster long-term peace.
By promoting tolerance and understanding across cultural or ethnic lines,
they contribute to a more peaceful and harmonious social environment.
11-Advocacy for Environmental Sustainability: Indigenous and minority
groups often have strong connections to the environment, advocating for
sustainable development practices that protect natural resources. They play
crucial roles in movements against environmental degradation, climate change,
and land rights, promoting practices that benefit society and the planet.
12-Strengthening Democratic Institutions: By advocating for their rights,
minorities strengthen democratic processes and institutions, pushing for equal
representation, the rule of law, and protection against abuses.
Their activism promotes greater civic engagement, contributing to a
more participatory and responsive political system.
13-Bridging Gaps and Promoting Intercultural Dialogue: Minorities often
serve as bridges between different cultural or ethnic groups, promoting dialogue
and understanding. This intercultural interaction fosters peace, reduces
stereotypes, and promotes mutual respect.
Through intercultural dialogue, they contribute to breaking down social
barriers and building inclusive communities.
14-Contributions to Healthcare and Social Services: Minority healthcare
professionals and social workers often play key roles in providing services to
underserved or marginalized populations. Their cultural competence helps
address health disparities and improve outcomes for diverse communities.
Many minority groups establish community-based healthcare initiatives,
which provide vital services and fill gaps in mainstream healthcare systems.
15-Legal and Humanitarian Advocacy: Minority leaders and organizations are
frequently involved in legal battles that set important precedents for civil rights
and social justice. Their efforts in court cases and international advocacy
influence legal reforms and human rights protections, improving the social
framework for all citizens.
16-Religious and Spiritual Contributions: Religious minorities contribute to
the spiritual diversity of societies, promoting values of peace, tolerance, and
compassion. Their religious institutions often play key roles in providing social
services, education, and charitable activities.
By promoting interfaith dialogue, religious minorities help to create

understanding and respect between different faith groups.
17-Combatting Marginalization and Exclusion: Minorities often organize and
lead campaigns that tackle systemic exclusion, whether in education,
employment, or social services. Their activism creates pathways for greater
inclusion of all marginalized communities.
These efforts lead to changes in policies that make social services more
accessible, benefitting the entire population.
18-Fostering Resilience and Innovation: Minority groups, through their
perseverance in the face of adversity, often develop innovative solutions to social
and economic challenges. Their resilience strengthens communities and fosters
the development of adaptive strategies for social progress.
These innovations can lead to new approaches to solving common social
issues like poverty, inequality, and access to resources.
Conclusion: Minorities play a central role in social development, contributing to
cultural enrichment, economic growth, political reform, social justice, and
innovation. Their inclusion in all aspects of society not only enhances the
richness of the social fabric but also strengthens democracy, promotes peace, and
ensures a more equitable and prosperous society for all.
SOCIAL INEQUALITY & INJUSTICE IN PAKISTAN

Social Inequality
Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources,
opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups in society. It manifests
across dimensions such as income, wealth, education, healthcare, and access to
power, often resulting from systemic factors like discrimination, institutional
biases, and historical legacies. Economic inequality, for instance, leads to a
concentration of wealth in the hands of a few, leaving many in cycles of poverty
with limited opportunities for upward mobility. Gender inequality results in
unequal treatment and opportunities for men and women, particularly in pay,
professional roles, and leadership positions. Racial and ethnic inequality, often
rooted in historical discrimination, marginalizes minority groups in access to
housing, education, and employment. Social inequality also affects other groups,
including those with disabilities or non-heteronormative identities. The
consequences of social inequality are widespread, including increased crime
rates, social unrest, and weakened trust in institutions. It also hampers economic
growth by limiting the potential of disadvantaged groups. Addressing social
inequality requires systemic change, including policies that promote wealth
redistribution, equitable access to services, and the dismantling of discriminatory
practices, making societies more just and inclusive.
Definitions
1-Rousseau: “There are two kinds of inequality in the human species: one,
which I call natural or physical, because it is established by nature, and
consists in differences of age, health, bodily strength, and the qualities of the
mind or of the soul; the other, which may be called moral or political
inequality, because it depends on a kind of convention and is established, or at
least authorized, by the consent of men.”
2-Karl Marx: “In a higher phase of communist society, after the enslaving
subordination of the individual to the division of labor, and thereby also the
antithesis between mental and physical labor, has vanished; after labor has
become not only a means of life but life‟s prime want; after the productive
forces have also increased with the all-round development of the individual,
and all the springs of co-operative wealth flow more abundantly—only then
can the narrow horizon of bourgeois right be crossed in its entirety and society
inscribe on its banners: from each according to his ability, to each according to
his needs!”
Salient Features of Social Inequality
The salient features of social inequality highlight its multi-dimensional
and pervasive nature, shaping various aspects of individuals’ lives and the
broader societal structure. These key features include:
1-Unequal Distribution of Resources: Social inequality is primarily
characterized by an unequal distribution of wealth, income, opportunities, and
resources such as education, healthcare, and housing. Certain individuals or
groups enjoy more privileges and access to resources than others, often based on
class, race, gender, or other social factors.
2-Stratification: Society is divided into hierarchical layers or strata based on
factors like economic status, occupation, education, and power. These layers
create distinct social classes, such as the upper class, middle class, and lower
class, each with different access to resources and life opportunities.
3-Institutionalized and Systemic: Social inequality is often embedded within
societal institutions, including legal, political, economic, and educational
systems. Institutional biases, such as racism, sexism, and classism, reinforce and
perpetuate inequality through policies, practices, and laws that favor certain
groups over others.
4-Intergenerational Transmission: Inequality tends to be passed down through
generations, with the advantages or disadvantages of one’s socioeconomic status
often determining the opportunities available to the next generation. This results
in limited social mobility, where people find it difficult to move out of the social
class they are born into.
5-Multiple Dimensions: Social inequality is not limited to just economic
disparities but encompasses various dimensions, including:
(i)-Economic Inequality: Unequal distribution of wealth and income.
(ii)-Gender Inequality: Unequal treatment based on gender, affecting access to
opportunities, pay, and social roles.
(iii)-Racial and Ethnic Inequality: Discrimination and marginalization of
certain racial or ethnic groups.
(iv)-Educational Inequality: Disparities in access to quality education, which
impact future employment and income opportunities.
(v)-Health Inequality: Unequal access to healthcare and differences in health
outcomes based on socioeconomic status, race, or geography.
6-Power and Privilege: Social inequality is deeply linked to unequal power
relations, where certain groups have more control over political, economic, and
social institutions. Those in privileged positions can influence decisions and
structures to maintain their dominance, often perpetuating inequality.
7-Social Exclusion: Marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, women,

people with disabilities, often face social exclusion. This exclusion manifests in
reduced participation in political, economic, and cultural life, further deepening
their inequality.
8-Cultural Legitimization: Inequality is often legitimized through cultural
norms, values, and ideologies that justify the hierarchical structure. For example,
meritocracy the belief that success is based on individual effort can obscure
structural barriers that perpetuate inequality.
9-Cumulative Disadvantages: Social inequality often creates a cycle of
cumulative disadvantages, where multiple forms of inequality (e.g., lack of
education, poor health, low income) interact and reinforce each other, making it
difficult for individuals to break out of poverty or marginalization.
10-Global Dimension: Social inequality exists not only within nations but also
between countries. Global inequality highlights the vast disparities in wealth,
education, and access to basic needs between developed and developing nations,
often perpetuated by global economic systems and historical exploitation.
11-Conflict and Social Tensions: Social inequality can lead to social conflict, as
disadvantaged groups may resist and challenge the status quo. It often manifests
in social movements, protests, or civil unrest as marginalized groups demand
equal rights, opportunities, and access to resources.
12-Impact on Social Cohesion: High levels of social inequality can undermine
social cohesion, leading to fragmentation, distrust in institutions, and reduced
solidarity among members of society. It often contributes to higher crime rates,
political instability, and a decline in civic engagement.
Conclusion: By understanding these features, it becomes clear that social
inequality is a complex and systemic issue, affecting various aspects of life and
requiring comprehensive measures to address it effectively.
Measurement of Social Inequality
Measuring social inequality involves analyzing the distribution of
resources, opportunities, and privileges across different segments of society.
Various methods and indices are used to assess social inequality across
dimensions such as income, wealth, education, healthcare, and social mobility.
Here are some of the most common approaches:
1-Income and Wealth Inequality
* Gini Coefficient: The Gini coefficient is the most widely used measure of
income inequality. It ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (maximum inequality),
where a higher number indicates a greater disparity in income distribution.
* Lorenz Curve: This graphical representation shows the distribution of income
or wealth, with the x-axis representing the cumulative percentage of the
population and the y-axis representing the cumulative percentage of income or
wealth. The further the curve deviates from the line of equality, the greater the
inequality.
* Palma Ratio: This measure compares the share of income of the richest 10%
of the population to the poorest 40%, focusing on the extremes of income
distribution.
* Top 1% or 10% Income Share: This indicator tracks the proportion of total
income held by the wealthiest 1% or 10% of the population.
2-Educational Inequality
* Access and Completion Rates: Educational inequality can be measured by
tracking differences in enrollment, completion rates, and access to quality
education across social classes, genders, and ethnic groups.
* PISA Scores: The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) tests
15-year-olds worldwide and provides insights into the disparities in educational
outcomes across countries and social groups.
* Literacy Rates: Differences in literacy rates between various demographics
(such as gender, region, or socioeconomic background) provide another measure
of educational inequality.
3. Health Inequality
* Life Expectancy and Mortality Rates: Disparities in life expectancy, infant
mortality, and maternal mortality rates between different socioeconomic or ethnic
groups reflect health inequality.
* Access to Healthcare: This is measured by looking at the availability and
quality of healthcare services, as well as differences in outcomes like disease
prevalence and recovery rates.
* Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs): DALYs measure the total number
of years lost due to illness, disability, or premature death, highlighting the health
disparities in different populations.
4-Social Mobility
* Intergenerational Income Elasticity (IGE): This measures the extent to
which income or social status is passed from one generation to the next. A high
IGE indicates low social mobility, meaning that individuals’ income levels are
highly dependent on their parents' income.
* Educational Mobility: Differences in the ability of children from different
socioeconomic backgrounds to access higher education can be tracked to assess
social mobility.
* Occupation Mobility: Examines how easily people can move between
occupational classes, reflecting broader societal openness to upward mobility.
5-Gender Inequality
* Gender Pay Gap: This measures the difference in earnings between men and
women, reflecting unequal opportunities in the labor market.
* Global Gender Gap Index: Published by the World Economic Forum, this
index measures gender inequality in terms of economic participation, educational
attainment, health, and political empowerment.
* Female Labor Force Participation Rate: The difference in the rate at which
men and women participate in the labor force reflects gender inequality in
employment.
6-Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): This index measures poverty by
considering various deprivations across education, health, and living standards,
providing a broader understanding of inequality beyond just income.
7-Social Exclusion Indicators
* Marginalization: The degree to which certain groups (e.g., racial minorities,

the disabled, or individuals) are excluded from social, political, or economic
participation can be measured through surveys and participation rates.
* Human Development Index (HDI): While primarily an indicator of overall
development, HDI also highlights inequality in health, education, and living
standards between different countries and regions.
8-Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI): This is a
modification of the HDI, factoring in inequalities in income, education, and life
expectancy. It adjusts the HDI downwards based on the level of inequality within
a country.
Conclusion: These measures help policymakers and researchers understand the
extent and nature of social inequality, allowing for targeted interventions to
reduce disparities in society.
Remedies to Reduce Social Inequality & Social Injustice
Reducing social inequality requires a comprehensive, multi-dimensional
approach that addresses its root causes and manifestations. Solutions need to be
implemented at the individual, institutional, and systemic levels to create lasting
change. Here are several strategies that can help reduce social inequality:
1-Progressive Taxation and Wealth Redistribution
* Progressive Tax Policies: Implementing progressive taxation, where higher
earners pay a greater percentage of their income in taxes, helps redistribute
wealth and fund social programs. This reduces the wealth gap by ensuring that
those with more resources contribute proportionally to societal well-being.
* Wealth Taxes: Taxes on inheritance, property, and capital gains can prevent the
accumulation of extreme wealth within a small elite and ensure that resources are
more evenly distributed across society.
2-Universal Access to Quality Education
* Equal Education Opportunities: Ensuring that all individuals, regardless of
socioeconomic background, have access to quality education is key to breaking
the cycle of poverty. Investing in public education, especially in disadvantaged
areas, can bridge the educational gap between rich and poor.
* Scholarship and Financial Aid Programs: Expanding scholarships, grants, and
other financial assistance for underprivileged students helps improve access to
higher education and boosts social mobility.
* Curriculum Reform: Education systems should emphasize equity and
inclusion, integrating multicultural and gender-sensitive curricula to foster
understanding and eliminate biases early on.
3-Healthcare for All
* Universal Healthcare: Providing universal access to affordable, high-quality
healthcare can reduce health disparities that often correlate with socioeconomic
status. Ensuring that basic healthcare services are accessible to all helps prevent
disadvantaged populations from falling deeper into poverty due to medical
expenses.
* Targeted Health Programs: Addressing health issues that disproportionately
affect marginalized groups, such as racial and ethnic minorities or low-income
populations, through targeted public health initiatives can reduce health

inequality.
4-Social Safety Nets
* Social Welfare Programs: Expanding social safety nets, such as unemployment
benefits, food assistance, and housing subsidies, can help reduce economic
inequality by providing financial support to those in need. These programs
protect vulnerable populations and provide them with opportunities to improve
their circumstances.
* Universal Basic Income (UBI): A UBI provides all citizens with a regular,
unconditional sum of money, ensuring that even the poorest have a minimum
standard of living. This can alleviate poverty and reduce income inequality.
5-Employment and Labor Market Reforms
* Living Wage Policies: Implementing a living wage ensures that workers receive
enough income to meet basic living costs, reducing the income gap between low-
wage workers and higher earners.
* Equal Pay Legislation: Enforcing equal pay for equal work, especially for
women and minority groups, helps reduce gender and racial wage gaps.
* Support for Workers' Rights: Strengthening labor unions, collective
bargaining rights, and worker protections ensures that employees have the power
to negotiate better wages, benefits, and working conditions, which can reduce
inequality in the workplace.
6-Affirmative Action and Anti-Discrimination Policies
* Affirmative Action: Introducing affirmative action policies in education,
employment, and political representation helps correct historical inequalities
faced by disadvantaged groups, such as women, racial and ethnic minorities, and
people with disabilities.
* Anti-Discrimination Laws: Strengthening and enforcing anti-discrimination
laws in hiring, education, and housing can reduce inequality by ensuring that
marginalized groups have fair access to opportunities.
* Inclusion Initiatives: Promoting diversity and inclusion in workplaces, schools,
and public institutions fosters equal representation and reduces systemic bias.
7-Gender Equality Measures
* Closing the Gender Pay Gap: Governments and companies must take steps to
eliminate the gender pay gap by ensuring that women receive equal pay for equal
work. This includes transparency in wage structures and policies that promote
women’s advancement in leadership roles.
* Parental Leave and Childcare Support: Providing parental leave and
affordable childcare ensures that both men and women can balance work and
family responsibilities, which promotes gender equality in the labor market.
* Combatting Gender-Based Violence: Policies and programs aimed at
preventing gender-based violence and supporting survivors help create safer,
more equitable environments for women and other vulnerable groups.
8-Promoting Social Mobility
* Early Childhood Education: Investing in early childhood development
programs, particularly for disadvantaged children, helps level the playing field
and promotes long-term social mobility.
* Job Training and Vocational Programs: Offering vocational training, adult

education, and job placement programs helps individuals from lower-income
backgrounds access better employment opportunities and escape poverty.
9-Affordable Housing
* Public and Social Housing Programs: Expanding affordable housing options,
particularly for low-income individuals and families, can reduce housing
inequality and improve living standards for disadvantaged populations.
* Rent Control and Homeownership Support: Rent control policies and
programs that help low-income families become homeowners can reduce housing
inequality and provide greater economic stability.
10-Empowering Marginalized Groups
* Political Participation: Encouraging and enabling greater political participation
by marginalized groups helps ensure that policies reflect the needs of all citizens,
not just the privileged elite. This can be done by removing barriers to voting,
ensuring representation in decision-making bodies, and promoting civic
engagement.
* Grassroots Movements: Supporting grassroots social movements that advocate
for the rights of marginalized communities can empower these groups to
challenge systemic inequalities and push for social and economic justice.
11-Tackling Global Inequality
* Fair Trade Policies: Supporting fair trade practices ensures that workers in
developing countries receive fair compensation for their labor, reducing global
inequality.
* International Aid and Development: Providing targeted aid to developing
countries can help improve access to education, healthcare, and infrastructure,
reducing the global gap between wealthy and poor nations.
12-Cultural and Ideological Change
* Addressing Stereotypes and Prejudice: Campaigns, education, and public
discourse that challenge harmful stereotypes and prejudices based on race,
gender, or class can help shift societal attitudes and promote equality.
* Promoting Inclusive Values: Schools, media, and leaders should promote
values of inclusivity, diversity, and social justice to build a more equitable
society.
13-Technology and Innovation
* Bridging the Digital Divide: Ensuring that marginalized communities have
access to technology and the internet can improve educational and employment
opportunities, helping to close the inequality gap.
* Inclusive Technological Development: Encouraging innovation that addresses
the needs of underserved populations, such as affordable healthcare technologies
or educational tools, can reduce inequality in access to vital services.
Conclusion: Reducing social inequality requires a combination of economic,
political, and social reforms that address both the symptoms and root causes of
inequality. Governments, businesses, and civil society must work together to
implement policies that promote equitable access to resources, opportunities, and
decision-making power. Through these collective efforts, we can move toward a
more just, inclusive, and cohesive society.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Social stratification refers to the structured ranking of individuals and
groups in a society based on various criteria such as wealth, power, prestige,
education, and occupation. It creates distinct social classes or layers, where
individuals have unequal access to resources, opportunities, and privileges. These
hierarchical divisions are often institutionalized and perpetuate inequality, with
the upper classes typically having more control over resources and decision-
making processes than lower classes. Social stratification can be based on factors
like economic status (class), race, ethnicity, gender, or caste, depending on the
societal context. It tends to be passed down through generations, as individuals
often inherit their social position, making it difficult for those at the bottom to
move up the social ladder. The effects of stratification are profound, shaping
people’s life chances, health outcomes, access to education, and overall quality of
life. Social stratification can lead to social tension and conflict as marginalized
groups may challenge the inequalities imposed by these hierarchical structures.
Understanding social stratification is crucial for addressing issues of social
inequality and promoting a more equitable society.
Definitions
1-Max Weber: "Social stratification is the distribution of power within a
community between individuals or groups, where power is determined by a
combination of class (economic status), status (social honor or prestige), and
party (political influence)."
2-Karl Marx: "Social stratification is rooted in the capitalist system, where
society is divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie (owners of production)
and the proletariat (workers). This division leads to inherent class conflicts
based on the unequal distribution of wealth and power."
Salient features of Social Stratification
The salient features of social stratification highlight its systematic nature
and its impact on individuals and society. Here are the key features:
1-Hierarchical Structure: Social stratification is characterized by a hierarchy in
which individuals or groups are ranked in a system of higher and lower positions.
People at higher levels of the hierarchy have more power, prestige, and wealth
than those at lower levels.
2-Inequality: It inherently involves inequality, where resources, privileges, and
opportunities are distributed unequally across different social groups. This
inequality can be based on wealth, status, race, gender, or other factors.
3-Institutionalization: Social stratification is institutionalized, meaning it is
embedded in the social, political, and economic systems of society. Laws,
customs, and practices reinforce the hierarchical divisions, making it a persistent
part of societal structure.
4-Ascription and Achievement: Stratification can be based on ascribed status
(characteristics one is born into, like race, gender, or family background) or
achieved status (based on one's efforts, such as education or occupation).
5-Social Mobility: Social stratification allows for varying degrees of social
mobility, which refers to the ability of individuals to move up or down the social
hierarchy. In some societies, mobility is more rigid (closed systems like caste),
while others offer more flexibility (open systems like class).
6-Class Division: Stratification often results in the division of society into
classes or strata, such as upper, middle, and lower classes. These divisions dictate
one's life chances, including access to education, healthcare, and economic
opportunities.
7-Power and Privilege: Those in higher strata typically have more power and
control over societal institutions, which allows them to maintain their position
and perpetuate the inequality inherent in the stratification system.
8-Functional Necessity: From a functionalist perspective (Davis and Moore),
stratification serves a necessary function by ensuring that the most talented
individuals fill the most important societal roles, although this view is debated.
9-Universality: Social stratification exists in every society, though its forms and
intensity may vary. All societies, from simple tribal ones to complex
industrialized nations, have some form of hierarchy.
10-Intergenerational Transmission: Social stratification is often passed down
from generation to generation. Children typically inherit the social class, status,
or caste of their parents, making upward mobility challenging for many.
These features reveal the deep-seated nature of stratification and its
significant impact on societal structure and individual life chances.
Determinants of Social Stratification
The determinants of social stratification are the factors that contribute to
the ranking of individuals and groups within a society. These determinants
influence one’s social position and access to resources, opportunities, and
privileges. Here are the key determinants:
1-Economic Factors
* Wealth and Income: The distribution of wealth and income is a primary
determinant of social stratification. Individuals and families with higher incomes
and accumulated wealth occupy higher social strata, granting them greater access
to resources and opportunities.
* Occupation: The type and status of one’s occupation significantly influence
social standing. Professions perceived as more prestigious, such as doctors or
lawyers, typically confer higher social status compared to lower-wage or less
skilled jobs.
2-Education: Higher levels of education generally correlate with higher social
status. Education affects job prospects, income levels, and overall social
mobility, influencing an individual’s position within the stratification system.
3-Social Class: Society is often divided into different classes (e.g., upper,
middle, lower), which are determined by a combination of income, occupation,
and education. Class affiliation shapes one’s lifestyle, values, and social
networks.
4-Race and Ethnicity: Social stratification is influenced by race and ethnicity,
often leading to systemic inequalities. Certain racial or ethnic groups may face
discrimination or marginalization, affecting their access to resources and
opportunities.
5-Gender: Gender Roles and Discrimination, Gender significantly affects social

stratification. Women, for instance, often face wage gaps, underrepresentation in
leadership positions, and systemic barriers that impact their social mobility and
economic status.
6-Age: Age can influence one’s social position. Younger individuals may have
less experience and fewer resources, while older individuals might enjoy higher
status due to accumulated wealth and experience.
7-Political Power: Individuals and groups with greater political power often
maintain their privileged status and can influence policies that perpetuate social
inequality, affecting the distribution of resources and opportunities.
8-Cultural Norms and Values: Societal beliefs about merit, success, and
individualism can influence social stratification. Cultures that value education
and hard work may promote social mobility, while those that reinforce traditional
hierarchies may limit it.
9-Family Background & Influence: The socioeconomic status of one’s family,
including their education level, income, and social connections, plays a crucial
role in determining an individual’s opportunities and social position.
10-Geographic Location: Urban vs. Rural Divide: Geographic factors can
influence access to resources and opportunities. Urban areas often provide more
educational and employment opportunities compared to rural regions, leading to
disparities in social stratification.
11-Social Networks: Connections and relationships in Social networks can
provide individuals with access to information, resources, and job opportunities,
influencing their social mobility and position within the stratification system.
Conclusion: Understanding these determinants is essential for analyzing social
stratification and addressing the inequalities that arise from it. Each determinant
interacts with others, creating a complex web of factors that shape individuals'
social positions and life chances within society.
Social Injustice
Social injustice refers to the systemic and institutionalized inequalities
and disparities that deny individuals or groups their fundamental rights and
opportunities, leading to unequal treatment and access to resources. It manifests
in various forms, including economic inequality, racial discrimination, gender
bias, and violations of human rights, creating a society where certain groups are
marginalized and disadvantaged. Social injustice often stems from entrenched
power structures and cultural norms that perpetuate discrimination and
inequality, making it difficult for affected individuals to achieve social mobility
and equity. The consequences of social injustice can be profound, affecting
individuals' well-being, quality of life, and ability to participate fully in society.
Issues such as poverty, inadequate access to education and healthcare, and lack of
political representation are often rooted in social injustices that create barriers to
opportunity and advancement. Addressing social injustice requires a collective
effort to dismantle discriminatory practices, advocate for equitable policies, and
promote social change, ensuring that all individuals, regardless of their
background, have the opportunity to thrive and contribute to society. By
challenging the structures that perpetuate injustice, communities can work toward
a more equitable and inclusive future.
Reasons for Social Injustice
1-Systemic Discrimination: Institutionalized racism and sexism create barriers
for marginalized communities.
2-Poverty: Economic deprivation restricts access to education, healthcare, and
other essential services.
3-Lack of Political Representation: Underrepresentation in decision-making
processes leads to neglect of marginalized groups' needs.
4-Social Attitudes and Prejudice: Negative societal attitudes can perpetuate
exclusion and discrimination.
5-Weak Legal Protections: Insufficient enforcement of anti-discrimination laws
allows injustices to persist.
6-Violence and Conflict: Social and political unrest can exacerbate injustice and
normalize oppression.
7-Displacement and Migration: Forced migration or displacement can lead to
marginalization and lack of rights for affected individuals.
8-Economic Exploitation: Labor practices that prioritize profit over workers'
rights contribute to systemic injustice.
9-Environmental Inequities: Vulnerable communities often face
disproportionate impacts from environmental degradation and climate change.
10-Historical Legacy: Historical injustices, such as colonialism and slavery,
continue to influence contemporary social structures and inequalities.
Conclusion: Both social inequality and social injustice arise from interconnected
factors that influence individuals’ access to resources, opportunities, and rights.
Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive understanding of their root
causes and a commitment to creating equitable and inclusive societies.
SOCIAL HARMONY & PEACEFUL CO-EXISTANCE

Harmony: Harmony refers to a state of balance and agreement among
individuals, groups, or elements, characterized by a peaceful coexistence and
cooperation. It encompasses the idea of different components working together in
a complementary manner, creating a sense of unity despite diversity. In social
contexts, harmony fosters mutual respect, understanding, and collaboration,
allowing people to appreciate differences while pursuing common goals. In
music, harmony involves the simultaneous combination of different sounds or
chords that produce a pleasing effect. Overall, harmony is essential for nurturing
relationships, promoting social cohesion, and creating environments where
individuals can thrive collectively.
Social Harmony: Social harmony refers to a state of peaceful coexistence and
cooperation among individuals and groups within a society, characterized by
mutual respect, understanding, and shared values. It emphasizes the importance
of diversity while fostering a sense of unity and collective identity. In a
harmonious society, conflicts are resolved through dialogue and collaboration
rather than violence or discrimination, allowing for the flourishing of various
cultural, ethnic, and social groups. Social harmony is built on the principles of
equity, justice, and inclusion, where all members feel valued and have equal
access to opportunities and resources. It encourages active participation in
community life, promoting social cohesion and resilience against division. By
nurturing positive relationships and fostering a sense of belonging, social
harmony contributes to overall well-being, stability, and progress, ultimately
leading to a more equitable and vibrant society where individuals can thrive
together while embracing their differences.
Definitions
1-Mahatma Gandhi: "Social harmony is the state of peaceful coexistence
among individuals and groups of different backgrounds, where mutual respect
and understanding prevail."
2-A. H. Maslow: "Social harmony refers to the integration of diverse
individuals and communities into a cohesive society, where each person's
needs and contributions are recognized and valued."
Salient Features of Social Harmony
1-Mutual Respect: Individuals recognize and value the dignity and rights of
others, fostering an environment of acceptance and understanding.
2-Cooperation: Collaborative efforts among diverse groups enable problem-
solving and collective action, enhancing community strength.
3-Diversity Appreciation: Social harmony embraces and celebrates cultural,
ethnic, and ideological differences, recognizing them as valuable contributions to
society.
4-Conflict Resolution: Emphasizes peaceful dialogue and negotiation to resolve
disputes, reducing the likelihood of violence and discord.
5-Inclusivity: Ensures that all members of society, regardless of background,
have a voice and are included in decision-making processes.
6-Social Justice: Promotes equity and fairness, ensuring that resources and
opportunities are accessible to all individuals.
7-Shared Values: Establishes common goals and principles that unite
community members, fostering a sense of belonging and purpose.
8-Active Participation: Encourages community engagement and involvement,
empowering individuals to contribute to societal well-being.
9-Trust Building: Develops strong interpersonal relationships, where individuals
trust each other and their institutions.
10-Positive Communication: Promotes open and respectful dialogue, enhancing
understanding and reducing misunderstandings among individuals and groups.
11-Resilience: Creates a robust community capable of withstanding challenges
and conflicts, emerging stronger through cooperation.
12-Support Systems: Fosters networks of support that provide assistance and
resources to individuals in need, enhancing overall community welfare.
Conclusion: These features collectively contribute to a harmonious society,
where individuals coexist peacefully, collaborate effectively, and work towards
common goals. Social harmony is crucial for fostering resilience, well-being, and
progress within communities.
Importance of Social Harmony Peaceful Co-Existence

1-Community Cohesion: Fosters a strong sense of belonging among individuals.
2-Conflict Resolution: Promotes peaceful dialogue and understanding over
violence.
3-Cultural Appreciation: Encourages the celebration and respect of diverse
cultures.
4-Economic Stability: Attracts investment and promotes sustainable economic
growth.
5-Mental Well-Being: Reduces stress and anxiety associated with conflict.
6-Social Justice: Ensures fair access to opportunities and resources for all.
7-Environmental Cooperation: Facilitates collaborative efforts to address
environmental issues.
8-Public Safety: Creates safer communities by reducing crime and violence.
9-Strengthened Relationships: Builds trust and camaraderie among community
members.
10-Enhanced Communication: Encourages open dialogue and the sharing of
ideas.
11-Collective Resilience: Strengthens the community’s ability to respond to
crises.
12-Empowerment: Allows marginalized groups to have a voice in decision-
making.
13-Social Innovation: Promotes creative solutions to community challenges
through collaboration.
14-Educational Opportunities: Enhances learning environments by fostering
inclusivity.
15-Family Stability: Contributes to stronger family units by reducing external
stresses.
16-Civic Engagement: Encourages active participation in community and
political life.
17-Cultural Exchange: Facilitates the sharing of ideas and traditions among
diverse groups.
18-Reduced Discrimination: Minimizes biases and promotes equality among
individuals.
19-Stronger Institutions: Builds trust in public institutions and governance.
20-Peaceful Advocacy: Allows for peaceful protests and activism without fear
of backlash.
21-Global Cooperation: Promotes international relations and global peace
efforts.
22-Quality of Life: Enhances overall quality of life by fostering supportive
communities.
23-Mental Health Support: Provides a network of support that contributes to
better mental health outcomes.
24-Crisis Management: Facilitates organized responses to emergencies and
disasters.
25-Positive Role Models: Encourages individuals to become positive influences
within their communities.
26-Increased Trust: Builds trust among individuals, fostering stronger

community bonds.
27-Cultural Competence: Enhances the ability to navigate and appreciate
cultural differences.
28-Support for Vulnerable Populations: Ensures that the needs of
marginalized and vulnerable groups are met.
29-Encouragement of Volunteerism: Promotes community service and
volunteer initiatives.
30-Shared Vision for the Future: Helps communities work towards common
goals, enhancing collective well-being.
These points illustrate how social harmony and peaceful coexistence are
essential for fostering healthy, resilient, and vibrant societies.
Steps to promote Social Harmony
1-Encourage Dialogue: Facilitate open discussions among diverse groups to
foster understanding and address misconceptions.
2-Promote Inclusivity: Ensure that marginalized voices are heard and included
in decision-making processes.
3-Educate on Diversity: Implement educational programs that celebrate cultural
differences and promote awareness of social issues.
4-Support Community Initiatives: Encourage and fund community-driven
projects that promote collaboration and mutual aid.
5-Organize Cultural Events: Host festivals and events that celebrate various
cultures, fostering appreciation and respect.
6-Develop Conflict Resolution Programs: Train community members in
mediation and conflict resolution techniques to address disputes peacefully.
7-Create Safe Spaces: Establish environments where individuals can express
themselves freely without fear of judgment or discrimination.
8-Foster Volunteerism: Encourage community service and volunteer
opportunities that bring people together for a common cause.
9-Strengthen Community Organizations: Support local organizations that
work towards social cohesion and community development.
10-Encourage Intergroup Collaborations: Promote partnerships between
different community groups to work on shared goals and initiatives.
11-Use Media Responsibly: Advocate for media that portrays diverse groups
positively and accurately, combating stereotypes.
12-Promote Equity in Resources: Ensure equitable distribution of resources,
such as education and healthcare, to all community members.
13-Engage Youth: Involve young people in community-building activities to
instill values of cooperation and respect.
14-Celebrate Achievements Together: Recognize and celebrate the
contributions of various groups to foster a sense of shared accomplishment.
15-Encourage Empathy: Promote programs that help individuals understand
and appreciate the experiences and challenges faced by others.
Conclusion: These steps can help create a more harmonious society by fostering
understanding, cooperation, and respect among diverse groups.
......................
1-Short Questions & Answers

Q1: What is the Arabic term for Civics, and what does it represent?
A: The Arabic term for Civics is "Madniat," which represents the study of the
city (Madina) and its citizens.
Q2: When was the term 'Civics' first formally used as a branch of
knowledge?
A: The term 'Civics' was first formally used in 1887 when it was classified as a
proper discipline.
Q3: How did Civics evolve from small city-states to larger states?
A: Civics evolved when small Greek city-states, like Athens and Sparta, were
merged into larger states after Alexander the Great's conquests, expanding the
scope of Civics.
Q4: How does modern Civics differ from its ancient origins?
A: Modern Civics addresses both local and national issues, whereas ancient
Civics focused mainly on the affairs of city-states.
Q5: What role does Civics play in understanding rights and duties?
A: Civics educates individuals about their rights, like freedom of speech and
voting, and their duties, such as obeying laws and paying taxes.
Q6: How does Civics promote social values?
A: Civics teaches the importance of social values like patience, tolerance, and
cooperation, fostering a cultured society where people respect each other’s ideas.
Q7: What is civic engagement, and why is it important?
A: Civic engagement is the active participation of individuals in political and
social activities, important for promoting democratic governance and social
responsibility.
Q8: What are the contributions of philosophers like Plato and Aristotle to
Civics?
A: Plato’s The Republic and Aristotle’s The Politics critically analyzed laws and
government systems, laying foundational ideas for the study of Civics.
Q9: How does Civics contribute to the growth of democracy?
A: Civics helps people understand their democratic rights and responsibilities,
creating an informed electorate that can support competitive and effective
governance.
Q10: What impact does Civics have on international awareness?
A: Civics fosters an understanding of international relations and global issues,
helping citizens recognize their role in the global community and promoting
international cooperatio
Q11: What are the two main branches of science?
A: The two main branches of science are Pure Sciences (like Physics, Chemistry,
etc.) and Social Sciences (like History, Political Science, Economics, etc.).
Q12: What is the relationship between Civics and Social Sciences?
A: Civics is a part of Social Sciences, focusing on human rights, duties, and
governance, while other social sciences cover broader human activities and
societal structures.
Q13: How does Sociology relate to Civics?
A: Sociology is considered the "Mother of Social Sciences" and explores society
as a whole, while Civics is a part of Sociology that focuses on human rights,

duties, and political institutions.
Q14: What do Sociology and Civics have in common?
A: Both subjects study human beings, their social institutions, and civic life, with
a shared focus on human welfare and society.
Q15: What distinguishes Civics from Sociology?
A: Civics focuses on human actions within legal and political frameworks, while
Sociology looks at broader social behaviors, including unconscious and
disorganized activities.
Q16: How is Civics connected to Geography?
A: Civics and Geography are linked because geography influences how
governments operate, how laws are made, and how people interact with their
physical environment.
Q17: What is the key similarity between Civics and Geography?
A: Both Civics and Geography study human interactions, with Civics focusing
on governance and laws, and Geography on how humans interact with their
environment.
Q18: What is the main focus of History in relation to Civics?
A: History studies past events and developments, which help inform the
principles and understanding of Civics, particularly in the evolution of political
and social institutions.
Q19: How does Civics benefit from History?
A: Civics draws on historical events and experiences, using them to guide the
development of political systems and civic principles.
Q20: What role does Economics play in relation to Civics?
A: Economics studies the production and distribution of wealth, while Civics
focuses on the governance and regulation of these processes to ensure social and
economic justice.
Q21: What was the historical relationship between Civics and Political
Economics?
A: Civics, Economics, and Political Science were once considered a single
discipline known as "Political Economy" before they evolved into separate fields.
Q22: How do Civics and Economics share a common focus?
A: Both disciplines center on individuals; Civics addresses civic life while
Economics examines individuals' economic needs and resources.
Q23: What role do public welfare and human development play in both
Civics and Economics?
A: Both fields aim for public welfare, focusing on equitable wealth distribution,
labor rights, and the establishment of a welfare state to enhance human
prosperity.
Q24: What is a key philosophical contribution to both Civics and
Economics?
A: Philosophers like Karl Marx contributed significantly to both fields, analyzing
the interplay between economic conditions and civic responsibilities.
Q25: How does Economics differ in its scope compared to Civics?
A: Economics primarily focuses on material aspects of life, while Civics
encompasses a broader range of topics, including moral, social, and political

dimensions.
Q26: In what way do Civics and Political Science overlap?
A: Both disciplines began similarly in ancient Greece, focusing on civic and
political issues, but they later diverged as the concepts of city and state evolved.
Q27: What distinguishes the study focus of Civics from that of Political
Science?
A: Civics deals with local issues and civic life, while Political Science covers a
wider array of topics, including national and international affairs.
Q28: How do the approaches of Civics and Political Science differ regarding
theory and practice?
A: Political Science emphasizes theoretical aspects, whereas Civics prioritizes
practical roles and responsibilities of citizens.
Q29: What cultural aspect does Civics promote that Political Science does
not emphasize as much?
A: Civics encourages cultural values and mutual cooperation among citizens,
while Political Science focuses more on political awareness and rights.
Q30: How do the depths of study in Civics and Political Science compare?
A: While Political Science is broader, Civics offers deeper scrutiny of specific
issues, highlighting its importance in understanding societal dynamics.
Q31: What is Civics?
A: Civics is the study of human habits, activities, emotions, and institutions,
focusing on the rights and duties of citizenship.
Q32: How are Civics and Ethics related?
A: Civics and Ethics are interconnected; Ethics provides the moral principles that
underpin a better civic life, and both aim to foster good citizens.
Q33: Who are key philosophers associated with Civics and Ethics?
A: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle emphasized the importance of moral and civic
life, integrating Ethics into the study of Civics.
Q34: What is the primary aim of Civics?
A: The primary aim of Civics is to cultivate good citizens, while Ethics helps in
shaping individuals into good human beings.
Q35: What distinguishes the focus of Civics from Ethics?
A: Civics addresses a broader range of aspects including social, political, and
cultural dimensions, whereas Ethics primarily concerns moral values.
Q36: What defines a good citizen according to Lord Bryce?
A: A good citizen possesses qualities like intelligence, self-control, and a strong
sense of responsibility, along with being honest and respectful of laws.
Q37: What does Citizenship entail?
A: Citizenship is the status of being a citizen, granting political rights and duties,
and requiring individuals to respect state laws and contribute to its progress.
Q38: What is the difference between citizens and nationals?
A: Citizens have political rights and responsibilities, while nationals may live in
a state without having political rights, like the right to vote.
Q39: What are the ways to acquire citizenship?
A: Citizenship can be acquired through birth, naturalization, long residence, or
by marriage, among other means.
Q40: What are some reasons for loss of citizenship?

A: Citizenship can be lost due to acquiring another citizenship, long absence
from the state, investment in a foreign country, or involvement in serious crimes.
Q41:What is citizenship?
A: Citizenship refers to the legal status, rights, and responsibilities individuals
have as members of a state or society.
Q42: What is active citizenship?
A: Active citizenship involves individuals participating in civic, political, and
social processes, such as voting, volunteering, and advocating for change.
Q43: How does participatory citizenship differ from active citizenship?
A: Participatory citizenship emphasizes deeper engagement in democratic
processes and collective decision-making, whereas active citizenship can be more
general.
Q44: What does digital citizenship encompass?
A: Digital citizenship involves the responsible use of technology for civic
engagement, including digital activism and participation in e-governance.
Q45: What is global citizenship?
A: Global citizenship refers to a sense of belonging to a global community,
emphasizing responsibilities toward global issues like human rights and
environmental sustainability.
Q46: What is ecological citizenship?
A: Ecological citizenship focuses on individuals’ responsibilities toward the
environment, promoting sustainability and conservation efforts.
Q47: What does economic citizenship entail?
A: Economic citizenship involves individuals’ rights and responsibilities in their
country’s economic life, including labor rights and participation in
entrepreneurship.
Q48: What is cultural citizenship?
A: Cultural citizenship recognizes individuals' rights to participate in and
contribute to their community’s cultural life, supporting cultural diversity and
preservation.
Q49: What role does education play in democratic citizenship?
A: Education is essential for informed citizenship, enabling individuals to
understand political issues and participate effectively in democracy.
Q50: Why is the relationship between democracy and citizenship important?
A: This relationship is crucial as active, engaged citizens are the foundation of
democracy, ensuring government accountability and protection of rights.

Q1: What is the basic unit of human society?
A: The family is the most basic unit of human society, essential for social
interaction and relationships.
Q2: Who were the first human beings mentioned in the text?
A: The first human beings mentioned are Prophet Adam and Mother Eve, who
formed the first family on earth.
Q3: What is Aristotle's view on the relationship between family and the
state?
A: Aristotle believed that the family is the foundational unit that eventually leads
to the formation of the state, as it grows from individuals to families, then to
villages, and finally to states.
Q4: How is a patriarchal family defined?
A: A patriarchal family is one where the father is the supervisor, and ancestry is
traced through the male line.
Q5: What characterizes a matriarchal family?
A: In a matriarchal family, the mother is the head, and ancestry is traced through
the female line, with property often inherited by daughters.
Q6: What distinguishes a joint family from a separate family?
A: A joint family consists of multiple relatives living together under one roof,
whereas a separate family is typically formed when a couple lives independently
from their parents.
Q7: What is a monogamous family?
A: A monogamous family consists of one male married to one female, with a
focus on loyalty and cooperation between parents.
Q8: How does family contribute to the social and emotional development of
children?
A: Family teaches children values like obedience, loyalty, and cooperation,
functioning like a small state where children learn to participate in decision-
making.
Q9: What is the role of family in the economic aspect of life?
A: Families provide financial support and basic needs, including education and
resources necessary for individuals to become economically stable.
Q10: What defines modern society according to the text?
A: Modern society is defined as a group of people living together, bound by
social roles, customs, and shared goals, and is characterized by stability,
organization, and common values.
Q11: What is democracy?
A: Democracy is a system of government where citizens have the right to vote
for their leaders and influence decisions, promoting fairness and accountability in
governance.
Q12: Why is the rule of law important?
A: The rule of law ensures that everyone, including government officials, must
follow the law, providing protection from abuse of power and fostering a sense of
justice and security.
Q13: What are human rights?
A: Human rights are basic freedoms and protections, such as the right to life and
freedom of speech, that are essential for maintaining dignity and respect for all
individuals in modern society.
Q14: How do economic systems affect society?
A: Economic systems, such as capitalism and socialism, determine the
production, distribution, and consumption of resources, influencing job creation,
opportunities, and overall quality of life.
Q15: What role does education play in modern society?
A: Education is fundamental for personal and societal growth, providing
knowledge and skills necessary for informed decision-making and active

participation in the economy.
Q16: How does technology influence modern life?
A: Technology and innovation improve various aspects of daily life, including
communication and healthcare, enabling new opportunities and enhancing
productivity.
Q17: What are social institutions?
A: Social institutions, such as families and schools, provide support and structure
to society, shaping values and fostering relationships among individuals.
Q18: What is meant by cultural diversity?
A: Cultural diversity refers to the variety of backgrounds, traditions, and
perspectives within society, which encourages creativity, understanding, and
cooperation among different groups.
Q19: How does globalization affect communities?
A: Globalization connects countries and cultures, transforming interactions and
providing economic opportunities while also presenting challenges like cultural
homogenization.
Q20: What is community in a sociological context?
A: Community refers to a group of people living in a particular area with shared
values and cultural connections, often characterized by emotional ties, common
interests, and collective struggles.
Q21: What does "civic" refer to?
A: "Civic" refers to anything related to a city, community, or citizenship,
emphasizing participation in public life and the responsibilities and rights
associated with being a member of society.
Q22: What is the definition of citizenship?
A: Citizenship is the legal and social status defining an individual's membership
in a political community, encompassing rights like voting and responsibilities
such as obeying laws and participating in civic life.
Q23: How does civic engagement benefit democracy?
A: Civic engagement benefits democracy by encouraging citizens to participate
in decision-making processes, hold their government accountable, and foster a
sense of responsibility and collective action.
Q24: What did Aristotle believe about civic engagement?
A: Aristotle believed that human beings are inherently political animals and that
active participation in public life is essential for a virtuous and fulfilled life.
Q25: What is one of the key components of the civic engagement process?
A: One key component is "Awareness and Education," where individuals become
informed about local, national, or global issues that matter to them and their
community.
Q26: Why is identifying interests and priorities important in civic
engagement?
A: Identifying interests and priorities helps individuals focus their efforts on
issues they care about, aligning their personal values with the needs of their
community for more impactful involvement.
Q27: How can individuals connect with others for civic engagement?
A: Individuals can connect with others by joining organizations, networking with
like-minded individuals, and building coalitions to collectively address common

goals.
Q28: What are some ways people can engage in civic participation?
A: People can engage through voting, volunteering, attending public meetings,
public advocacy, and serving on local boards or committees.
Q29: What role does civic education play in engagement?
A: Civic education provides the foundational knowledge about rights and
responsibilities, inspiring individuals to become engaged citizens and participate
in governance and community affairs.
Q30: What is "digital activism"?
A: Digital activism involves using online platforms, such as social media
campaigns and online petitions, to raise awareness and mobilize support for
causes, allowing individuals to engage with issues without needing to be
physically present.
Q31: What is one major challenge to civic participation?
A: A significant challenge is the lack of awareness and education regarding civic
rights and responsibilities, which can prevent individuals from engaging in
political and social systems.
Q32: How does political apathy affect civic engagement?
A: Political apathy leads individuals to believe that their participation won’t
make a difference, resulting in disengagement from civic activities like voting
and community organizing.
Q33: What role do time constraints play in civic participation?
A: Time constraints can hinder civic participation, as many individuals,
especially those with demanding jobs and family responsibilities, may struggle to
find time for civic activities.
Q34: How can social and economic barriers impact civic engagement?
A: Individuals from marginalized communities may face social and economic
barriers, such as limited access to resources or transportation, which can hinder
their ability to participate in civic activities.
Q35: What effect does distrust in government have on civic participation?
A: A lack of trust in government and institutions can discourage people from
participating in civic activities, as they may feel disillusioned about the
effectiveness of their engagement.
Q36: Why can the complexity of political systems be a barrier to
participation?
A: The complexity of political systems can overwhelm individuals, making it
difficult for them to understand how to engage in policy-making and civic
processes, especially for first-time participants.
Q37: How does polarization affect civic engagement?
A: Increasing political polarization can deter individuals from engaging in
discussions or debates due to fear of conflict or criticism, leading to reduced civic
participation.
Q38: In what way does limited access to information pose a challenge?
A: Limited access to accurate and timely information can prevent citizens from
staying informed, hindering their ability to participate actively in civic life.
Q39: What is the impact of fear of repercussions on civic involvement?

A: Fear of legal or social repercussions can deter individuals from engaging in
civic participation, such as protests or organizing around controversial issues.
Q40: What is burnout in the context of civic participation?
A: Burnout occurs when activists and engaged citizens become exhausted from
continuous participation in civic activities, leading to feelings of frustration and
helplessness.
Q41: Why is civic participation considered vital in today‟s world?
A: Civic participation is essential as it allows individuals to engage in shaping
their communities, addressing complex societal challenges, and ensuring
democracy remains strong and responsive.
Q42: How does civic participation strengthen democracy?
A: Active civic participation, such as voting and public discussions, ensures that
governments remain accountable to the people and reflect their interests,
preventing power from concentrating in a few hands.
Q43: What global challenges can civic participation help address?
A: Civic participation is crucial in tackling global challenges like climate change,
economic inequality, and public health crises by enabling collective action and
local involvement.
Q44: In what ways does civic participation promote social justice?
A: Civic participation advances social justice and equality by ensuring that
voices from marginalized groups are heard and included in decision-making
processes, often through protests and advocacy.
Q45: How does civic engagement encourage government accountability?
A: When citizens engage with their governments through voting and public
oversight, it promotes accountability and transparency, reducing corruption and
inefficiency.
Q46: What is the impact of civic participation on community building?
A: Participation in community activities fosters a sense of belonging, builds trust
among neighbors, and strengthens social bonds, enabling communities to
collaboratively solve local issues.
Q47: How does civic participation educate and empower citizens?
A: Civic participation helps individuals learn about their rights and government
processes, fostering critical thinking and understanding of diverse perspectives,
which empowers them to contribute meaningfully to society.
Q48: How has civic participation adapted to the digital age?
A: In the digital age, civic participation has evolved through tools like social
media, online petitions, and digital advocacy, allowing for rapid organization and
mobilization of action.
Q49: Why is civic participation important for future generations?
A: Engaging in civic life helps shape policies that will affect future generations,
ensuring that decisions consider long-term impacts on the environment,
education, and social welfare.
Q50: What overarching role does civic participation play in society?
A: Civic participation is vital for fostering inclusive, fair, and sustainable
societies, empowering individuals, strengthening communities, and ensuring
government accountability.

Q1: Where did the basic concept of a state originate?
A: The basic concept of a state was initiated in Ancient Greece, where city-
states, known as "Polis States," were established.
Q2: How did the understanding of states evolve from the Roman era to
modern times?
A: During the Roman era, larger states emerged, and in modern times, states are
formed on national bases, with the people identifying as a whole nation, referred
to as a "national state."
Q3: What is the fundamental definition of a state?
A: A state is defined as a region where a permanent population lives under a
government that operates free from external pressure and follows its principles.
Q4: How do nation and state differ?
A: A nation refers to a group of people with common values like race, religion,
and culture, while a state is an organized political entity. A nation may strive for
freedom, but it doesn't necessarily constitute a state, as seen in the case of
Kashmir.
Q5: What are the four essential elements of a state?
A: The four essential elements of a state are:
1. Population 2. Territory 3. Government 4. Sovereignty
Q6: Why is population considered the main element of a state?
A: Population is crucial because the state is established for public development,
and without people, there can be no state. The population is also divided into
citizens with political rights and non-citizens.
Q7: What is the importance of territory in the definition of a state?
A: Territory is important because a state must have a defined geographical area.
Without permanent territory, a group cannot be considered a state, as illustrated
by the historical context of the Jews before the establishment of Israel.
Q8: How is government defined in the context of a state?
A: Government is defined as the system that forms and enforces laws, providing
basic facilities and protection for the public. It plays a crucial role in maintaining
order and implementing state policies.
Q9: What are the types of government mentioned, and what are the three
main duties of government in a democratic system?
A: Types of government include monarchy, dictatorship, nobility, and
democracy. The three main duties of government in a democratic system are:
1. Legislature (law-making) 2. Executive (implementing laws) 3.
Judiciary (administering justice)
Q10: What is sovereignty, and what are its two types?
A: Sovereignty refers to the authority of the state to operate independently
without external pressure. The two types are:
1. Internal Sovereignty: Authority over citizens and institutions within the state.
2. External Sovereignty: Freedom from outside influence in making decisions.
Q11: What is a state?
A: A state is a political entity that governs a specific territory and population,
characterized by its authority and institutional structures.
Q12: What is the significance of sovereignty in a state?

A: Sovereignty refers to the state’s supreme authority to govern itself and make
laws without external interference, encompassing both internal and external
aspects.
Q13: Why is territory considered a critical element of a state?
A: Territory is essential because it defines the geographic area where the state
exercises its authority, including land, airspace, and sometimes territorial waters.
Q14: What role does population play in a state?
A: A state must have people living within its territory, forming the citizenry
governed by its laws and policies, which is crucial for its existence.
Q15: How does government function within a state?
A: Government is the system through which a state operates, encompassing
institutions like the executive, legislature, and judiciary, and it can take various
forms, such as democratic or authoritarian.
Q16: What is the importance of law in a state?
A: Law is vital for regulating the behavior of the population, maintaining order
and justice within the state.
Q17: Why is recognition significant for a state?
A: Recognition by other states and international organizations is essential for a
state to achieve international legitimacy and establish diplomatic relations.
Q18: What distinguishes a state from a government?
A: A state is a permanent institution that encompasses the territory, population,
and governance, while a government can change over time and refers to the
individuals or groups in power.
Q19: What functions does a modern state perform?
A: A modern state performs various functions, including maintaining law and
order, national defense, economic regulation, public services, and promoting
social welfare.
Q20: What is the historical theory of the state‟s origin?
A: The historical or evolutionary theory posits that the state evolved from family
units through social cooperation, blood relations, and increased political
awareness, rejecting earlier notions of divine or purely forceful origins.
Q21: What is the definition of government?
A: Government is the system or group of people that governs an organized
community, responsible for making and enforcing laws, maintaining order, and
providing public services for citizens' well-being.
Q22: What are the primary roles of a government?
A: The primary roles include creating a stable society, enforcing laws to protect
rights, managing resources, administering public services, and ensuring national
security.
Q23: How does a government typically operate in democratic systems?
A: In democratic systems, governments are elected by the people and are
accountable to them, allowing citizens to have a voice in governance.
Q24: What are the different types of government mentioned in the text?
A: The different types of government include democracies, authoritarian
regimes, and monarchies.
Q25: What significant changes have affected Pakistan's political process since its
inception?
A: Pakistan's political process has undergone changes due to military rule,
political instability, violence, and the secession of East Pakistan in 1971, leading
to a new constitution in 1973.
Q26: What are the two houses of Pakistan's Parliament?
A: The two houses of Pakistan's Parliament are the Senate (upper house) and the
National Assembly (lower house).
Q27: How many members are there in the Senate of Pakistan?
A: The Senate of Pakistan consists of 104 members, including representatives
from each province, tribal areas, females, technocrats, and minorities.
Q28: What is the function of the National Assembly in Pakistan?
A: The National Assembly serves as the lower house of Parliament, where
members are elected through public votes to represent the people and pass
legislation.
Q29: What powers does the Parliament hold regarding legislation?
A: The Parliament has the exclusive right to legislate on certain matters, approve
financial bills, declare emergencies, and amend the constitution, with significant
authority over national finances.
Q30: What mechanisms does the Parliament have to address public grievances?
A: Members of Parliament act as representatives of the public, addressing issues
of their constituencies, asking questions of ministers, and passing resolutions to
highlight public welfare matters.
Q31: How are members of the provincial assembly selected in Pakistan?
A: Members of each provincial assembly in Pakistan are selected through public
votes, with seats reserved based on population.
Q32: What is the total number of seats in the Punjab Provincial Assembly?
A: The total number of seats in the Punjab Provincial Assembly is 371, which
includes 297 general seats, 8 for non-Muslims, and 66 for females.
Q33: What role does the Speaker play in the Provincial Assembly?
A: The Speaker is a selected member of the provincial assembly, elected by the
majority of selected members.
Q34: What is one of the key powers of the Provincial Assembly regarding
legislation?
A: The Provincial Assembly can make laws on affairs listed under concurrent
affairs, and bills passed must receive the governor's approval within 30 days.
Q35: What is the governor's role in relation to ordinances in the province?
A: The governor has the power to implement ordinances temporarily, which must
be approved by the Provincial Assembly during its next session.
Q36: What is the primary function of the President of Pakistan?
A: The President serves as the ceremonial head of state and holds certain
constitutional powers, including the ability to dissolve the National Assembly
under specific circumstances.
Q37: How is the Prime Minister of Pakistan selected?
A: The Prime Minister is selected from the members of the winning party in the
parliamentary elections, appointed by the President.
Q38: What is the highest court in Pakistan?

A: The Supreme Court is the highest court in Pakistan, responsible for protecting
public rights and providing justice.
Q39: What is a key feature of the parliamentary system in Pakistan?
A: In the parliamentary system, the Prime Minister and cabinet are accountable
to the legislature, which can terminate them at any time.
Q40: What role does the opposition play in a parliamentary system?
A: The opposition serves as a substitute to the government, providing checks and
balances, and can form a government if the winning party loses in parliament.
Q41: What is the primary distinction between parliamentary and
presidential systems of government?
A: Parliamentary and presidential systems are opposite forms of government;
while both are democratic, their characteristics and functions differ significantly,
leading to unique advantages and drawbacks for each.
Q42: How does the presidential system promote government stability?
A: In a presidential system, the president is elected for a fixed term and cannot be
easily removed, which allows them to govern confidently and work towards a
stable government.
Q43: Why are ministerial appointments viewed as more effective in a
presidential system?
A: The president selects ministers based on their qualifications and ability, which
leads to a more capable and effective government as opposed to the limited
choices available to a prime minister in a parliamentary system.
Q44: How do public perceptions of leadership differ between the two
systems?
A: In a presidential system, the president is directly elected by the public and
represents the entire nation, whereas the prime minister in a parliamentary system
often represents only the legislature, limiting their claim to public representation.
Q45: What are the implications of decision-making speed in a presidential
system?
A: The president can make decisions independently and swiftly, which is crucial
during emergencies, unlike in a parliamentary system where decisions require
consensus and take longer to implement.
Q46: How does civil society contribute to the safeguarding of democracy in
Pakistan?
A: Civil society acts as a guardian of democracy, advocating for democratic
values and processes, particularly during political turmoil or authoritarian
regimes.
Q47: In what ways does civil society enhance accountability in Pakistan?
A: Civil society organizations monitor government actions, expose corruption,
and promote transparency, ensuring that leaders remain answerable to the public.
Q48: What role does civil society play in promoting electoral integrity?
A: Civil society monitors elections and advocates for electoral reforms, which is
essential for ensuring that elections are free, fair, and reflective of the people's
will.
Q49: How does civil society advocate for human rights in Pakistan?
A: Civil society organizations focus on defending human rights and promoting
social justice, addressing issues such as gender inequality and minority rights,
thus ensuring that democracy is inclusive.
Q50: Why is political participation encouraged by civil society important for
democracy?
A: Civil society fosters grassroots political participation by educating citizens
about their rights and responsibilities, which strengthens democracy by ensuring
that diverse voices are heard in the political process.
Q51: What is the right to vote also known as?
A: The right to vote is also known as suffrage.
Q52: Why is voting considered a vital form of political participation?
A: Voting is considered vital because it allows citizens to elect their
representatives and directly influence government policies, reflecting the will of
the people.
Q53: What are some activities included in political participation beyond
voting?
A: Political participation includes standing for election, joining political parties,
participating in campaigns, attending rallies, signing petitions, and engaging in
public discourse.
Q54: How does political participation enhance civic education?
A: Political participation encourages individuals to be informed about political
processes and their rights, leading to more engaged voters who can make
informed choices.
Q55: What role does political participation play in ensuring accountability?
A: Active political participation holds elected officials accountable, allowing
citizens to monitor their actions and demand transparency and reform.
Q56: Why is representation of diverse interests important in a democracy?
A: Representation is important to ensure that various groups within society,
including marginalized communities, have their voices heard and their needs
addressed in decision-making processes.
Q57: How does political participation contribute to social cohesion?
A: Political participation fosters social cohesion by creating a sense of ownership
among citizens, reducing feelings of alienation and the potential for social unrest.
Q58: What is the impact of political participation on public policy?
A: Political participation improves public policy by ensuring it is informed by the
experiences and needs of the population, leading to more effective governance.
Q59: How does high political participation affect the legitimacy of a political
system?
A: High political participation indicates a healthy democracy, while low
participation can lead to disillusionment and instability, undermining the
legitimacy of the political system.
Q60: What is the ultimate significance of political participation and
representation in democracy?
A: The ultimate significance lies in strengthening democracy by empowering
citizens, ensuring accountability, representing diverse interests, and fostering a
responsive political system.

Q1: What are rights?
A: Rights are facilities granted to individuals in society and the state, allowing
them to protect their lives and polish their skills.
Q2: Why are rights essential for individuals?
A: Without basic rights, individuals cannot safeguard their lives or develop their
talents; rights are synonymous with freedom.
Q3: How did Aristotle view the role of the state in relation to rights?
A: Aristotle believed that the state is formed to provide a better life and must
work towards fulfilling the rights of its citizens.
Q4: What significant document laid the foundation for written rights in the
West?
A: The Magna Carta, issued in 1215 by King John of England, is a significant
document that introduced written rights.
Q5: What are natural rights?
A: Natural rights are inherent rights that individuals possess by nature, such as
the right to life, liberty, and property, existing before the establishment of
society.
Q6: How do moral rights differ from legal rights?
A: Moral rights are based on human consciousness and social norms without
legal enforcement, while legal rights are established and enforced by the state.
Q7: What are civil rights?
A: Civil rights are fundamental rights ensuring individuals can lead a civilized
life, including rights to life, liberty, and equality, protected by the state.
Q8: What does the right to self-expression entail?
A: The right to self-expression allows individuals to articulate their opinions and
ideas freely, protected under international human rights standards.
Q9: What is the significance of political rights in a democracy?
A: Political rights enable citizens to participate actively in the political process,
including voting, running for office, and criticizing the government.
Q10: What responsibilities does the state have regarding citizens' rights?
A: The state is responsible for protecting citizens' rights and ensuring their
fulfillment, including offering social protection and opportunities for
development.
Q11: What is the meaning of civic duties?
A: Civic duties refer to the responsibilities of individuals living in a society,
emphasizing their role in fulfilling obligations towards others and the state while
enjoying their rights.
Q12: How do rights and duties relate to each other?
A: Rights are the facilities granted to individuals by society and the state, while
duties are the responsibilities citizens must fulfill in return. Without rights,
individuals cannot develop their skills or protect their lives.
Q13: What historical document first outlined citizens' rights in the West?
A: The Magna Carta, issued in 1215 by King John of England, was the first
written form of citizens' rights in the West.
Q14: What are the two main types of civic duties?

A: The two main types of civic duties are moral duties, which involve ethical
responsibilities towards others, and legal duties, which are enforced by the state.
Q15: What is an example of a moral duty in Islam?
A: An example of a moral duty in Islam is to care for the needy and respect the
rights of others, as emphasized in the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad.
Q16: What are legal duties?
A: Legal duties are obligations imposed by the state that citizens must perform,
and failure to do so can result in punishment.
Q17: Why is voting considered a civic duty?
A: Voting is considered a civic duty because it is essential for selecting
government representatives, and citizens must prioritize the welfare of the state
over personal interests.
Q18: What is the role of taxes in civic duties?
A: Taxes are collected from citizens to fund welfare projects and essential
services provided by the state, making payment of taxes a vital civic duty.
Q19: How does the concept of self-control relate to civic responsibilities?
A: Self-control is important in civic responsibilities as citizens should prioritize
the common interests of the state and society over personal or family interests.
Q20: What fundamental rights are included in the 1973 Constitution of
Pakistan?
A: The 1973 Constitution of Pakistan includes fundamental rights such as
protection of life, right to property, equality, right of speech, and religious and
cultural rights.
Q21: What is civic engagement?
A: Civic engagement refers to the active participation of individuals in public life
to improve society through political, social, or community-based activities.
Q22: Why is informed participation important in civic engagement?
A: Informed participation is crucial because citizens have a responsibility to
make educated decisions, understand various perspectives, and recognize the
consequences of their actions.
Q23: How can citizens avoid misinformation during civic engagement?
A: Citizens can avoid misinformation by critically evaluating information
sources and refraining from spreading false or misleading information that could
harm the democratic process.
Q24: What role does respect for diversity play in civic engagement?
A: Respect for diversity ensures that all individuals have equal access to
participate, recognizes various cultures, and amplifies the voices of marginalized
groups to address their needs and concerns.
Q25: What is the importance of transparency and accountability in civic
actions?
A: Transparency and accountability are essential to maintain trust, requiring
engaged citizens to be open about their motives and to take responsibility for
their decisions and their impacts.
Q26: Why is nonviolence emphasized in ethical civic engagement?
A: Nonviolence is emphasized because peaceful participation fosters constructive
dialogue and promotes democracy, while violence can exacerbate conflicts and
undermine civic efforts.
Q27: How should civic participants balance individual and collective
interests?
A: Civic participants should consider how their actions affect others and society
as a whole, avoiding self-serving behavior and focusing on the welfare of the
community.
Q28: What is the significance of environmental responsibility in civic
engagement?
A: Environmental responsibility involves considering the ecological impact of
civic actions and advocating for sustainable practices to benefit future
generations.
Q29: How do ethical considerations address conflicts of interest in civic
engagement?
A: Ethical engagement requires avoiding conflicts of interest that could
compromise integrity and ensuring transparency in situations where personal
gain is involved.
Q30: What constitutes ethical communication in civic advocacy?
A: Ethical communication involves honest advocacy, grounded in truth, and
promoting constructive dialogue while listening to differing viewpoints without
resorting to harmful language.

Q1: How is the term „community‟ defined in different contexts?
A: The term ‘community’ can refer to various groups, such as professional
groups (e.g., community of teachers), cultural groups (e.g., Iranian community),
or based on geographical areas, where people share common values and interests.
Q2: What is the difference between society and community?
A: Society is a broad and organized group that encompasses multiple
communities and provides a framework for governing behavior, while a
community is a smaller, localized group with close personal connections and
shared interests or values.
Q3: According to MacIver, what constitutes a community?
A: MacIver defines a community as a group of members who live together and
share the basic conditions of life, not just specific interests.
Q4: What are some key characteristics of a community?
A: Key characteristics of a community include a common language, shared aims
and interests, harmony in lifestyle and customs, emotional connections, and
collective struggle.
Q5: How is a rural community characterized?
A: A rural community consists of people living in small areas with deep
connections to customs and traditions, characterized by simplicity, loyalty, and
moral values.
Q6: What does community engagement mean?
A: Community engagement refers to the involvement of people in improving
their local community through collaboration to address common issues and make
decisions that benefit everyone.
Q7: What are some examples of community engagement activities?
A: Examples include volunteering for local projects, attending town hall
meetings, organizing neighborhood cleanups, and participating in discussions
about local policies.
Q8: Why is community engagement important?
A: Community engagement is important because it brings diverse groups
together, ensures that the needs of the whole community are represented, builds
trust, and empowers individuals to participate actively.
Q9: What are some salient features of community engagement?
A: Salient features include inclusivity, collaboration, empowerment,
sustainability, transparency, trust-building, active participation, and shared
ownership of problems and solutions.
Q10: How does effective community engagement respect cultural sensitivity?
A: Effective community engagement acknowledges and respects the cultural
values and practices of the community, ensuring that engagement methods are
appropriate to the local context.
Q11: What are the core values of community engagement?
A: The core values include inclusiveness, collaboration, transparency, respect,
empowerment, accountability, sustainability, trust, cultural sensitivity, and
mutual learning.
Q12: Why is inclusiveness important in community engagement?
A: Inclusiveness ensures that all community members can participate, especially
underrepresented groups, fostering a diverse and equitable engagement process.
Q13: How does collaboration enhance community engagement?
A: Collaboration promotes partnerships among community members,
organizations, and stakeholders, leading to co-created solutions for common
issues.
Q14: What role does transparency play in community engagement?
A: Transparency fosters open communication, allowing community members to
access information about engagement processes and how their input will be used.
Q15: How does empowerment benefit individuals in community
engagement?
A: Empowerment gives individuals the tools and opportunities to influence
decisions, promoting ownership and responsibility within the community.
Q16: What does accountability entail in the context of community
engagement?
A: Accountability involves leaders taking responsibility for outcomes and
commitments made during the engagement process and reporting back to the
community.
Q17: Why is trust essential for effective community engagement?
A: Trust is crucial as it encourages open dialogue and collaboration, enabling
community members to feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and concerns.
Q18: What does cultural sensitivity mean in community engagement?
A: Cultural sensitivity involves recognizing and respecting the diverse cultural
backgrounds of community members and engaging in ways that honor their

traditions and values.
Q19: How does community engagement strengthen democracy?
A: Community engagement promotes active participation in decision-making,
ensuring that all voices are heard and contributing to more transparent
governance.
Q20: What are some key measures for successful community engagement?
A: Key measures include setting clear objectives, effective communication,
inclusivity, transparency, respect, empowerment, accessibility, feedback
mechanisms, capacity building, sustained efforts, and evaluation and adaptation.
Q21: What is community development?
A: Community development refers to a process where individuals and groups
collaborate to enhance the quality of life in their local areas through various
activities and strategies focused on social, economic, and environmental well-
being.
Q22: What is the main goal of community development?
A: The primary goal is to create sustainable and thriving communities by
addressing local needs, empowering residents, and fostering collaboration.
Q23: Why is inclusivity important in community development?
A: Inclusivity ensures that all community segments, particularly marginalized
and disadvantaged groups, are involved, guaranteeing that diverse voices are
heard and benefits are equitably distributed.
Q24: How does empowerment play a role in community development?
A: Empowerment strengthens individuals’ abilities to take control of their
development by providing education, resources, and opportunities, enabling them
to lead initiatives and make informed decisions.
Q25: What is the significance of sustainability in community development?
A: Sustainability focuses on creating long-term impacts that promote
environmental, economic, and social well-being, ensuring that resources are
conserved for future generations.
Q26: How does collaboration enhance community development efforts?
A: Collaboration promotes teamwork among community members,
organizations, and government entities, leveraging diverse skills and resources to
achieve common goals.
Q27: What is meant by local ownership in community development?
A: Local ownership encourages residents to manage and direct development
projects, fostering investment in their success and sustainability.
Q28: Why is equity a core principle of community development?
A: Equity aims to address and reduce inequalities by ensuring fair access to
resources and opportunities, providing additional support to those facing
disadvantages.
Q29: How does community development contribute to improving public
services?
A: Development initiatives often enhance public services such as transportation
and sanitation, leading to better living conditions and overall community well-
being.
Q30: What role does community development play in enhancing community

resilience?
A: Community development addresses vulnerabilities and prepares communities
for potential challenges, improving their ability to withstand and recover from
crises such as natural disasters or economic downturns.

Q1: What is public discourse?
A: Public discourse is the open exchange of ideas and opinions in public spaces,
where individuals engage in discussions on matters of common interest,
particularly related to politics, social issues, and culture.
Q2: Why is public discourse important in democratic societies?
A: Public discourse is crucial as it allows citizens to express their views,
deliberate on issues, and influence decision-making processes, fostering
democratic engagement and collective problem-solving.
Q3: Who are the key participants in public discourse?
A: Key participants include citizens, media, political leaders, activists, and
scholars, all contributing to the dialogue in various forums like public meetings,
debates, and social media.
Q4: What challenges does public discourse face in the digital age?
A: Challenges include misinformation, echo chambers, and polarized debates
that can undermine effective dialogue and hinder democratic processes.
Q5: How does public discourse contribute to informed citizenship?
A: It promotes informed citizenship by providing access to information and
diverse perspectives, enabling citizens to make educated choices in elections and
public policy decisions.
Q6: According to J.S. Mill, what is essential for the emergence of true public
opinion?
A: J.S. Mill advocated for the free flow of public opinion in society, believing
that every opinion should be allowed to circulate to form a true public opinion.
Q7: What is the relationship between public opinion and democracy?
A: Public opinion is the foundation of democracy; government and its policies
are based on public opinion, and officials remain in power as long as they have
public support.
Q8: What role do educational institutions play in shaping public opinion?
A: Educational institutions contribute by providing knowledge of political,
economic, and social issues, encouraging discussions that help students form
informed opinions.
Q9: How can public opinion influence legislation?
A: Public opinion serves as a major source of legislation, as laws are often based
on public demands and can only be successfully implemented with public
support.
Q10: What is the 'General Will' according to Rousseau?
A: Rousseau describes the 'General Will' as the selfless opinion of the majority
that emerges when individuals look beyond their selfish interests, representing
true public opinion.
Q11: What is a traditional method of measuring public opinion?

A: The electoral process is a traditional way of gauging public opinion, where
general elections reflect the preferences of the voting population regarding
political representation.
Q12: What are mock elections, and where are they commonly held?
A: Mock elections are simulated voting events organized by political parties to
forecast the outcomes of actual elections. They are commonly held in the United
States and European countries.
Q13: How do interviews contribute to measuring public opinion?
A: Public interviews conducted by newspapers and analysts collect data on social
issues, helping to gauge the sentiments and opinions of various demographics.
Q4: What is the purpose of using questionnaires in public opinion research?
A: Researchers use questionnaires containing multiple questions to gather
opinions from a large number of people, providing a representative view of
public sentiment.
Q15: What role do Press Forums play in understanding public attitudes?
A: Press Forums bring together individuals from different professions to discuss
issues, revealing diverse viewpoints and helping leaders understand public
attitudes.
Q16: What does advocacy mean in the context of social change?
A: Advocacy involves taking action to support a specific cause or group,
especially marginalized individuals, to ensure their needs and rights are
recognized.
Q17: Name a key type of advocacy aimed at changing laws or policies.
A: Systemic or policy advocacy aims to alter broader policies and laws through
lobbying and public campaigns to address systemic issues.
Q18: How does public advocacy empower individuals?
A: Advocacy empowers individuals by providing tools and support, enabling
them to voice their needs and actively participate in societal issues.
Q19: What is the significance of raising public awareness in advocacy?
A: Raising public awareness educates communities about pressing social issues,
mobilizing support for change and influencing public opinion.
Q20: What is one of the long-term goals of advocacy?
A: One of the long-term goals of advocacy is to create sustainable change by
addressing the root causes of social issues, rather than just the symptoms.
Q21: What is a social action movement?
A: A social action movement refers to organized, collective efforts by individuals
or groups to bring about social, political, economic, or environmental change in
response to perceived inequalities or injustices.
Q22: What are the primary goals of social action movements?
A: The primary goal of social action movements is to create a shift in public
policy, cultural norms, or societal behaviors to address systemic issues such as
discrimination, inequality, and environmental degradation.
Q23: How do social action movements typically organize their efforts?
A: Social action movements rely on collective action, involving grassroots
participation and collaboration among individuals who share common concerns
or goals, often using various strategies including protests and digital activism.
Q24: What distinguishes social action movements from other collective

actions?
A: Social action movements are characterized by their focus on empowerment,
justice, and raising the voices of marginalized groups, challenging the status quo
to advocate for more equitable systems.
Q25: Can you name a few well-known social action movements?
A: Examples of well-known social action movements include the Civil Rights
Movement, the environmental movement, and the feminist movement.
Q26: What is the definition of a social movement according to Herbert
Blumer?
A: Herbert Blumer defines a social movement as a collective enterprise
motivated by a common purpose, where individuals come together to pursue
shared beliefs and identities.
Q27: What type of social movement aims to completely overthrow existing
structures?
A: Revolutionary movements seek to completely overthrow existing political or
social structures and create a new order, such as the Russian Revolution.
Q28: What are environmental movements focused on?
A: Environmental movements focus on issues related to environmental
protection and sustainability, such as the climate action movement.
Q29: How do social movements typically mobilize support?
A: Social movements employ mass mobilization, organizing large numbers of
people to participate in activities like protests and advocacy campaigns to
increase visibility and pressure institutions for change.
Q30: What is a salient feature of social action movements concerning their
structure?
A: Social movements generally have an organized structure, with some level of
leadership or coordination that helps mobilize resources and strategize effectively
to achieve their goals.
Q1: What is community development?
A: Community development is a process where individuals and groups
collaborate to improve the quality of life in their local areas, focusing on social,
economic, and environmental well-being.
Q2: What is the primary goal of community development?
A: The goal of community development is to create sustainable, thriving
communities by addressing local needs, empowering residents, and fostering
collaboration.
Q3: Why is participation important in community development?
A: Participation ensures that community members are actively involved in all
phases of development, fostering ownership and addressing real needs
effectively.
Q4: How does community development address inclusivity?
A: Community development emphasizes inclusivity by involving all segments of
the community, especially marginalized and underrepresented groups, ensuring
equitable benefits.
Q5: What role does empowerment play in community development?

A: Empowerment strengthens the abilities of individuals and groups to control
their development, providing education, resources, and opportunities for
leadership.
Q6: What is the significance of sustainability in community development?
A: Sustainability focuses on creating long-term impacts that promote
environmental, economic, and social well-being while conserving resources for
future generations.
Q7: How does collaboration enhance community development?
A: Collaboration promotes teamwork among community members,
organizations, and governments, leveraging diverse skills and resources to
achieve common goals.
Q8: What does local ownership entail in community development?
A: Local ownership involves encouraging residents to manage and direct
development projects, increasing their investment in the initiatives’ success and
sustainability.
Q9: Why is transparency crucial in community development?
A: Transparency builds trust by maintaining openness about goals, processes,
and outcomes, ensuring community members understand decision-making.
Q10: What is the importance of community development for social
cohesion?
A: Community development fosters social connections and unity by bringing
people together around common goals, contributing to resilience and stability in
the community.
Q11: What is cyber ethics?
A: Cyber ethics refers to the moral principles and rules that guide behavior and
decision-making in the online world, promoting responsible and respectful use of
technology.
Q12: Why is privacy important in cyber ethics?
A: Privacy is crucial because it respects individuals' rights to keep their personal
information safe and confidential, preventing unauthorized access to their data.
Q13: What constitutes cyberbullying?
A: Cyberbullying involves harassing or attacking someone online through
harmful comments or messages, violating the principles of kindness and respect
in online interactions.
Q14: How does intellectual property relate to cyber ethics?
A: Intellectual property ethics involves respecting the rights of creators by not
copying or stealing their work without permission, such as music, movies, or
written content.
Q15: What does digital footprint mean?
A: A digital footprint refers to the trail left by a person's online actions,
highlighting the importance of being mindful of the long-term consequences of
what is shared online.
Q16: What are the key branches of cyber ethics?
A: Key branches include privacy ethics, intellectual property ethics, hacking and
security ethics, cybercrime ethics, and freedom of speech and censorship, among
others.
Q17: How can individuals ensure responsible use of social media?

A: Individuals can ensure responsible use by thinking before posting, verifying
sources, protecting personal information, and engaging positively with others
online.
Q18: Why is verifying sources important before sharing information?
A: Verifying sources is important to ensure the credibility of information,
preventing the spread of false or misleading content online.
Q19: What should individuals consider about the long-term impact of their
posts?
A: Individuals should consider how their posts may affect their future
opportunities, reputation, and relationships, as online content can have lasting
consequences.
Q20: What role do companies and governments play in promoting cyber
ethics?
A: Companies and governments play a crucial role by enforcing cyber laws,
fostering digital literacy, and providing tools to protect privacy and security,
contributing to a safer online environment.
Q21: What does the term "digital divide" refer to?
A: The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals who have easy access
to computers and the internet and those who do not, creating disparities in
opportunities and resources.
Q22: What are some consequences for individuals without internet access?
A: Individuals without internet access may miss educational opportunities,
struggle to find jobs, and lack access to online services such as healthcare.
Q23: How did the COVID-19 pandemic highlight the digital divide?
A: During the pandemic, many people could not work or attend school from
home due to a lack of technology, making the divide more visible and
pronounced.
Q24: What is the "skills divide" in the context of the digital divide?
A: The skills divide refers to the gap between those who possess the skills to
effectively use digital technologies and those who do not, often due to a lack of
digital literacy.
Q25: What impact does the digital divide have on education?
A: The digital divide exacerbates educational inequalities, as students without
access to technology miss out on online learning resources and fall behind
academically.
Q26: How does the digital divide affect employment opportunities?
A: Individuals without internet access or digital skills may find it difficult to
apply for jobs, attend virtual interviews, or compete for higher-paying positions.
Q27: What role does economic status play in the digital divide?
A: Economic status affects access to technology; lower-income individuals may
only afford basic internet or outdated devices, limiting their digital experiences.
Q28: What is the "geographical divide"?
A: The geographical divide refers to differences in access to digital technology
based on location, with rural areas often lacking the infrastructure present in
urban areas.
Q29: What does the "gender divide" imply in the context of technology
access?
A: The gender divide highlights that women, particularly in developing
countries, often have less access to technology due to cultural, social, or
economic factors.
Q30: How can bridging the digital divide benefit society?
A: Bridging the digital divide can enhance educational opportunities, improve
job prospects, and foster greater social inclusion and economic development
across communities.
Q31: What does the term "digital divide" refer to?
A: The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals, households, or
regions with access to digital technologies (like the internet and computers) and
those without.
Q32: What socioeconomic factors contribute to the digital divide?
A: Socioeconomic factors include income level, education, and employment,
which can limit access to technology and digital literacy.
Q33: How does geographical location affect the digital divide?
A: People in urban areas typically have better access to high-speed internet,
while those in rural or remote areas often lack sufficient infrastructure for reliable
connectivity.
Q34: What role does age play in the digital divide?
A: Older generations may have less experience with digital technologies, making
it harder for them to engage fully in the digital world compared to younger
generations.
Q35: How can government policies influence the digital divide?
A: Government policies can either exacerbate or reduce the digital divide
through investment in digital infrastructure and regulations that either promote or
limit access to technology.
Q36: What is digital literacy, and why is it important in the context of the
digital divide?
A: Digital literacy refers to the skills required to navigate the internet and use
digital devices effectively. A lack of digital literacy can prevent individuals from
fully participating in the digital world, even if they have access to technology.
Q37: What measures can be taken to provide affordable internet access?
A: Measures include working with internet service providers to offer low-cost
plans and expanding free public Wi-Fi hotspots in community spaces.
Q38: How can digital skills training programs help bridge the digital divide?
A: Digital skills training programs can ensure that individuals, both young and
old, develop the necessary competencies to use technology effectively, thereby
increasing their engagement in the digital world.
Q39: What impact does the digital divide have on education?
A: The digital divide significantly affects educational opportunities, with
students lacking access to technology being unable to participate in online
learning, which became especially apparent during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Q40: Why is advocacy for policy and legal frameworks important in
addressing the digital divide?
A: Advocating for policies that ensure affordable internet access and protect
digital rights is crucial for reducing barriers and fostering inclusive access to
online resources.
Q1: What do diversity and inclusion aim to achieve in a workplace or
community?
A: They aim to create an environment that values and incorporates a wide range
of human differences, ensuring everyone feels represented and valued.
Q2: What dimensions of identity does diversity encompass?
A: Diversity encompasses race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age,
religion, disability, socioeconomic status, and cultural background.
Q3: How does inclusion differ from diversity?
A: Inclusion focuses on the practices and policies that ensure all individuals feel
welcomed, respected, and empowered to participate fully, while diversity
pertains to the presence of different identities.
Q4: What are some benefits of embracing diversity in society?
A: Embracing diversity promotes social cohesion, mutual respect, fosters
dialogue, breaks down stereotypes, and enhances community well-being.
Q5: What is cultural diversity?
A: Cultural diversity refers to the variety of cultural identities within a society,
including customs, traditions, languages, and artistic expressions.
Q6: What are some salient features of diversity in society?
A: Salient features include cultural variety, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism,
language diversity, gender diversity, and age diversity.
Q7: What characterizes diversity in Pakistani society and culture?
A: Pakistan is characterized by ethnic diversity, linguistic variety, religious
pluralism, and a rich tapestry of cultural traditions, cuisines, and festivals.
Q8: How does gender diversity contribute to organizations?
A: Gender diversity promotes equity in opportunities and challenges traditional
gender norms, enhancing overall organizational performance.
Q9: Why is understanding geographical diversity important?
A: Geographical diversity acknowledges how location influences experiences
and viewpoints, which is crucial for effective collaboration and problem-solving.
Q10: What role does civic participation play in a diverse society?
A: Civic participation influences local governance, political representation, and
advocacy for rights and resources, ensuring that diverse communities have a
voice in decision-making processes.
Q11: What is the definition of development?
A: Development refers to the process of growth, progress, and positive
transformation in various aspects of society, economy, and human well-being.
Q12: How is economic development typically measured?
A: Economic development is measured through increases in income,
industrialization, job opportunities, and the reduction of poverty.
Q13: What does social development focus on?
A: Social development focuses on equitable access to resources, education,
gender equality, healthcare, and fostering social inclusion to reduce inequalities.
Q14: What is sustainable development?
A: Sustainable development emphasizes growth that meets present needs without
compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs, balancing

economic progress with environmental protection.
Q15: According to Karl Marx, what is development?
A: Karl Marx defines development as the movement towards the realization of
human potential.
Q16: What are some important indicators of social development?
A: Important indicators include life expectancy, literacy rate, gender equality,
access to clean water, poverty rate, and employment rate.
Q17: What role do youth play in social development?
A: Youth act as agents of change, innovators, political participants, volunteers,
and advocates for social inclusion and environmental sustainability.
Q18: How do youth contribute to economic growth?
A: Youth contribute by entering the labor force as workers and entrepreneurs,
driving innovation and creating new employment opportunities.
Q19: What challenges can impede development?
A: Challenges include corruption, inequality, environmental degradation, and
lack of good governance.
Q20: Why is investing in youth empowerment important for development?
A: Investing in youth empowerment is essential for achieving long-term,
sustainable development as youth drive progress in governance, economy,
environment, and culture.
Q21: What is the role of women in social development?
A: Women play a fundamental and transformative role in social development by
participating in various sectors, including education, healthcare, governance, and
the economy, leading to more equitable and prosperous societies.
Q22: How does women's workforce participation contribute to economic
growth?
A: Women's involvement in the labor force increases productivity, innovation,
and economic growth, resulting in higher household incomes and reduced
poverty.
Q23: Why is women‟s leadership important in governance?
A: Women in leadership roles shape policies that address social welfare,
education, healthcare, and gender equality, advocating for inclusive and equitable
policies.
Q24: How do women contribute to family welfare?
A: Women, particularly as caregivers, play a key role in maintaining family
health, leading to better child-rearing practices and improved health outcomes.
Q25: What impact do minorities have on cultural diversity?
A: Minorities enrich the social fabric through their unique traditions, languages,
and cultural practices, promoting understanding, tolerance, and social cohesion.
Q26: How do minority groups contribute to economic development?
A: Minority groups contribute to local economies by starting businesses, creating
jobs, and stimulating economic growth through their entrepreneurial efforts.
Q27: What role do minorities play in advocating for social justice?
A: Minorities often lead movements for equal rights, combating discrimination
and advocating for social justice, which is crucial for societal progress.
Q28: How do women and minorities impact education?

A: Educated women and minorities enhance social development by bringing new
knowledge and perspectives, contributing to academic research and promoting
intercultural understanding.
Q29: In what ways do minorities foster peace and conflict resolution?
A: Minorities contribute to peacebuilding efforts by promoting dialogue and
reconciliation, helping to heal divided societies and fostering long-term peace.
Q30: Why is the inclusion of women and minorities essential for social
development?
A: Their inclusion enhances the richness of social fabric, strengthens democracy,
promotes peace, and ensures a more equitable and prosperous society for all.
Q31: What is social inequality?
A: Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities,
and privileges among individuals or groups in society, manifesting in areas like
income, education, and healthcare.
Q32: What are some dimensions of social inequality?
A: Key dimensions include economic inequality, gender inequality, racial and
ethnic inequality, educational inequality, and health inequality.
Q33: How does systemic discrimination contribute to social inequality?
A: Systemic discrimination leads to institutional biases that reinforce inequality,
making it difficult for marginalized groups to access resources and opportunities.
Q34: What is the Gini coefficient?
A: The Gini coefficient is a widely used measure of income inequality, ranging
from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (maximum inequality), indicating the disparity in
income distribution.
Q35: What does "intergenerational transmission" refer to in the context of
inequality?
A: Intergenerational transmission refers to how advantages or disadvantages in
socioeconomic status are passed down from one generation to the next, limiting
social mobility.
Q36: How can universal healthcare help reduce social inequality?
A: Universal healthcare provides affordable access to quality medical services
for all, reducing health disparities associated with socioeconomic status.
Q37: What role does education play in addressing social inequality?
A: Access to quality education is crucial for breaking the cycle of poverty,
providing individuals with opportunities for upward mobility and better job
prospects.
Q38: What is affirmative action?
A: Affirmative action consists of policies aimed at increasing opportunities for
historically disadvantaged groups in education and employment to correct past
inequalities.
Q39: How does social exclusion manifest in society?
A: Social exclusion affects marginalized groups, limiting their participation in
political, economic, and cultural life, and further deepening their inequality.
Q40: What are some measures to tackle global inequality?
A: Fair trade policies, international aid, and development efforts aim to improve
access to resources in developing countries, reducing the wealth gap between

nations.
Q41: What is social stratification?
A: Social stratification is the structured ranking of individuals and groups in a
society based on criteria such as wealth, power, prestige, education, and
occupation, resulting in unequal access to resources and opportunities.
Q42: What are the key features of social stratification?
A: Key features include hierarchical structure, inequality, institutionalization,
ascription and achievement, social mobility, class division, power and privilege,
functional necessity, universality, and intergenerational transmission.
Q43: Who are some notable theorists associated with social stratification?
A: Max Weber and Karl Marx are notable theorists; Weber emphasized the
distribution of power based on class, status, and political influence, while Marx
focused on class division within the capitalist system.
Q44: What are the determinants of social stratification?
A: Determinants include economic factors (wealth and occupation), education,
social class, race and ethnicity, gender, age, political power, cultural norms,
family background, geographic location, and social networks.
Q45: What is social injustice?
A: Social injustice refers to systemic inequalities and disparities that deny
individuals or groups fundamental rights and opportunities, often resulting in
unequal treatment based on various factors such as race, gender, or economic
status.
Q46: What are some reasons for social injustice?
A: Reasons include systemic discrimination, poverty, lack of political
representation, negative social attitudes, weak legal protections, violence and
conflict, economic exploitation, environmental inequities, and historical legacies.
Q47: What is social harmony?
A: Social harmony is a state of peaceful coexistence and cooperation among
individuals and groups characterized by mutual respect, understanding, and
shared values, allowing diverse communities to thrive together.
Q48: What are the salient features of social harmony?
A: Salient features include mutual respect, cooperation, diversity appreciation,
conflict resolution, inclusivity, social justice, shared values, active participation,
trust building, and positive communication.
Q49: Why is social harmony important?
A: Social harmony is crucial for community cohesion, conflict resolution,
cultural appreciation, economic stability, mental well-being, social justice, public
safety, and overall quality of life.
Q50: What steps can be taken to promote social harmony?
A: Steps include encouraging dialogue, promoting inclusivity, educating on
diversity, supporting community initiatives, organizing cultural events,
developing conflict resolution programs, fostering volunteerism, and engaging
youth in community-building activities.

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Civics & Community Engagement 6 BS 4 Years, ADP/ADA/ADS

General Education Course

Prof. Farooq Malik

Khurram Books Majeed Book Dept

CONCEPTS OF CIVICS & CITIZENSHIP

Definitions, Importance of Public Opinion,

Short Questions & Answer 172

F. J. Gould: “Civics is the study of emotions, activities, tasks and those

particularly talks about Union Councils, Union Committees, Municipal

sociology, we study about human institutions, social features, religion, beliefs,

Dissimilarities between Civics and Geography

6-Acquirement of Good Citizenship: With the help of economics, a better

“Citizen is a person who may be obedient to state, may have awareness

10-Sharpness: A sharp and astute citizens is not usually hasty. He carefully

6-Getting married in foreign country: If any lady gets married with a

(ii)-Collaborative problem-solving: Working with governments, NGOs, or local

(ii)-Environmental activism: Participating in or supporting environmental

Examples: Advocating for universal healthcare, participating in social welfare

Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship

6-The Balance of Rights and Responsibilities in Citizenship: Citizenship in a

Importance of Relationship between Democracy & Citizenship

7-Citizenship Builds a Sense of Belonging and Shared Purpose: Democracy

3-Solitary Confinement: Living together is the human nature. If a person is

Foundations of Modern Society

9-Globalization: Globalization connects countries and cultures through trade,

“What constitutes a nation, is not speaking the same tongue or belonging to

6-Common Political Aims: When a group of people is united for the

they live. It involves an active engagement with one's community and

Next, citizenship provides individuals with rights, such as the ability to

* Engagement to Empowerment: Civic engagement empowers individuals to

* Joining organizations: People often connect with local groups, non-profits, or

6-Monitoring and Accountability: After participating or advocating for change,

to hold leaders accountable, reflect on progress, and sustain involvement. The

7-Social Entrepreneurship: Social entrepreneurship combines business

5-Distrust in Government and Institutions: In some cases, a lack of trust in

(iii)-French Revolution (1789–1799): The French Revolution further expanded

protections to rights. Grassroots organizing, protests, and direct action became

especially those from underrepresented communities, is heard and included in

Gamer: “The state is a community of persons, more or less numerous,

8-Environmental Protection: Regulating activities to preserve natural

phenomenon which may be considered almost coextensive with human society

Functioning of the Organs of the Government

6-Eradication of Public Grievances: The members of parliament are public

5-Responsible Government: Parliamentary form of government is a responsible

watchdogs, monitoring the actions of the government and exposing corruption,

Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) and Transparency International Pakistan

role in advocating for the rights of marginalized groups, such as women,

1-Empowerment of Citizens: Political participation gives citizens the power to

5-Balancing Individual and Collective Good

* Constructive Dialogue: Ethical engagement encourages open, respectful, and

● Collective struggle is their identity.

Community engagement is important because it brings diverse groups of

7-Online Engagement: Using social media, online forums, or virtual meetings to

Engagement efforts should actively seek out and involve underrepresented

3-Collaboration: Encourage working together as partners. Collaboration

1-Strengthens Democracy: Community engagement promotes active

6-Local Ownership: Encourage local leadership and initiative by involving

involving residents in decision-making processes. Strong governance leads to

Importance of Public Discourse