Publicación acido base, ALANEPE 2019_240902_160857
Publicación acido base, ALANEPE 2019_240902_160857
Publicación acido base, ALANEPE 2019_240902_160857
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Editorial
Dr. Ramón Exeni ........................................................................................................... 1
MANAGEMENT OF
PEDIATRIC PRIMARY UROLITHIASIS
a. Pediatric Nephrology Unit. Centre Of Nephrology. Santa Cas de Belohorizonte Hospital. Belo Horizonte Brazil.
b. Bone And Mineral disorders Clinic. Section of Pediatric Nephrology. Children Mercy Hospitals and Clinics. Kansas City USA..
4 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22
Tasian et al asked whether there is an associa- tion.4 In the second study we found the same result
tion between antibiotic use and the risk of devel- in American and Brazilian children, suggesting that
oping kidney stones in the subsequent months and overweight and obesity are not per se risk factors for
years.13 The authors found that exposure to any of urolithiasis.20 Additional recent studies confirmed
five different major antibiotic classes in the prior that obesity is not a risk factor for nephrolithiasis
3-12 months before index date was associated with in children.12,21, It should be noted that obesity-as-
increased risk for kidney stones. The risk was high- sociated stones in adults are composed of uric acid
est following the use of sulfas, cephalosporins, flu- whereas most pediatric stones are composed of calci-
oroquinolones, nitrofurantoin/methenamine, and um. It is however unclear whether this difference in
broad-spectrum penicillins. In exploratory analyses, stone composition plays a role in the above setting.
the magnitude of the association was greatest for Epidemiologic studies have associated urolithia-
exposure at younger ages and 3-6 months before sis with metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular dis-
the kidney stone diagnosis.13 Considering the fact eases.22,23 Its presence increases the risk of diabetes
that children receive more antibiotics than any other mellitus and hypertention.24,25 Swartz et al (2007)
age group, and 30% of the antibiotics prescribed and Rosenberg et al (2011) have shown a high prob-
are inappropriate, these findings provide reasons to ability of complications as recurrent abortions, hy-
reduce outpatient antibiotic use.15 Also, these find- pertensive disorders, gestational diabetes, cesarean
ings support the hypothesis that by affecting the deliveries and preterm delivery when women pres-
microbiome and its metabolic proprieties beyond ent symptomatic urolithiasis during pregnancy.26,27
just the intended effect of treating infection, health Tangren et al also showed an association between a
providers may be unintentionally contributing to history of urolithiasis and gestational diabetes and
chronic disease.14 hypertensive disorders of pregnancy in women with-
Drug-induced stones represent 1–2% of all re- out preexisting diabetes, hypertension, or chronic
nal calculi. The drugs reported to produce calculi kidney disease. These alterations were present es-
are those with high urine excretion rate and poor pecially in women with high first trimester body
solubility that favour crystallisation. They include mass index.28
atazanavir, other protease inhibitors, sulphadiazine,
ceftriaxone and ephedrine-containing preparations
in subjects receiving high doses or long-term treat- SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS
ment. Other drugs provoke the formation of urinary Pediatric urolithiasis can present as an acute at-
calculi through their action on urinary pH or/and tack, most commonly due to a stone in the ureter,
by modifying the metabolism of calcium, oxalate, or may be an incidental finding during workup im-
phosphate, citrate, uric acid or other purines.16 Ex- aging of the abdomen for another reason. The most
amples of the latter are: patients taking uncontrolled frequent clinical presentation in adults is renal colic
calcium/vitamin D supplements, or being treated caused by displacement of calculus or clots in the
with carbonic anhydrase inhibitors such as acetazol- urinary tract. This clinical presentation is also com-
amide or topiramate.16 monly observed in adolescents, however, abdominal
The association of obesity and metabolic syn- pain is the main complaint in school children29,30
drome is considered a risk factor for urolitiasis in In infants and preschool children the presenting
adults patients. 17 However, no such association symptoms may be even less specific. Gross or micro-
was established in pediatric patients. Kieran et al scopic hematuria, urinary tract infection, uncharac-
demonstrated no difference regarding stone prop- teristic abdominal pain and general manifestations
erties when BMI was considered.18 such as nausea, vomiting, anorexia and malaise may
Dwyer et al and Roddy et al confirmed that be present as well.29,30,31
no tendency towards obesity was found in stone Although the pediatric urolithiasis could have
formers.3, 19 In the same way, our two studies also many different symptoms and signs at clinical onset,
did not show this association.4,20 In the first study, long time intervals without urinary complaints may
the prevalence rate of obesity among stone formers be observed in these patients.1,32
was not different from the general pediatric popula-
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22 5
tract stones concluded that both provide effective ment depends on many factors and there are criteria
methods of identifying urinary tract stones. High that help making the decision.
diagnostic accuracy, sensitivity and specificity are Urologic intervention should be considered in
maintained despite significant radiation dose reduc- cases of: severe intractable pain, complete urinary
tion in comparison to standard dose CT.42 obstruction, urosepsis, partial obstruction in a single
When obstruction is a concern or if anatomic kidney, acute kidney injury, stones with a diameter
details are necessary, the use of contrast agents may bigger than 5 mm, and in cases of struvite stones. As
be used.39,41 aforementioned another indication is a stone treat-
As aforementioned, clinical, laboratory and im- ed medically for two weeks without success.46,52,53
aging evaluation should be done systematically at Therefore, surgical management of a stone is related
the patient with a migrating calculus. The patient to its location, sypmtoms, signs, its effect on the
should be instructed to observe the elimination of kidneys and at time lack of response to medical
the stone, because it may occur even without pain. treatment7.
About 60% to 70% of calculi will be spontaneously Surgical procedures in children are the same as
eliminated and the size and characteristics of the in adults. These include extracorporeal shockwave
surface limit their passage. The waiting period for lithotripsy (ESWL), ureterolithotripsy (URSL),
stone migration without damage to the renal paren- retrograde intrarenal surgery (RIRS), percutane-
chyma is two weeks, however, the waiting period for ous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) and laparoscopic or
stone migration without affecting the kidney func- open surgery.54,55 The decision to use one method
tion is six weeks at maximum.43-45 After this period, or another depends on the stone location, its size,
the patient should be referred to a urologist.45 estimated composition and the urologist’s experi-
ence with the method. In recent years the ability of
Medical expulsive therapy ureteroscopy to access the entire urinary tract has
Medical expulsive therapy, including alpha made it first line of therapy.56 The ideal procedure
blockers, steroids, and calcium channel blockers, should be effective, safe and allow the complete
has been studied extensively due to its possible evacuation of the stones after the first procedure.
beneficial action by facilitating stone passage and Open surgery is rarely conducted and is saved for
decreasing the need for urologic intervention. In ac- special circumstances.
cordance with the results of numerous randomized Finally, it is important to highlight the criteria
controlled trials and metanalyses46-50 the American for hospitalization of a child or adolescent with an
Urologic Association and the European Association acute urolithiasis. These criteria are: presence of
of Urology have recommended that adult patients urinary tract infection, urinary obstruction, single
with ureteral stones less than 10 mm be receive first kidney, intractable pain, and nausea and vomiting.
medical therapy and followed for stone passage.51,52 The latter could lead to dehydration that consider-
Similarly a recent Cochrane review of alpha block- ably worsens the prognosis of urolithiasis7.
ers, reported a significant improvement in stone
passage.53 The alpha-adrenergic blocker is indicated MANAGEMENT OF THE
for children over 5 years of age, with symptomatic PEDIATRIC NON-ACUTE PATIENT
ureteral or bladder stones, and it should be waited After resolution of the acute phase, the pedi-
two weeks for its effect. Some urologists believe that atric patient will undergo a metabolic evaluation,
for a stone to pass in this population its size should due to the fact that metabolic abnormalities have
be 5 mm or less. been reported in 30% to 84% of all cases.4,11,31,57
If left unaddressed they carry a high risk of stone
Surgical treatment methods recurrence. Milliner and Murphy reported that 221
The presence of urolithiasis does not neces- children have developed one or more kidney stones
sarily imply surgical removal. More than 80% of in mean follow-up of 59 months.58 Schwarz et al
the pediatric stones are eliminated spontaneously. showed a recurrence rate of urolithiasis in children
The remaining ones require conservative or surgi- equal to that of adults.59 Tasian et al reported that
cal treatment. Choosing the most appropriate treat- pediatric urolithiasis recurrence risk is high and
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22 7
50% have symptomatic recurrence in three years wards particular etiologies and specific metabolic
after the first episode.60 All evaluations should be disorders.64
performed at least one month after diagnosis of the The goal of medical treatment is to correct the
stone(s) while participants are asymptomatic and on metabolic abnormaility thus leading to interruption
their usual diet, normal fluid intake and physical of the growth process of existing calculi as well as
activities.4,7,61 Pediatric metabolic testing should prevention of development of new ones. A small
consist of: one random urine for urinalysis and pH percentage of pediatric patients forming urinary
(preferably checked by pH meter), two 24-h urine stones present no metabolic abnormality4. It is also
collections analyzed for total volume, creatinine, important to note that the composition of the cal-
calcium, phosphate, citrate, sodium, potassium, uric culi varies according to the different regions of the
acid, oxalate; and one venous blood sample analyzed world.65
for creatinine, calcium, phosphorus, uric acid, mag-
nesium, sodium, chloride, potassium, bicarbonate, Metabolic Diagnosis
(parathyroid hormone and 25OH vitamin D if hy- Table 1 shows the normal values for the excre-
percalciuria is confirmed).4,7,61,62 tion of urine biochemical variables.4,7,66,67 Identifi-
For pediatric patients without urinary sphincter cation of the underlying metabolic cause, adequate
control two random urine samples instead of 24-h treatment with supplements, drugs, changes in
collection are used. Random urine quantification lifestyle and diet mean prevention, and all these
and its proportion per mg of urine creatinine may measures together are assigned as metaphylaxis.
allow the identification of the metabolic abnor- (Table 1).
mality.4,7,61 It is important to remember that urine
creatinine can be used as denominator only in those
with normal muscle mass. Besides creatinine, the TREATMENT
following analytes should be quantified: calcium, The treatment of urolithiasis, namely prevention
citrate, oxalate, sodium, potassium, magnesium, of formation of new stones, consists of long-term
uric acid, phosphate.4,7,61 Qualitative determination non-pharmacological measures (hydration, nutri-
of cystine using the nitroprusside test is acceptable tion, physical activity) and specific measures (phar-
however aminoacids chromatography remains the macological intervention).
gold standard for the diagnosis of cystinuria.
When budget is constrained one can apply a Non-pharmacological intervention
simplified protocol that is capable of detecting Adequate hydration composes the mainstay of
most of the metabolic diagnoses. Two 24-h urine protection against urine supersaturation .4,35,36 It
collections (or two random urine samples when must be ensured by a urinary flow of at least 1.0
24-h collection is not feasible) analyzed for vol- mL/kg/hour to reduce the urinary concentration,
ume, calcium, citrate, magnesium, creatinine, uric but ideally 2.0 to 3.0 mL/kghour. The amount of
acid, sodium and potassium; and one venous blood liquid intake should be distributed throughout the
sample analysed for creatinine, calcium, phospho- day for constant urinary flow maintenance.7 About
rus, uric acid, magnesium, sodium, chloride, po- half of net quantity must be water and the other
tassium, bicarbonate, will detect the majority of half, can be chosen by the patient (juices, teas, etc.).
metabolic abnormalities. The rationale for using Beverage constituents should be monitored because
this simplified protocol is justified by our study, the relationship of soda based beverages and uro-
where we found that in order to find other etiol- lithiasis is yet controversial, But a link is possible
ogies that it is necessary to study 74 patients to especially with beverages containing phosphoric
identify one case of secondary/absorptive oxaluria acid.71-73
and 222 patients to identify one case of cystinuria, For children, severe dietary restrictions are con-
at very high costs.4 traindicated. First because they can hinder adher-
When a stone is available, clinicians should ence to treatment; second, because they can lead to
obtain a stone analysis at least once.64 Knowledge nutritional deficiencies that may be more significant
of stone composition will oriente the physician to- than the urolithiasis per se (like reduced bone miner-
8 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22
al density, height and weight loss, multiple vitamin um, calcium, proteins and calories. The ideal daily
deficiency, etc.). The diet should be corrected and intake of sodium varies according to age: 1.2 g for
appropriate to the child or adolescent’s needs, and 4-8 years old children, 1.5 g for those aged 9-18
contain no less than the RDA for sodium, potassi- years. The corresponding upper limits are 1.9 g and
Table 1. Normal values for 24-h urine and random urine in children and adolescents4,7,38,67,68
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22 9
2.3 g respectively, above which health risk may be organic sulfur in aminoacids to sulfate, leading to
attributable.74 For population at risk (CKD, Hyper- increased excretion of net acid and calcium. The in-
tension, Diabetes) the daily sodium intake should crease in net acid production inhibits renal tubular
be less then 1.5 g. However, more then 88% con- calcium reabsorption. Studies in mice have shown
sume more than the recommended.75 Penido et that induction of acidosis leads to decreased renal
al showed that health children and adolescents in tubular expression of the distal tubular apical cal-
southeast Brazil ingested much more sodium that cium channel TRPV5. Mice in which the TRPV5
the RDA.67 Higher ingestion of sodium-containing gene was inactivated did not have an increase in
food is associated with increased natriuria, which calcium excretion with acidosis.80,81 Penido et al
can cause hypercalciuria, a stone predisposing con- compared pediatric hypercalciuric patients with
dition.76 It is important to note that the elaboration controls and observed that urinary and blood uric
of guidelines for the sodium ingestion is a challenge acid values were significantly higher in patients, sug-
because more then 75% of the consumed sodium gesting higher protein intake, higher production of
comes from restaurants and processed foods. Only acid radicals and higher urinary calcium excretion
5% is added during the preparation of the food at with bone resorption.82 More recently, Ferraro et al
home, and 5% during meals.75 demonstrated the relationship between potassium,
On the other hand, potassium intake is consid- protein, dietary acid load and the risk of incident
ered a protector against the formation of urinary kidney stones. The authors concluded that increased
calculi. Osorio and Alon showed that supplemen- dietary acid loading is associated with an increased
tation with potassium reduced urine calcium. 68 risk of urolithiasis independent of potassium in-
However, it seems that in its alkali form, potassium take, and that diets rich in potassium with reduced
has a more potent effect in decreasing urine calci- animal protein could prevent stone formation.83
um excretion.77 A meta-analysis by Lambert et al Metabolic acidosis causes bone resorption and con-
(2015) showed that supplementation with alkaline sequently, release of calcium from bone.
potassium salts significantly reduced the renal ex- Stone formation is also associated with ingestion
cretion of calcium, as well as reduced markers of of some sugars like sucrose and fructose, vitamins
bone resorption.78 Potassium is mostly provided as (vitamin C), whereas magnesium and phytate may
dairy products, vegetables and fruits. Its optimal provide protection against calculus formation.84
recommendations also vary according to age: 3.8 Human studies have suggested that diets with a
g for 4-8 years old children and 4.5 g for those be- higher intake of vegetables and fruits play a role in
tween 9 and 18 years.74 This is roughly equivalent the prevention of kidney stones. The main under-
to 3 units of fruit a day. Monitoring of adequate lying mechanisms of these dietary plants [Camel-
ingestion of these elements can be achieved through lia sinensis (green tea), Rubus idaeus (raspberry),
determination of urine Na/K ratio, which should Rubia cordifolia (common madder), Petroselinum
be under 2.5.68 crispum (parsley), Punica granatum (pomegranate),
The amount of calcium in the diet is very im- Pistacia lentiscus (mastic), Solanum xanthocarpum
portant and paradoxically there is a greater risk to (yellow-fruit nightshade), Urtica dioica (stinging
form calcium oxalate stones among those who in- nettle), Dolichos biflorus (horse gram), Ammi
gest less calcium.79 As previously mentioned, dietary visnaga (khella), Nigella sativa (black-cumin), Hi-
restriction of the mineral is not recommended be- biscus sabdariffa (roselle), and Origanum vulgare
cause it may result in an increase in urinary oxalate (orégano)] and their isolated phytonutrients in
excretion and thus favor an increased risk for the ag- the management of urolithiasis include diuretic,
gregation of calcium oxalate crystals. In addition, it antispasmodic, and antioxidant activity, as well as
may facilitate the reduction of bone mineral density. an inhibitory effect on crystallization, nucleation,
Another possible dietary intervention is the and aggregation of crystals.85 Beside these dietary
reduction of animal protein intake (such as red plants, phytochemicals (catechin, epicatechin, epi-
meat), because its comsumptiom may raise urinary gallocatechin-3-gallate, diosmin, rutin, quercetin,
calcium excretion7. The metabolism of ingested hyperoside, and curcumin-as antioxidant dietary
protein creates an acid load, due to the oxidation of phyto-phenols) were found to be effective for
10 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22
the prevention of urolithiasis, interfering on the mote calcium phodphate precipitation and calcium
process of stone formation in the urinary tract.85 phosphate stone formation.
Nirumand et al demonstrate the promising role of The drugs most commonly used in children are
dietary plants and phytophenols in the prevention the thiazide diuretics. The thiazides diuretics induce
and management of kidney stones, however, More renal salt and water loss resulting in contraction of
studies are needed.85 the extracellular volume, which triggers a com-
Finally, it is strongly recommended that a nu- pensatory increase in proximal Na+ reabsorption.
tritionist be involved to provide the family with the This enhance the electrochemical gradient, driving
specifics on how to achieve the above nutritional passive Ca2+ transport in the proximal tubule re-
goals. One should keep in mind that nutritional sulting in hypocalciuria.90 However, thiazides should
habits cannot be changed overnight, and a gradual be used only if there is history of fractures, and if
change may be more tolerable and successful.64 improvements in calciuria levels and symptoms were
Pediatric stone formers must have regular exer- not obtained.88,92,93 In more resistand cases, thiazides
cise, since the incidence of stones is directly propor- and K-citate may be combined. This may result in
tional to physical inactivity and obesity (in adults). some increase, but still an insignificant one, in se-
However, we must emphasize the care with fluid re- rum bicarbonate concentration.
placement during and after exercise to protect from Life-long hypercalciuria might be an important
dehydration and consequent urine concentration contributor to diminished bone mass or failure of
and supeersaturation.7 adequate bone mass gain. Reduced bone mineral
density (BMD) with increased bone remodeling
Pharmacological intervention has been described in adult patients with idiopathic
Hypercalciuria hypercalciuria since the 1970’s.94-96 Studies in chil-
The initial approach to hypercalciuric children dren also have shown reduced BMD, but the precise
consists of adequate high fluid intake, low sodium mechanisms of bone loss or failure of adequate bone
diet, the recommended ingestion (RDA) of pro- mass gain remain as yet unknown. The largest accu-
tein, calcium and carbohydrates, and encourage- mulation of bone mass occurs during childhood and
ment of high intake of fruit and vegetable. 74,86,87 adolescence, reaching peak bone mass at the end
When non-pharmacologic intervention is not of the second decade of life.97-99 This accumulation
enough to correct the metabolic abnormalities should occur without interference so an individual
there is an indication to add pharmacotherapy.37 can reach his/her genetic potential of optimal bone
The first line of therapy in pediatric calcium uro- mass. Any continuous and persistent interference
lithiasis consists of potassium citrate (K-citrate: 0.5 may be a determining factor for low BMD, with
to 1.0 mEq / kg / day). The main reason is the fact an increased risk of osteopenia, osteoporosis and
of being considered as a supplement, but studies fractures in adulthood.98,100,101
with more detailed information on its effects in Bone mass acquired during childhood and ado-
the pediatric population are lacking.88 Citrate is lescence is a major determinant of adult bone health.
an inhibitor of stone formation. It complexes with Consequently, investigations on bone metabolism
calcium (limits calcium supersaturation, prevents and the identification of bone abnormalities in
nucleation of calcium oxalate and calcium phos- pediatric patients with hypercalciuria are necessary
phate, prevents crystal agglomeration and growth, to prevent and treat the potential harmful conse-
and may prevent adhesion of calcium oxalate to quences of this metabolic disorder.98,99-102 When
renal epithelial cells and reduces the expression performed, BMD measurements have consistently
of urinary osteopontin), increasing its solubility disclosed decreased z-scores at the lumbar spine and,
and decreasing the concentration of free calcium to a lesser extent, at the femoral neck.82,103-108
in the urine.89 Treatment with potassium citrate is As aforementioned, current recommendations
the first choice in those with hypocitraturia. While for the initial treatment of pediatric hypercalciuria
it may be effective also in patients with hypercal- consist of lifestyle changes and adequate diet.37,87,109
ciuria one should be cognizant about urine pH, When these approaches fail, pharmacological treat-
because rendering the urine too alkaline may pro- ment is indicated,37,87,109 and it was concluded that
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22 11
dietary modifications alone do not improve bone About the correlation between fractures and hy-
mineral density in children with hypercalciuria.110 percalciuria in children and adolescents there is no
In hypercalciuric adults patients with osteopenia strong evidence. Study by Olney et al showed that
treatment with potassium citrate supplementation BMD values were lower for the case subjects with
and/or thiazide diuretics has proved to be effective fractures, compared with the control subjects. The
for controlling urinary calcium excretion and im- authors also showed that case subjects with hyper-
proving reduced BMD.111-114 calciuria had lower BMD z scores, compared with
It is not yet clear whether the effect of thiazides the other case subjects and with the control subjects
on bone mineral density (BMD) in children in with or without hypercalciuria.121
relation to bone accretion and bone resorption is In adult patients with hypercalciuria the use of
important or not. Meanwhile, studies in vitro have thiazides still remains a prevalent option of drug
suggested that thiazides reduce osteoclastic activi- treatment. A randomized controlled trial pointed
ty, stimulate osteoblast differentiation and bone to beneficial effects of citrate use in adults with
mineral formation.115,116 Studies by Reusz et al and idiopathic recurrent calcium oxalate urolithiasis.122
Schwaderer et al demonstrated the beneficial effects Improvement of bone mineral density was also de-
of thiazides and/or potassium citrate on bone min- scribed by Pak et al in adults with calcium oxalate
eral density in children with idiopathic hypercalci- stones after long-term use of potassium citrate.123
uria.116,117 In 2012, Penido & Tavares demonstrated Modifications regarding increased urine pH as well
an improvement of bone mineral density Z-score as citrate and potassium levels were described during
in pediatric hypercalciuric patients after treatment treatment. In hypercalciuric osteopenic adults, both
with potassium citrate and thiazides, suggesting a thiazide diuretics and potassium citrate were previ-
beneficial effect and potential need for treatment.118 ously demonstrated to be effective in simultaneous-
The group showed a significantly increased in the ly reversing hypercalciuria and improving reduced
BMD z-score of the lumbar spine (L1 - L4) after BMD.124,125
treatment of the hypercalciuric children and ado- Hypercalciuric patients have a dysregulation of
lescents with thiazides and K-citrate. The authors their calcium homeostasis and various mechanisms
speculate a beneficial effect on bone mass and if have been proposed to explain this alterations,
the steady-state positive calcium balance could im- including decreased gut calcium absorption, in-
pact on the achievement of the optimal peak bone creased bone resorption, decreased renal calcium
mass.118 In 2008, Freundlich & Alon evaluated the reabsorption, or any combination of the above, due
effect of treatment with bisphosphonates in seven to either genetic or environmental effects.117,126,127
patients ages 10–16 years with persistent idiopathic Reduced renal phosphate reabsorption also was
hypercalciuria and reduced BMD. They concluded proposed to be a cause of hypercalciuria in calcium
that the treatment with bisphosphonate normalized stone formers. Studies have provided evidence that
urine calcium excretion, eliminated urinary symp- some of hypercalciuric stone formers have signifi-
toms, and the patients had a significantly improved cantly lower threshold of tubular reabsorption of
in reduced BMD. The authors postulated that the phosphate (TP/GFR) and serum phosphorus levels
bisphosphonates could be a potential new tool in than normal individuals, in the face of normal para-
treating children with idiopathic hypercalciuria and thyroid hormone levels.126,128,129 The hypophospha-
reduced BMD.119 temia stimulates 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D production
A current concern is that life-long hypercalciuria and consequently hypercalciuria.
might be considered to be a risk factor for changes However, the cause for the altered tubular phos-
in bone structure and determination of low bone phate reabsorption is not known. The prevalence
mass and density throughout life. Recently, Pavlou of a renal phosphate leak, i.e., hypophosphatemia
et al, questioning whether idiopathic hypercalciuria with inappropriately low renal tubular phosphate
could affect bone metabolism during childhood reabsortion, has been reported to be as high as 53%
concluded that children with this alteration had bio- in recurrent stone formers, but is also present in
chemical markers compatible with normal bone for- healthy individuals.129-131 However, the evidence
mation but they had increased bone resorption.120 supporting such a mechanism has been inconclu-
12 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22
sive. With the exception of one study,129 no dif- sium and citrate, it has some undesirable effects as: it
erences in urinary calcium or 1,25(OH)2 vitamin does not lower calcium excretion, it modestly raises
D where detected in some stone formers with or oxalate excretion, and the increase in caloric intake
without renal phosphate leak.131,132 could lead to weight gain.138 By comparison, lemon
It was suggested that variations in the klotho-fi- juice has been proposed to be an effective source of
broblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) axis could medi- citrate for patients that were either noncompliant or
ate alterations in phosphate handling by the kidney intolerant of conventional citrate replacement thera-
and thus play a role in hypercalciuria, and indeed a py.139 Active therapy also decreased urinary calcium
few studies in adult calcium stone formers reported excretion and did not alter urinary oxalate excretion.
some patients with higher FGF23 levels.128,132,133 However, other citrate-containing low calorie bever-
In 2017, Penido et al also found no difference in ages do not appear to be therapeutically useful.140,141
plasma FGF23 levels between hypercalciuric and Contrary to popular belief, cranberry juice does not
control children. Pharmacologically treated patients seem to increase urinary citrate levels, probabily due
had significantly lower urine calcium excretion rate, the low potassium content.142
lower plasma FGF23 levels, and elevated TP/GFR The Initial dose of K-citrate for children is
and serum phosphate without significant changes 0.5-1.0 mEq/kg divided to two/three times a day
in serum PTH values.134 Recently (2019), Dhayat in order to increase iurinary levels to a minimum of
et al also found that the renal phosphate handling 180 mg/g creatinine, as described in Table 1.67,68 It
is not correlated to FGF23 levels. Furthermore, a is important though to prevent the urine pH from
low TmP/GFR (i.e. a renal phosphate leak) is as- becoming too alkaline thus promoting formation
sociated with higher urinary calcium excretion.135 of calcium phosphate stones and a pH meter rather
A better understanding of bone metabolism, the than a dipstick should be used when one is assessing
renal phosphate handling, and the identification urine pH.143 Urinary acidity should be monitored
of abnormalities in children and adolescents with and should not exceed 6.5. An important side effect
idiopathic hypercalciuria need to be considered in of citrate is stomach pain, which can sometimes dis-
order to prevent potential harmful consequences of rupt the treatment adherence.136 Increased ingestion
this metabolic disorder. of citrus (i.e., orange and lemon juices) may modify
the profile of citrate excretion, acting as an alterna-
Hypocitraturia tive to citrate preparations.136
Hypocitraturia is a risk factor for kidney stones There is a growing interest in recent years in the
and it is the second single abnormality found in bone–stone connection. Citrate therapy has been
pediatric stone formers. Initial approach to hypoc- shown to decrease recurrence of new stones and
itraturia consists of dietary recommendations with growth of residual stone fragments in stone-form-
the goal to increase urinary citrate excretion. This is ing children with hypocitraturia.144,145 Caudarela &
due to the fact that urinary citrate inhibits stone for- Vescini suggested a protective role of alkali citrate
mation by forming a soluble complex with calcium, in preserving bone mass in stone formers as well as
thus resulting in a reduction of available calcium for in healthy subjects with bone loss.146 The proposed
binding with oxalate or phosphate. Citrate excretion mechanisms for this preservation were the induction
can be enhanced by alkalinizing the plasma by the of hypocalciuria, a sustained stimulation of osteo-
administration of potassium citrate. Others citrate blast activity, and attenuating the skeletal effect of
formulations can be used, however the choice of po- acid load provided by a high protein diet.146 In 2006,
tassium citrate over the sodium-based preparations Penido et al evaluated 88 children and adolescentes
is warranted because the sodium load may increase with idiopathic hypercalciuria. They divided them
with calcium excretion, thus decreasing the impact into groups: G1 patients with hypercalciuria com-
of urine citrate increase.136 In a meta-analysis of four bined with hypocitraturia, G2 those without hypoc-
trials of citrate therapy compared with placebo or itraturia and G3 controls. Although the age was not
no treatment, citrate significantly reduced the inci- different, G1 had weight, height, BMI and bone age
dence of stone recurrence.137 lower than G2 and G3 controls. They also had BMC,
Although orange juice is a good source of potas- areal BMD, volumetric BMD and lumbar spine and
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22 13
femoral neck z-score lower than G2 and G3 controls, hypothesised since the discovery of the oxalate-de-
suggesting that citrate could play a role in the patho- grading activity of Oxalobacter formigenes.151 A novel
genesis of metabolic bone diseases.147 approach to the treatment of hyperoxaluria might
be achieved with oral intestinal colonization with
Hyperoxaluria Oxalobacter formigenes. Studies with a naturally oc-
Increased urinary levels of oxalate may be due to curring bacterium, Oxalobacter formigenes, showed
primary or secondary hyperoxaluria. As for primary an inverse association with the presence of calcium
hyperoxaluria, different enzymatic defects lead to oxalate stones. The degradation of intestinal oxa-
classification of this genetic entity into three forms, late acts sinergystically with the colonic secretion,
namely primary hyperoxaluria I (PH1), II (PH2) reducing blood and urine oxalate levels.152-154 While
and III (PH3). They are a rare autosomal recessive animal studies have provided compelling evidence
genetic disorders of the oxalate synthesis. Deficient that colonization of the intestine with this bacteria
production of the enzyme alanine-glyoxylate ami- reduces urinary oxalate excretion and lowers the
notransferase (AGT) by the liver is responsible for risk of forming calcium oxalate kidney stones155,156,
the more serious form of the illness (PH1). Hepato- recent human studies did not acheive the same re-
cytic peroxisomes are dysfunctional and glyoxalate sults.157,158
metabolism is impaired. Consequently, there is an As aforementionaded, absorptive hyperoxaluria
increased synthesis of oxalate. The PHII and III may be idiopathic or secondary to malabsorptive
types are due to other enzymatic deficiencies and disorders (small bowel resection, fat malabsorption,
are somewhat less severe than a PHI.136 Secondary chronic diarrhea and pancreatic insufficiency). In
hyperoxaluria can result from enteric hyperoxaluria, these conditions the absorption of ingested oxalate
in which malabsorptive disorders such as small bow- is increased and consequently its renal excretion.
el resection, pancreatic insufficiency or bariatric sur- Restriction of dietary oxalate intake is primordial
gery lead to increased absorption and renal excretion and supplemental calcium is given to compensate
of ingested oxalate.136 for calcium captured by the unabsorbed fat and
The traditional treatment of primary hyperox- therefore not available to bind oxalate.66,136 I those
aluria includes high fluid intake, thiazide diuretics, with metabolic acidosis it is important to correct it.
magnesium oxide, citrate and pyrophosphates. Di- Another situation (rare in children and adolescents)
etary oxalate has minimal effect, however, it may that may lead to a similar physiological behavior of
make sense for the patients to avoid of high oxalate the gut is bariatric surgery.
foods (spinach, rhubarb, brown rice, berries, dark
teas). Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is a cofactor of AGT Uric acid stones
and its supplementation in patients homoygous for A combination of low urine output, hyperuricos-
the G170R mutation in pharmacological doses uria and abnormally reduced urine pH leads to uric
starting at 5 mg/kg/24h may achieve a reduction of acid stone formation. Of detrimental importance in
urinary oxalate levels . PH2 is linked to glyoxylate uric acid precipitation is low urine pH. Studies in
reductase/hydroxypyruvate reductase defficiency. adult patients showed a relationship between over-
PH3 is a more benign form of the disease and is weight/obesity and uric acid stone formation. This
caused by mutations in the 4-hydroxy-2-oxoglu- finding is attribuited to insulin resistance causing
tarate aldolase 1.148,149 In those not reponding to decreased ammonia production in the renal tubules,
medican therapy and demonstrating deterioration hence a greater number of un-bound free hydrogen
in kidney function (usually those with PH I), at ions, resulting in continuosly highly luminal acid-
times to to end-stage renal disease136 the liver-kidney ic urine, favoring the precipitation of uric acid and
or sequential liver and kidney transplantation are stone formation.4,136 Data in children and adolescents
the best next option.150 Discussions regarding the regarding this association are limited and incon-
most appropriate timing and sequence of transplan- clusive.4,12,20,21,159 Penido et al in 2012 showed that
tation still remains open. the Incidence of obesity was not higher than in the
The involvement of the gut microbiota in the general population.4 Two years late, the same group
pathogenesis of calcium oxalate urolithiasis has been compared American and Brazilian children with kid-
14 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22
ney stones and concluded that Brazilian children were Cystine stones
leaner but in no population did obesity rate exceed Cystinuria is an inherited autosomal recessive
that of the general population.20 Recently, Murphy disease that affects the proximal renal tubular reab-
et al demonstrated in obese pediatric population that sorption of cystine, a homodimer of the amino acid
stone composition is not associated with BMI status cysteine.It is characterized by high concentrations
or stone recurrence.21 of the amino acid cysteine in the urine, leading to
Urine alkalinization is the pillar of treatment. the formation of cystine stones in the kidneys, ure-
While there are no randomized trials that have ter, and bladder. Patients with cystinuria have im-
evaluated the efficacy of urinary alkalinization on pairment of renal cystine transport, with decreased
recurrence or dissolution of uric acid stones a few ob- proximal tubular reabsorption of filtered cystine
servational studies showed that alkalinization is effec- resulting in increased urinary cystine excretion and
tive. Among 18 patients the incidence of new stone cystine urolithiasis.163 The cystine transporter also
formation was reduced from 1.2 to 0.01 stones per promotes the reabsorption of dibasic amino acids,
patient per year with long-term treatment with po- including ornithine, arginine, and lysine, but these
tassium citrate.160 Alkalinization can at time also compounds are soluble so that an increase in their
dissolve existing uric acid calculi, as demonstrated urinary excretion does not lead to stones. Intestinal
in eight patients with recurrent uric acid stones who cystine transport is also diminished, but the result is
underwent serial ultrasound examinations after initi- of uncertain clinical significance. Cystinuria would
ating potassium citrate or potassium bicarbonate.161 not be a problem except for its relative insolubility
Potassium citrate preparations are preferred due in urine at physiological pH levels. Cystine solubil-
to a possible increased calcium excretion secondary ity is highly pH-dependent because it substantially
to sodium load in sodium citrate. The initial dose of increases as the urine becomes increasingly alkaline.
potassium citrate is 0.5 to 1.5 mEq/kg per day and Cystine solubility is also affected by urinary macro-
urine pH should be between 6.0-6.5. Dietary pu- molecules and ions, both of which increase cystine’s
rine restriction is also indicated (seafood, small fish solubility.164,165
- especially sardines, anchovies, beans, peas, chicken Cystinuria accounts for the 2% to 4% of chil-
liver, heart, guts) when urinary urate excretion is dren with kidney stones in developed countries, and
high. However, restriction of dietary purine is of a greater incidence may be encountered in areas en-
limited value in children due to the fact that their demic for consanguinity. Penido et al described only
diet includes only small amounts of purine-rich one patient with cystinuria in their sample of 222
foods. Concomitant dietary sodium restriction pediatric patients at the Midwestern of the United
may decrease uric acid and calcium excretion and States.4 Recently, Issler et al presented a larger co-
reduce the risk of recurrent stone formation. When hort of paediatric stone at a developed single center
the hyperuricosuria is refractory to these measures, and they showed 2% of cystinuria.166
attempt with xantine oxidase inhibitors, e.g., al- Cytinuria is reflected in the urine sediment in
lopurinol may be tried. The dose is 50 mg daily characteristic hexagonal crystal which are pathog-
for children younger than 10 years and 100 mg for nomonic (Figure 1) Patients, especially younger
older patients.7,136 Nevertheleass, chronic adminis- individuals, who do not have a stone available for
tration of a xanthine oxidase inhibitor is generally analysis and in whom cystine crystals are not visu-
reserved for patients (most often with hyperuricos- alized in the urine can be screened for urine cystine
uria) who continue to form uric acid stones despite using the cyanide-nitroprusside test. A positive cya-
alkali therapy and increased fluid intake.162 One nide-nitroprusside screen indicates a urinary cystine
should keep in mind that treatment with allopuri- concentration >75 mg/L. A negative test generally
nol may result in excessive formation of xanthines excludes the diagnosis of cystinuria.167
and consequently such stones. In the same way, the The appropriate management of cystinuria is
existence of stones made of both uric acid and cal- often challenging and requires close follow-up of
cium can ocurr and in such cases, potassium citrate the patient.168 Healthy individuals excrete fewer
would be the first line of treatment, while thiazides than 30 mg of cystine per day, whereas homozy-
and allopurinol can be used, if indicated.66 gote patients excrete between 400 mg and 3,000 mg
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22 15
day. Cystine should stay in a urine suspension with cine_alpha-MPG). The resulted compounds are
particular conditions: its concentration under 250 50-times more soluble than cystine itself. The use
mg/L and high urine pH (see below). There is thus of D-penicillamine must be judicious, regarding
an apparent correlation between urine volume and its potential side effects, such as its anti-pyridoxine
cystine concentration: in order to excrete 750 mg effect.169 If needed to be used long-term, it should
of cystine, 3 L of urine output are necessary. Fluid be supplemented with pyridoxine (vitamin B6),
intake must be constant and well distributed along 25–50 mg/day. Despite the better availability of
the day and night, which means that the patient D-penicillamine, tiopronin carries a better profile
should have significant fluid intake before retiring regarding incidence as well as severity of adverse
to bed and, ideally, also at least one additional in- reactions. Conflicting results with ACE-inhibitors
take during sleeping hours (fruit juice, vegetable (Captopril), which is a sulfhydryl agent, were re-
juice, other drinks and at least, 50% total fluid ported. The potential hypotensive effect of this drug
intake should be water). Urine pH should be kept resulted in its indication as “rescue therapy”, where
between 7.0 and 7.5 for which potassium citrate in other measures failed.66
the dose of 1.0-3.0 mEq/kg/24h is recommended.66 The development of new techniques allowed
For the purpose of urine alkalinization one may the conceivement of future alternative treatments
also consider the use of acetazolamide, however, the for cystinuria. Inhibition of the cystine transport-
use of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors always carries er and of the cystine crystal growth (L-cystine di-
the risk of too alkaline urine associated with hypoc- methyl ester_L-CDME) are promising measures to
itraturia, which may result in formation of calci- prevent cystine stone growth.170-172 They appear to
um phosphate stones. Urinary excretion of cystine be effective even at low concentrations, improving
correlates with dietary sodium intake, thus, a diet the safety profile of this sort of treatment. Rare-
low in sodium is also recommended as well as me- ly, patients with multiple renal stones progress to
tionine-restriction (broccoli, mushroom, cauliflow- end-stage renal disease. Renal transplantation has
er, potatoes, spinach, corn, avocado, nuts - peanuts, been performed in a limited number of patients and
pistachio, macadamia nuts; tofu, green beans, beans recurrent stone formation does not occur since the
sprouts, dried beans - kidney beans, black beans, new kidney transports cystine normally.173
tempeh, milk and eggs).7,66
In case of stone recurrence despite these mea-
sures, cysteine-binding compounds may be added. CONCLUSIONS
Modification of the chemical structure of cystine In the past few decades pediatric primary uro-
is possible through re-arrangement of disulfide lithiasis has become more frequent. The reason for
bonds with thiol-binding drugs, i.e., D-penicilla- this increase is not completely clear but has been
mine and tiopronin (alpha-mercaptopropionylgly- attributed to changes in climate, nutritional hab-
its and possibly other environmental factors. Most
children with idiopathic stone disease have an un-
Figure 1 derlying metabolic abnormality substantiating the
importance of metabolic evaluation already follow-
ing initial diagnosis of urolithiasis. Identification of
the metabolic abnormality allows for more specific
prescription of non pharmacological and pharmaco-
logical interventions aimed at preventing recurrent
stone formation.
Prevention of recurrent calcium stones is aimed
at decreasing the concentrations of the lithogenic
factors and at increasing the concentrations of in-
hibitors of stone formation. Achieving these goals
may require both dietary modification and the ad-
ministration of appropriate medications. General
16 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22
measures involving adequate fluid intake and dietary 10. Clayton DB, Pope JC. The increasing pediatric stone
modifications are considered general metaphylaxis disease problem. Ther Adv Urol. 2011; 3:3-12.
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sion to end-stage kidney disease. tory characteristics of children with nephrolithiasis.
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13. Tasian GE, Jemielita T, Goldfarb DS et al. Oral
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2011; 76:341-347. is needed? Pediatrics. 2008; 121:890-897.
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22 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):3-22
Marrero y col en el estudio Salt and blood pres- con patología renal, es fundamental reducir el con-
sure in children and adolescents, midió el consumo tenido de sodio dietario con el objetivo de reducir
de sal y la presión arterial en una muestra de 1.658 el volumen extracelular, la resistencia periférica y
niños sanos de 4 a 18 años de edad. Este estudio la presión arterial. Es muy importante para poder
evidenció una correlación positiva entre el aumento prevenir o retardar la progresión de la ERP, generar
de 1 gr de NaCl con un aumento de 0.4 mm Hg en estrategias dirigidas a la corrección de los diferentes
la presión sistólica.10 factores de riesgo de los mecanismos por los cuales
Según estimaciones del Ministerio de Salud de se provoca dicha progresión.
la Nación el consumo promedio de sodio en niños
sanos y adultos en Argentina es de 11,2 g de sal
diarios por persona, esto excede ampliamente las MANEJO DIETOTERÁPICO
recomendaciones dietéticas. Entre 2009 y 2013, Un plan de alimentación hiposódico estric-
según la encuesta nacional de factores de riesgo de to representa un aporte dietario de 1 MEq de
enfermedades no transmisibles (ENFR) disminuyó sodio/100kcal/día, cubriendo Ingesta dietética de
el porcentaje de población que agrega sal a las co- referencia (IDR) recomendado para edad, peso y
midas después de la cocción o al sentarse a la mesa, talla, el cual sólo contempla alimentos con bajo
pasando del 25,3% al 17,3%. La disminución de 3g contenido de sodio. Un plan de alimentación hipo-
de la ingesta diaria de sal en la población evitaría en sódico moderado contempla las IDR de sodio para
nuestro país cerca de 19.000 muertes en los próxi- grupo etáreo, se detallan en la Tabla N°1.
mos 10 años resultando beneficioso para personas
con o sin HTA.11
Sin embargo los alimentos industrializados apor- NIVELES DE
tan un alto contenido en sodio y esto representa
RESTRICCIÓN DE SODIO
aproximadamente el 85 por ciento del consumo de
(Ver Tabla N°2)
sal diario proveniente de fuentes ocultas como con-
En ambos niveles de restricciones se debe cubrir
servantes, enlatados, alimentos procesados etc; solo
la necesidad de calorías para lograr continuar con
un 15 por ciento del sodio consumido proviene de
un patrón de crecimiento y desarrollo normal, per-
la sal agregada al cocinar.6,12
mitiendo alcanzar un peso adecuado para la talla y
En 2013 se realizó en nuestro país un estudio
la edad.
que demostró la viabilidad de reducir el contenido
de sodio de alimentos procesados como parte de la
Iniciativa de reducción de sodio “Menos Sal Más
Vida” del Ministerio de Salud de la Nación. Este MANEJO DEL PLAN DE
estudio reveló que la actual iniciativa para reducir ALIMENTACIÓN HIPOSÓDICO
el consumo de sodio tendrá un impacto sustan- El mismo fue confeccionado a partir de la re-
cial sobre las enfermedades cardiovasculares en los comendación calórica promedio para un niño de
próximos 10 años, previendo una disminución del 7 años en percentil 50 para peso y talla. Tomando
consumo de sodio de 387 a 319 mg/día.11 este valor como punto de referencia se elaboraron
Nuestros pacientes están expuestos a publicida- los niveles de restricción de sodio:
des y oferta de alimentos industrializados con eleva- Los alimentos con bajo contenido en sodio re-
do contenido en sodio. presentan alimentos que aportan hasta 150 mg de
El estudio de Meuleman et al. publicado en sodio por cada 100 gramos de alimento, alimentos
2017 reveló las barreras para cumplir con la restric- con moderado contenido de sodio contienen entre
ción de sodio por parte de los pacientes con ERC, 150-250 mg de sodio por cada 100gramos de ali-
siendo las más significativas, el alto contenido de mento, y los alimentos con alto contenido de sodio
sodio de los alimentos procesados, ausencia de sín- comprenden un aporte mayor a 250 mg de sodio
tomas relacionados a la dieta, y la falta de estrategias por cada 100 gramos de alimento. Con respecto a
y educación por parte de un profesional.13 la selección de agua bajas en sodio el punto de corte
Por todo lo expuesto, especialmente en pacientes contemplado es 40mg/litro. El plan de alimentación
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):23-26 25
Tabla 1
Macarena Gajardo Zuritaa, Gonzalo Mayorga Villoutab, Enrique Álvarez Lirac (†)
K1(H2=O)= K2(H+)(OH-)
a. Becada programa de especialista en Nefrología Pediátrica, Universidad de Chile, Hospital Luis Calvo Mackenna. Santiago,
Chile.
b. Nefrología pediátrica. Complejo asistencial Dr.Víctor Ríos Ruiz. Los Ángeles, Chile.
c. Nefrología pediátrica. Hospital Clínico San Borja Arriarán. Santiago, Chile.
28 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59
Figura 1
tre 12 y 24 horas después. El descenso máximo de con tampones como el fosfato (proceso denominado
pCO2 es de 10-12 mmHg y puede ser menor en en- acidez titulable) o el amonio. El regulador principal
fermedades pulmonares, hipervolemia, alteraciones de la excreción de H+ es el pH extracelular, pero el
del sistema nervioso central e hipoxemia1. volumen circulante efectivo, la aldosterona y la con-
centración de potasio plasmática, también pueden
2. Regulación renal influir de forma independiente3.
Los riñones deben eliminar 50-100 meq de áci- Los riñones, por lo tanto, utilizan diferentes me-
dos no carbónicos generados a diario, por cada H+ canismos para poder eliminar los H+ y manejar el bi-
excretado, se genera un bicarbonato. La eliminación carbonato, los cuales se describirán a continuación 1:
renal de H+ se genera en distintas zonas tubulares
(túbulo proximal, asa gruesa de Henle y colectores), • Mecanismos de
la carga de H+ no se elimina como H + libres, de acidificación proximal y distal:
lo contrario el pH urinario sería incompatible con A nivel proximal se secretan dos tercios de los
las células tubulares, sino que se excreta combinada protones con el intercambiador NHE3 de la mem-
Figura 2. Modificado de 9
Tabla 2
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59 33
Gráfico 1.
Gráfico 3
36 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59
Existen diferentes tipos de trastornos ácido-base, c) Cálculo de compensación: esto define si es tras-
tanto metabólicos como respiratorios o mixtos y torno puro o mixto. La compensación se calcula
frente a cada trastorno se produce una compensa- evaluando si la pCO2 o el bicarbonato han au-
ción fisiológica que intenta llevar el pH hacia la nor- mentado o disminuido de forma simétrica con el
malidad. Usualmente los trastornos puros no logran trastorno primario para lograr compensar, según
normalizar el pH con la compensación fisiológica, la tabla anteriormente señalada.
a diferencia de los trastornos mixtos opuestos que d) Si existe una acidosis metabólica se debe calcular:
logran un pH normal (ejemplo: acidosis metabólica - AG plasmático: define si es una acidosis
con alcalosis respiratoria). Los trastornos mixtos en con por pérdida de bicarbonato (anion gap
el mismo sentido, tendrán valores más severos de normal) o por ganancia de H+ (anion gap
pH. En la Tabla 3 se muestran las compensaciones aumentado)
fisiológicas 7,5. Si el anion gap está aumentado, se debe calcular
además:
Para poder comprender las alteraciones ácido- - Delta AG/Delta Bic: define si existe un tras-
base, es necesario evaluar de forma secuencial los torno mixto de acidosis metabólica.
exámenes, evaluar cuál es el trastorno primario, si Si el anion gap es normal, se debe calcular
la compensación es adecuada, si existen trastornos además:
mixtos y en particular para las acidosis metabólicas, - Anion gap urinario: solo se puede analizar si
determinar a qué tipo corresponden. A continuación existe un sodio urinario mayor a 20 meq/lt
se describe como se realiza este proceso8: y una osmolalidad urinaria normal. El anion
a) Análisis del pH: con esto se define cuál es el tipo gap urinario normal en caso de acidosis me-
de trastorno, acidemia o alcalemia. tabólica es de valor negativo. Un anion gap
b) Análisis del bicarbonato y pCO2: esto es lo que de 0 o positivo en contexto de una acidosis
define si la alteración primaria es metabólica o metabólica, sugiere una alteración en la pro-
respiratoria. Ejemplo: pH bajo con bicarbonato ducción de amonio (acidosis tubular renal).
bajo, corresponde a acidosis metabólica.
Tabla 3
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59 37
ACIDOSIS METABÓLICA
Tabla 4
Figura 7
Tabla 6
Y de forma más simplificada, podemos separarlas metabólicas orgánicas (acidosis láctica y cetoaci-
como se muestra en la Figura 7. dosis), el anión entra a la célula acompañando
También podemos clasificarla según su severi- al H+ y la salida de potasio es menor, el potasio
dad, como se muestra en la Tabla 6 24: aumenta entre 0.1 a 0.2 por cada 0.1 de descen-
so del pH7.
CLÍNICA DE - Sistema neurológico: menor afectación neuro-
ACIDOSIS METABÓLICA lógica que la acidosis respiratoria, ya que dismi-
1. Aguda: nuye menos el pH del líquido cefalorraquídeo 2.
Es inespecífica, compromete diferentes sistemas, - Sistema inmunológico: genera inflamación y
principalmente disminución de la respuesta inmune25.
- Sistema cardiovascular: disminución del gasto Como efecto beneficioso se puede considerar la
cardiaco e hipotensión por disminución de la mayor entrega de oxigeno por disminución de la
resistencia vascular periférica con acidosis mo- afinidad con la hemoglobina, la vasodilatación que
derada. Produce además resistencia a las cateco- aumenta el flujo a tejidos y el incremento del calcio
laminas infundidas y arritmias25. ionizado para aumentar la contractilidad cardiaca
- Sistema respiratorio: hiperpnea evidenciada por cuando el pH está entre 7.2 y 7.3324.
respiración de Kussmaul2.
- Hiperkalemia: la salida de potasio es variable, 2. Crónica:
entre 0.2 y 1.7 meq por cada 0.1 de descenso del No existe tanto compromiso cardiovascular
pH, con promedio de 0.6. Pero en las acidosis como en los casos agudos, pero los pacientes con
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59 39
Gráfico 2
Tabla 7
ayuno. El anion gap debería estar alto, pero puede ro con la alcalinización pasa a su estado ionizado y
estar normal en etapas iniciales por la pérdida de no liposoluble, lo que permite la salida del fármaco
una gran cantidad de cetoácidos por orina 27. Para del cerebro. La segunda parte es la eliminación re-
el tratamiento no se recomienda la administración nal por secreción vía aniones orgánicos del túbulo
de bicarbonato, salvo que pH sea menor a 7.0 25. proximal, la alcalinización de la orina favorece la
excreción, también se puede hemodializar en caso
3. Insuficiencia renal de compromiso del sistema nervioso central seve-
El metabolismo normal de alimentos libera H+ ro o insuficiencia renal. La baja concentración de
y sulfatos que deben ser excretados como amonio glucosa intracerebral también afecta el metabolis-
el primero y el segundo por filtración y reabsorción mo, por lo que requiere administración de glucosa
en el túbulo. La insuficiencia renal afecta todos los adecuada 23,25.
parámetros implicados en la excreción neta de áci-
dos, ya que la excreción total de amonio desciende 5. Ingesta de metanol y etilenglicol
(por el menor número de nefronas funcionales, no El metanol se metaboliza en formaldehido y
por falla tubular), por lo que no pueden excretarse posteriormente en ácido fórmico. La clínica aparece
los H+, por otro lado disminuye la acidez titulable 12-36 horas después de la ingestión, ya que tarda en
y disminuye la reabsorción de bicarbonato. En la acumular los metabolitos. Provoca edema retiniano,
enfermedad renal avanzada, el bicarbonato plasmá- ceguera y muerte. El etilenglicol es un componente
tico cae a valores de 12 a 20 meq/lt, no menores que de disolventes que se metaboliza por la misma enzi-
eso, por el tampón óseo. En casos de bicarbonato ma que el metanol, en metabolitos tóxicos como el
menores a 10 meq/lt hay que descartar hipoaldos- ácido glicólico y oxálico, produce síntomas neuro-
teronismo u otro trastorno asociado 2. El anion gap lógicos, cardiopulmonares e insuficiencia renal por
se encuentra alto, pero en casos de alteración de precipitación de cristales de oxalato y daño tubular
la función tubular, se puede eliminar sulfatos y se por glicolato23.
retiene H+ y cloro para el equilibrio, lo que genera Se puede sospechar la intoxicación por estos
un anion gap normal. El tratamiento es la admi- alcoholes con un gap osmolal alto (>20), asociado
nistración de bicarbonato para impedir la pérdida a una acidosis con anion gap muy elevado, si la
ósea de calcio, impedir el catabolismo muscular y historia clínica no sugiere otra causa como acidosis
el daño túbulo-intersticial que provoca el aumento láctica o cetoacidosis diabética. También se puede
adaptativo de la producción local de NH3 en las realizar la medición de los niveles plasmáticos25. El
nefronas que quedan, lo que genera activación del tratamiento para ambos es la administración de Fo-
complemento y nefritis túbulo intersticial 23. mepizole, bloqueador de la alcohol deshidrogenasa
o etanol por vía oral o endovenosa, para inhibir la
4. Ingesta de salicilatos formación de metabolitos tóxicos mediante la ocu-
El salicilato se une en un 90% a las proteínas, pación de la enzima que metaboliza el metanol en
lo que lo restringe al intravascular, es metaboliza- sus metabolitos, además se utiliza la administración
do a un componente menos tóxico en el hígado y de bicarbonato para la corrección de la acidemia y la
después excretado por el riñón. En caso de intoxi- hemodiálisis en caso de intoxicación severa23.
cación, la unión a proteínas disminuye un 50% y el
fármaco llega a los tejidos 23. El salicilato estimula 6. Pérdidas digestivas
el centro respiratorio y genera una alcalosis respira- Los líquidos intestinales son en general alca-
toria de forma precoz, con alteración neurológica y linos, con una concentración de 50-70 meq/L de
posteriormente acidosis metabólica por alteración de bases como bicarbonato y aniones orgánicos, que
la fosforilación oxidativa y acumulación de ácidos al absorberse se transforman en bicarbonato, por lo
orgánicos como el lactato y cetoácidos 2-6. que la pérdida intestinal puede ocasionar una aci-
Para el tratamiento se utiliza la alcalinización dosis metabólica, sobre todo si existe deshidratación
del plasma, ya que siendo un ácido débil con pKa o nefropatía que evite la excreción de amonio. El
de 3.0 se encuentra normalmente no ionizado, pe- tratamiento es con aporte de bicarbonato según el
42 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59
Gráfico 3
44 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59
Clasificación y patogenia
La acidosis metabólica se genera por pérdida de
bicarbonato. En el estado basal, estos pacientes no
tienen pérdida de bicarbonato, la orina puede acidi- Las ATR proximales pueden clasificarse según lo
ficarse frente a una acidosis con rango de bicarbona- que se muestra en el Gráfico 310:
to más bajo que su umbral, pero frente a un pH más
alto, pierden mucho bicarbonato. Usualmente tie- Formas aisladas
nen hipokalemia asociada de magnitud variable, la • Esporádicas: defecto de tipo transitorio en la
cual se produce por un hiperaldosteronismo persis- infancia, con alteración en la reabsorción renal
tente, que puede aumentar con el tratamiento (30). e intestinal de bicarbonato por inmadurez del
El defecto en cualquiera de los factores implicados túbulo proximal, sin herencia familiar29.
en la reabsorción de bicarbonato, puede generar la • Genéticas: corresponden a defectos permanentes
ATR proximal, estos factores son el intercambiador • Autosómicas recesivas: por mutaciones en el
Na/H luminal, la anhidrasa carbónica luminal, la gen SLC4A4 (12 mutaciones identificadas hasta
bomba Na/K/ATPasa basolateral o el cotransporta- la fecha), que codifica para la proteína transpor-
dor Na/HCO3 (NBCe1) 30. tadora NBCe1 (con sus 5 variantes). Transporta
Tabla 8
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59 45
Gráfico 3
Na/HCO3 en la membrana basolateral. Las va- • Secundaria a drogas y tóxicos: múltiples tóxi-
riantes de NBCe1 están distribuidas en riñón cos pueden generar disfunción proximal30.
y ojo para la tipo A, en múltiples órganos para - Inhibidores anhidrasa carbónica (AC): inhi-
la tipo B y en el cerebro para la tipo C, esto ben la AC tipo IV del túbulo proximal.
definirá también la clínica asociada30. - Ifosfamida: análogo sintético de ciclofosfami-
• Autosómicas dominantes: solo dos casos des- da que actúa como agente alquilante. Genera
critos en la literatura, tienen retraso cognitivo y síndrome de Fanconi en menos del 5% sien-
alteración de la densidad ósea28. do más frecuente en niños. Causa nefrotoxi-
cidad con disminución de clearence.
Formas secundarias - Oxaplatino y cisplatino: inducen ATR proxi-
Corresponde a una acidosis metabólica asociada mal aislada y síndrome de Fanconi.
una disfunción generalizada del túbulo proximal, lo - Antirretrovirales: generan tubulopatía genera-
cual se denomina síndrome de Fanconi. Esto puede lizada con hipofosfatemia, acidosis metabó-
deberse a múltiples patologías tanto genéticas, como lica, fosfaturia, glucosuria y aminoaciduria
metabólicas y tóxicas. La disfunción provoca no so- generalizada.
lo acidosis metabólica por pérdida de bicarbonato, - Topiramato: genera ATR proximal y ATR
sino también pérdida de otros solutos normalmen- distal, por inhibición de AC tipo II.
te reabsorbidos como fosfato, ácido úrico, glucosa, - Aminoglicosidos: la gentamicina puede gene-
aminoácidos, proteínas de bajo peso molecular y rar síndrome de Fanconi.
bicarbonato10. - Metales pesados: plomo, cadmio y mercurio
se asocian a ATR proximal.
• Genética primaria: se genera por una mutación No son frecuentes la nefrocalcinosis ni la litiasis,
del cotransportador NaPiII del túbulo proximal, ya que el pH urinario puede disminuir y no existe
en la membrana apical30. hipocitraturia, la solubilidad fosfato cálcica es nor-
• Por enfermedades sistémicas: la más frecuente mal y el citrato reduce el calcio libre que precipitaría
es secundaria a cistinosis. También puede de- con fosfatos y oxalatos. Existe aumento del calcio
berse a: galactosemia, intolerancia hereditaria urinario, pero también de la reabsorción distal. Las
a la fructosa, tirosinemia, síndrome de Alport, formas asociadas a Fanconi pueden presentar raqui-
Wilson, leucodistrofia metacromática, enfer- tismo por pérdidas de fosfato y carencia de vit D,
medad de cadenas ligeras, amiloidosis, mieloma ya que el túbulo proximal es la principal fuente de
múltiple, entre otros10. calcitriol23.
46 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59
Tabla 9
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59 47
Tabla 10
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59 49
Algoritmo 1. Modificado de 29
Se debe tener presente en los casos de ATR pro- El ajuste del tratamiento debe realizarse hasta la
ximal el estudio de la función tubular para deter- normalización de la citraturia y calciuria, además
minar si existe una condición esporádica o asociada del bicarbonato plasmático10.
a síndrome de Fanconi, para esto se debe solicitar:
Glucosuria aislada, proteinuria tubular, aminoa- • ATR tipo 2: requieren altas dosis de álcali por
ciduria de 24 horas, fosfaturia, calciuria, uricosuria la bicarbonaturia, usualmente 5-15 meq/Kg/día,
En los casos de ATR distal se debe realizar el se recomiendan dosis más altas en la noche y
estudio de nefrocalcinosis con ecografía renovesical, fraccionarlo en el día. Las tiazidas disminuirían
citraturia y calciuria de 24 horas y en los casos de el requerimiento de bicarbonato, al aumentar
ATR tipo 4, el estudio del eje renina, angiotensina, la reabsorción del túbulo proximal y el asa de
aldosterona23. Henle por la reducción del volumen extracelu-
lar, pero puede agravar la hipokalemia30.
Tratamiento
• ATR tipo 1: la dosis de álcali habitualmente es • ATR tipo 4: el tratamiento depende de la causa.
entre 1-3 meq/Kg/día la cual corresponde a la En el caso de hipoaldosteronismos por alteración
generación de H+ endógena. La corrección de adrenal, debe administrarse fludrocortisona.
la acidosis evita las complicaciones asociadas al También es efectivo este tratamiento en hipoal-
crecimiento y la nefrocalcinosis. El citrato es útil dosteronismos hiporreninémicos en combina-
ya que se convierte en bicarbonato en el hígado ción con furosemida, para reducir el aumento
por ciclo de Krebs y permite el tratamiento de la de volumen extracelular. Pueden requerir suple-
hipocitraturia e hipercalciuria al mismo tiempo. mentos de álcali en bajas dosis 29.
50 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59
ALCALOSIS METABÓLICA
La alcalosis metabólica corresponde a un estado duce reabsorción distal de sodio con gradiente
ácido base con elevación del pH, elevación del bicar- que induce pérdida de H+ y potasio.
bonato y acidosis respiratoria compensatoria 6. Tal • Depleción de cloro: el cloro es el factor determi-
como se indicó en capítulos anteriores, la elevación nante para la acción de la bomba NKCC2, si
aislada de bicarbonato usualmente no permite hacer ésta falla, la llegada de sodio a la mácula densa
diagnóstico de alcalosis metabólica, salvo que este determina la liberación de renina, angiotensina
sea mayor a 40 meq/lt, ya que las compensaciones y aldosterona.
no producen bicarbonatos de valores tan altos 32. • Hipokalemia: fomenta la secreción distal de H+
por las bombas H/K/ATPasa y H/ATPasa, ade-
Patogenia más aumenta la excreción de amonio al ocupar
Para que se produzca una alcalosis metabólica, el intercambiador que utiliza a nivel distal.
necesitamos ciertos factores que la generen y otros
que la mantengan.33 Transportadores implicados
Los siguientes transportadores están implicados
Generación de alcalosis metabólica: en la regulación de H+, sodio y bicarbonato (Tabla
En términos generales, la alcalosis metabólica 11), por lo que la alteración en ellos puede generar
se produce cuando hay pérdida de H+, ingreso de alcalosis metabólica.
bicarbonato o pérdida de volumen baja en bicarbo-
nato y alta en cloro, con o sin H+.34 Clasificación según patogenia
Existirían 3 procesos patológicos para la genera-
Mantenimiento de alcalosis metabólica ción de alcalosis. En términos generales la alcalosis
Usualmente el organismo puede eliminar el se produciría por aumento de ingesta de álcali aso-
exceso de bicarbonato, por lo que solo se puede ge- ciado a un factor que mantenga el estímulo (deple-
nerar alcalosis cuando existe una secreción alterada ción de volumen o cloro, falla renal o hipokalemia
de bicarbonato, por una reducción en la función previa) o por la estimulación del transporte de iones
renal o por un aumento de la reabsorción tubular del túbulo colector, que puede ser por mayor llegada
de bicarbonato32: de sodio o flujo distal (estimulación secundaria) o
• Depleción de volumen: frente a pérdida de vo- por estimulación directa de los transportadores lo-
lumen sin bicarbonato, la reabsorción de sodio calizados en esa zona (estimulación primaria), como
produce reabsorción de bicarbonato concomi- se observa en la Figura 10. 35
tante, además se libera angiotensina II que in-
Tabla 11
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59 51
Figura 10
Algoritmo 2. Modificado de 36
52 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59
5. Deficiencia de 11b-hidroxiesteroide
deshidrogenasa
Corresponden a mutaciones inactivantes de he-
rencia autosómica recesiva de la enzima que degrada
el cortisol a cortisona para evitar la unión del corti-
sol al receptor de mineralocorticoides en el túbulo
colector. La estimulación continua del túbulo por el
cortisol produce poliuria, polidipsia, retraso del cre-
cimiento desde periodo intrauterino, hipertensión,
hipokalemia, alcalosis metabólica, hiporreninemia e
hipoaldosteronismo 39-40.
6. Síndrome de Bartter
Entidad heterogénea causada por mutaciones de
varios genes que codifican para transportadores de
sodio de la nefrona distal. La herencia es autosó-
mica recesiva con inactivación o disminución de la En el síndrome de Bartter, el defecto de los
función de los transportadores NKCC, ROMK o transportadores se traduce en natriuresis y pérdi-
del canal basolateral de cloro ClC-Kb, siendo la ma- da de volumen. El aumento de sodio distal genera
yoría de las mutaciones esporádicas, pero también alcalosis metabólica e hipokalemia por el estímulo
de herencia recesiva familiar 41. La consecuencia que produce el gradiente de sodio 41. Además, la
es una pérdida de sodio, volumen, activación del natriuresis genera un gradiente transcelular de cloro
sistema renina, angiotensina, aldosterona, alcalosis y estrés tubular por flujo, lo que produce una sobre-
metabólica crónica por pérdida de ácidos no volá- producción de prostaglandina E vasodilatadora (ge-
tiles e incapacidad para excretar bicarbonato por nerada de forma desproporcionada por la ciclooxige-
hipovolemia, hipokalemia e hipocloremia 42. La nasa 2 en la mácula densa) y pérdida urinaria de ella;
prevalencia de esta condición es de 1 en 1.000.000 a largo plazo la hipersecreción de esta prostaglandi-
de habitantes 43. na sería un factor agravante ya que contribuye a los
trastornos electrolíticos 44. Por último la capacidad
Fisiopatología de concentración urinaria está un poco alterada por
El funcionamiento normal del asa de Henle la mala función de la bomba NKCC2. Dentro de las
involucra el uso de la bomba Na/K/ATPasa que ge- manifestaciones secundarias, la presión arterial en
nera el gradiente para que la bomba NKCC2 ingrese general es normal/baja, a pesar de la hiperreninemia
de forma electroneutral los iones sodio, potasio y y el hiperaldosteronismo con hiperplasia del aparato
cloro. El potasio se recicla vía ROMK, lo que genera yuxtaglomerular 43. Existe hipercalciuria por pérdida
un gradiente positivo eléctrico para que por vía pa- del gradiente eléctrico normal del asa de Henle y por
racelular ingrese sodio, calcio y magnesio y se vuelva lo tanto, del transporte paracelular 45. Usualmente
a utilizar el potasio en la bomba NKCC2. Existen asociado a nefrocalcinosis. La pérdida de magnesio
además, canales de cloro basolaterales que ayudan es pequeña, probablemente debido a que se mitiga
a la reabsorción de cloro, siendo el más importante por la pérdida alta de sodio y el hiperaldosteronis-
el ClC-Kb, pero también existe el canal ClC-Ka; mo que estimulan la reabsorción de magnesio en el
ambos requieren la proteína bartina para su correc- túbulo distal. La VFG está conservada, excepto en
to funcionamiento 43,12. La Figura 11 muestra una la mutación del gen de la Bartina (tipo 4) o en casos
célula del asa de Henle gruesa. con nefrocalcinosis 46.
54 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59
Figura 12. Modificado de 12 dratación al nacer, sobre todo en los tipos I y II.
Además de alcalosis metabólica e hipercalciuria con
nefrocalcinosis. En el tipo II usualmente se observa
hiperkalemia inicial y posteriormente hipokalemia.
Los tipos IV y IVb tienen como característica, hi-
poacusia 43.
También existe una segunda forma de clasifica- antes de las 32 semanas para no generar el cierre
ción según su fisiopatología y respuesta a diuréticos prematuro del ductus 43.
(Tabla 13), la cual las agrupa en alteraciones del asa • Postnatal: este tratamiento está destinado a evi-
de Henle (más severas), túbulo distal y mixtas. Esta tar el aumento del eje renina angiotensina aldos-
clasificación homologa la clínica al efecto que tienen terona, prostaglandinas y a corregir el déficit de
los diuréticos en los diferentes canales involucrados volumen y electrolitos, para esto se recomienda
y por lo tanto, a la falta de acción del diurético en la una ingesta de sodio y agua según lo deseado,
patología en la cual el canal está alterado 44-45. asociado a fármacos
- Inhibidores de la síntesis de prostaglandinas:
Diagnóstico se puede utilizar indometacina en dosis de
La sospecha diagnóstica con la clínica descrita 2-5 mg/Kg/día. En el Bartter tipo 2 la dosis
y se pueden realizar estudios genéticos de los ge- requerida es más baja, usualmente de 1 mg/
nes implicados para confirmar la entidad, ya que Kg/día. Deben evaluarse reacciones adversas
puede ser difícil el diagnóstico diferencial con el gastrointestinales y de todas formas existe
síndrome de Gitelman (ver a continuación). En riesgo de progresión a enfermedad renal
los casos prenatales se puede realizar la medición crónica 47.
de cloro urinario en líquido amniótico para hacer - Fármacos que bloquean el intercambio de so-
diagnóstico diferencial con otras entidades que dio y potasio distal: espironolactona, eplere-
ocasionan polihidroamnios. Un valor sobre los nona o amiloride en altas dosis para aumen-
109 meq/lt a las 25 semanas y 107 meq/L a las tar el potasio, el magnesio (parcialmente)
37 semanas es concordante con Sd Bartter o clo- y revertir la alcalosis metabólica 43. Pueden
rurorrea congénita 43. utilizarse también IECA o ARA II en dosis
bajas iniciales (por riesgo de hipotensión), ya
Tratamiento del síndrome de Bartter que disminuyen el hiperaldosteronismo y por
• Prenatal: debe tratarse desde la semana 31 con lo tanto mejoran parcialmente hipokalemia e
AINES para inhibir la tasa de producción de lí- hipomagnesemia, además de suplementos de
quido amniótico. Se debe evitar el tratamiento cloruro de potasio42.
- Tiazidas para reducir hipercalciuria y nefro- se produce por una hiperpolarización de la célula
calcinosis, precaución con hipokalemia42. tubular, causada por la falta de ingreso de cloruro
- Trasplante renal: corrige alteración. Se reali- de sodio, pero con persistencia de salida de cloro, lo
za en casos de enfermedad renal crónica por que promueve la entrada de calcio por los canales
nefrocalcinosis y se ha realizado en Bartter voltaje dependiente. La falta de sodio intracelular
severo neonatal con nefrectomía bilateral 43. promueve el intercambio con calcio por la mem-
brana basolateral 35. La hipomagnesemia severa se
7. Síndrome Gitelman produce principalmente por la hipokalemia que in-
Es causado por mutaciones inactivantes bialé- hibe la reabsorción de magnesio en túbulo colector
licas (>350 mutaciones) en el gen SLC12A3 que 41
. La hipomagnesemia crónica aumenta la solubi-
codifica para el cotransportador de sodio y cloro lidad de los cristales de pirofosfato de calcio lo que
(NCC) en el túbulo distal, esto genera un transpor- puede producir condrocalcinosis en articulaciones
te inadecuado intracelular 43 y aumento del sodio y escleras en adultos. Estos pacientes tienen pérdida
distal con hiperaldosteronismo secundario (Figura de sodio, lo que genera hipovolemia y presión baja,
13). Es un defecto autosómico recesivo, considerado pero es menor que en el síndrome de Bartter, por lo
la tubulopatía hereditaria más frecuente, con una que no se estimula la liberación de prostaglandina
prevalencia de 1-10 por 40.000 personas 41-48. E2 y casi el 50% puede presentar hipertensión a lar-
go plazo, se cree debido a la exposición prolongada
Figura 13 a niveles altos de renina y aldosterona 43.
En resumen la clínica de estos pacientes invo-
lucra hipotensión, aumento de actividad de renina
y aldosterona, pérdida de potasio y magnesio uri-
naria con hipokalemia, hipomagnesemia e hipo-
calciuria 41.
Diagnóstico
Frente a una clínica de hipokalemia e hipomag-
nesemia con alcalosis metabólica, se debe sospechar
esta entidad. El diagnóstico diferencial con el sín-
drome de Bartter puede ser difícil, ya que en oca-
siones algunos fenotipos pueden ser híbridos, sobre
todo en relación al Bartter con mutaciones ClC-Kb.
La respuesta a diuréticos no está recomendada como
test diagnóstico por los efectos adversos que pueden
presentar (hidroelectrolíticos), se pueden utilizar por
lo tanto la medición de calciuria, que se encuentra
disminuida en el Gitelman y los test genéticos con
Patogenia y clínica búsqueda de al menos mutaciones en los genes SL-
Las alteraciones encontradas son similares a lo C12A3, CLCNKB y HNF1B 43.
que causa la administración de tiazidas. Presentan
alcalosis metabólica como los Bartter, pero las ma- Tratamiento
nifestaciones más significativas son por hipokalemia En esta condición se recomienda, al igual que
e hipomagnesemia, teniendo una clínica más leve en el síndrome de Bartter, una ingesta de sodio y
aquellos pacientes heterocigotos. Hasta un 10% agua según lo deseado. Se requieren suplementos
debuta con tetania, muchos presentan calambres y de cloruro de potasio y magnesio en altas dosis por
el 50 a 80% presenta nicturia y poliuria por hipoka- las pérdidas urinarias. Se pueden utilizar como co-
lemia crónica, pero no por alteración del mecanis- adyuvantes los diuréticos ahorradores de potasio
mo de concentración urinaria 43. La hipocalciuria como amiloride o espironolactona en dosis bajas
58 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):27-59
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60 Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):60-64
REGLAMENTO DE PUBLICACIONES
Cuando se publiquen métodos poco conocidos pueden ser ofrecidos en su caso, y claramente iden-
se debe proporcionar una breve descripción. Cuan- tificados como tales.
do los métodos son nuevos, o los métodos anteriores Esta sección termina con conclusiones obtenidas
se modifican, deben incluirse descripciones precisas, por los autores a partir de la experiencia.
con la justificación de su uso y la explicación de las
limitaciones. 3.6. Agradecimientos
Cuando los experimentos se llevan a cabo en Sólo las personas e instituciones que aportaron
seres humanos o animales, es fundamental que se importantes contribuciones al trabajo pueden ser
haga una declaración de que el proceso se revisará acusados.
en función de la Declaración de Helsinki (1975)
por una “ad hoc” Comité de Ética de la institución 3.7. Referencias
donde se realizó la investigación. El Consentimiento Las citas deben aparecer en el orden mencionado
informado es imprescindible debiendo agregarse una en el texto, las referencias deben ser identificados en
copia junto con la carta de aceptación del Comite el texto con números arábigos entre paréntesis, colo-
de Ética. cado al final del párrafo en el que se alude a. Deben
Todos los fármacos y compuestos químicos ser numeradas Las referencias en cuadros o gráficos
deben ser identificados por su nombre genérico, deben ser colocadas en el primer lugar en el que
dosis y forma de administración. Siempre que sea el texto alude a la tabla o gráfico correspondiente.
posible, los pacientes deben ser identificados me- Los nombres de las revistas deben abreviarse según
diante números correlativos, no por sus, iniciales, la convención Index Medicus. Ninguna referencia
o nombres. El número de sujetos y observaciones se debe dar a las “observaciones no publicadas” ni
debe ser detallado, también el tamaño de la muestra, “comunicación personal”, que pueden ser insertadas
los métodos estadísticos y el nivel de significación entre paréntesis en el texto. Los trabajos oficialmen-
estadística utilizada. te aceptados para publicación pueden ser incluidos;
en ese caso, la referencia debe incluir, entre parén-
3.4. Resultados tesis, las palabras “en prensa”. Los trabajos enviados
Los resultados deben ser presentados secuen- para su publicación pero no aceptados oficialmente
cialmente, en concordancia con el texto, tablas y no se pueden añadir a las referencias, pero pueden
figuras. Los datos pueden ser mostrados en tablas ser citados en el texto entre paréntesis como “obser-
o figuras, pero no ambos. Los resultados no deben vaciones no publicadas”.
ser descritos, así como se muestra en una tabla o
figura. El texto sólo debe resumir o resaltar las ob- El orden para cada cita debe ser la siguiente:
servaciones más importantes. La presentación de a) Artículos de revistas:
los resultados obtenidos en esta investigación no se Apellido e inicial del autor (s). Mencione todos
debe mezclar con la discusión del tema. los autores cuando sean menores de seis, si tiene más
de siete autores, citar los tres primeros, añadiendo
3.5. Discusión ‘et.al’.
En esta sección se debe poner de relieve los as- El título, en su idioma original.
pectos nuevos e importantes del sujeto proporcio- El nombre de la revista o la publicación del
nadas por su investigación y las conclusiones. Los artículo debe ser abreviado según la nomenclatura
datos de los resultados no deben ser repetidos. La internacional (Index Medicus), año de publicación,
implicancia de los hallazgos deben ser explícitos, sus volumen, página inicial y final del artículo.
limitaciones explicadas, y la relación con otros estu- Ejemplo: 16. Guzmán S, Nervi F, Llanos O,
dios deben ser exploradas en cada estudio e identifi- et al. Despeje líquido alterada en los pacientes con
cadas a través de la respectiva citación. pancreatitis aguda anterior. Gut. 1985; 26:888-891.
Las conclusiones deben ser sólidamente respal-
dadas por datos. b) Capítulos de libros
Los estudios que no hayan finalizado por el au- Ejemplo: 18. Fine RN, Nissenson AR (2005).
tor o de otros autores no deben ser utilizados como La diálisis clínica, cuarta edn. Appleton & Lange,
soporte o puntos de discusión. Nuevas hipótesis Nueva York, pp 611-651.
Arch Latin Nefr Ped 2019;19(1):60-64 63
6. Cartas al Editor
Cartas al Editor son una manera de que los lec-
tores envíen preguntas o críticas de los sobre los
artículos publicados. Los informes de investigación
y casos breves también pueden ser publicados como
cartas al Editor.
Pueden ser no más de 1.000 palabras de exten-
sión, y contener más de cinco referencias. Se debe
incluir un título que permita identificarlo.
ISSN 1667-4170