Database Management System

Course Objectives

 know and understand the fundamental concepts, techniques,

and terminology of the database management system.

 know and understand the basic syntax, semantics, and

pragmatics of SQL & PL/SQL.

 can analyze problems and apply DBMS concepts and

techniques to develop appropriate programs to solve the
problems,

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 Database Management System

 can evaluate alternative database designs to determine

which are better according to selected criteria.

 know and understand the basic features of database

transactions and concurrency control.

 are able to reason about and manipulate concurrency

control techniques.

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 Database Management System
Learning Outcomes
 list and define the fundamental concepts of DBMS.

 manually execute a simple database design a transaction over it.

 manually infer the type of a given database transaction.

 implement algorithms and data structures as database
transaction.

 design databases that are modular and have reusable

components.

 explain concurrency control and concurrent transactions.

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 Unit-I
Introduction
An overview of database management system, database system Vs
file system, Database system concepts and architecture, data models
schema and instances, data independence and data base language
and interfaces, Data definitions language, DML, Overall Database
Structure.

Data Modeling using the Entity Relationship Model: ER model

concepts, notation for ER diagram, mapping constraints, keys,
Concepts of Super Key, candidate key, primary key,
Generalization, aggregation, reduction of an ER diagrams to tables,
extended ER model, relationships of higher degree
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 Unit-II
Relational data Model and Language
Relational data model concepts, integrity constraints: entity
integrity, referential integrity, Keys constraints, Domain
constraints, relational algebra, relational calculus, tuple and
domain calculus

Introduction to SQL:
Characteristics of SQL. Advantage of SQL. SQL data types and
literals. Types of SQL commands. SQL operators and their
procedure. Tables, views and indexes. Queries and sub queries.
Aggregate functions. Insert, update and delete operations. Joins,
Unions, Intersection, Minus, Cursors in SQL. induction over

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 Unit-III
Data Base Design & Normalization

Functional dependencies, normal forms, first, second, third

normal forms, BCNF, inclusion dependences, loss less join
decompositions, normalization using FD, MVD, and JDs,
alternative approaches to database design.

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 Unit-IV
Transaction Processing Concepts
Transaction system, Testing of serializability, Serializability of
schedules, conflict & view serializable schedule, recoverability,
Recovery from transaction failures, log based recovery,
checkpoints, deadlock handling.

Concurrency Control Techniques

Concurrency control, locking techniques for concurrency
control, Time stamping protocols for concurrency control,
validation based protocol, multiple granularity, Multi version
schemes, Recovery with concurrent transaction.

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 Overview of Database Management System
 Data is a collection of facts and figures that can be processed
to produce the information.

 Processed data is known as information.

 Database is a collection of inter-related data.

 Database Management System = Database + A set of program

to access the data/information from database.
 A DBMS stores data in such a way that it becomes easier to
retrieve, manipulate, and produce information.

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 Characteristics of DBMS
 Real-world entity

 Relation-based tables

 Isolation of data and application

 Less redundancy

 Consistency

 Query Language

 ACID Properties: Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability

 Multiuser and Concurrent Access

 Multiple views

 Security
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 Users of DBMS

 Administrator

 Designers

 End users

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 Advantages of DBMS
 Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy
because it stores all the data in one single database file and that recorded
data is placed in the database.

 Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can

share the data among multiple users.

 Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the

centralized nature of the database system.

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 Advantages of DBMS

 Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.

 Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create

automatic backup of data from h/w and s/w failures and restores the data if
required.

 Multiple User Interface: It provides different types of user

interfaces like graphical user interfaces, application program interfaces.

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 Disadvantages of DBMS
 Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data
processor and large memory size to run DBMS software.

 Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them
efficiently.

 Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and

requirements.

 Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database

because in most of the organization, all the data stored in a single database
and if the database is damaged due to power failure or database corruption
then the data may be lost forever.

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 Database Management Vs File Management System
File Management System Database Management System

Small systems like C++ or Java Large systems like Oracle or Sybase.
program.
Relatively cheap Relatively expensive

Have simple structure Have complex structure

Needs very little preliminary Needs vast preliminary design

design.
Not secure More secure

Often single user- oriented. Multiple user-oriented.

Have isolated data and simple Have shared data and complex &
backup/recovery mechanism sophisticated backup/recovery mechanism.
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 Database System Concepts and Architecture
DBMS Architecture
 The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. The basic
client/server architecture is used to deal with a large number
of PCs, web servers, database servers and other components
that are connected with networks.

 The client/server architecture consists of many PCs and a

workstation which are connected via the network.

 DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to

the database to get their request done.

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 Types of DBMS Architecture

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 1-Tier Architecture
 In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user.
It means the user can directly have the DBMS and use it.

 Any changes done here will directly be done on the database

itself. It doesn't provide a handy tool for end users.

 The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the local

application, where programmers can directly communicate with
the database for the quick response.
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 2-Tier Architecture
 The 2-Tier architecture is same as basic client-server. In the
two-tier architecture, applications on the client end can
directly communicate with the database at the server side.
For this interaction, API's like: ODBC, JDBC are used.

 The user interfaces and application programs are run on the

client-side.

 The server side is responsible to provide the functionalities

like: query processing and transaction management.

 To communicate with the DBMS, client-side application

establishes a connection with the server side. Side 20
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 2-Tier Architecture

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 3-Tier Architecture
 The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the
client and server. In this architecture, client can't directly
communicate with the server.
 The application on the client-end interacts with an
application server which further communicates with the
database system.
 End user has no idea about the existence of the database
beyond the application server. The database also has no
idea about any other user beyond the application.
 The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web
application.

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 3-Tier Architecture

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 Three Level Architecture of DBMS

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 Three Level Architecture of DBMS
 It is also known as three schema architecture of DBMS.

 Mapping is used to transform the request and response

between various database levels of architecture.

 Mapping is not good for small DBMS because it takes more

time.

 In External/Conceptual mapping, it is necessary to transform

the request from external level to conceptual schema.

 In Conceptual/Internal mapping, DBMS transform the

request from the conceptual to internal level.
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 Internal Level
 The internal level has an internal schema which describes
the physical storage structure of the database.

 The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.

 It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how

the data will be stored on the disk.

 Physical level is used to describe complex low-level data

structures in detail.

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 Conceptual Level
 It describes the design of a database at the conceptual level.
Conceptual level is also known as logical level.

 It also describes the structure of the whole database.

 It also describes what data are to be stored in the database

and what relationship exists among those data.

 In the conceptual level, internal details such as an

implementation of the data structure are hidden.

 Programmers and database administrators work at this

level.
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 External Level
 At the external level, a database contains several schemas
that sometimes called as subschema. The subschema is used
to describe the different view of the database.

 An external schema is also known as view schema.

 Each view schema describes the database part that a

particular user group is interested and hides the remaining
database from that user group.

 The view schema describes the end user interaction with

database systems.
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 Database Schema
 Skeleton that represents the logical view of the entire database.

 Defines how the data is organized and how the relations among
them are associated.

 Formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.

 Defines its entities and the relationship among them.

 Contains a descriptive detail of the database, which can be

depicted by means of schema diagrams.

 It’s the database designers who design the schema to help

programmers to understand the database and make it useful.
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 Database Schema

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 Database Schema
A database schema can be divided broadly into two
categories:

 Physical Database Schema: This schema pertains to the

actual storage of data and its form of storage like files,
indices, etc. It defines how the data will be stored in a
secondary storage.

 Logical Database Schema: This schema defines all the

logical constraints that need to be applied on the data stored.
It defines tables, views, and integrity constraints.
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 Database Instance
 Database schema is the skeleton structure of database.

 It is designed when the database doesn't exist at all.

 Once the database is operational, it is very difficult to make

any changes to it.

 A database schema does not contain any data or information.

 A database instance is a state of operational database with

data at any given time.

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 Database Instance
 A DBMS ensures that its every instance (state) is in a valid
state, by diligently following all the validations,
constraints, and conditions that the database designers have
imposed.

 If a database system is not multi-layered, then it becomes

difficult to make any changes in the database system.
Database systems are designed in multi-layers.

The collection of information stored in the database at a

particular moment is called as an instance of the
database.
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 Data Models
 Data models define how the logical structure of a database
is modeled.
 Data Models are fundamental entities to introduce
abstraction in a DBMS.
 Data models define how data is connected to each other and
how they are processed and stored inside the system.
 The very first data model could be flat data-models, where
all the data used are to be kept in the same plane.
 Earlier data models were not so scientific; hence they were
prone to introduce lots of duplication and update anomalies.

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 Hierarchical Data Model
 In this model, files are related in a parent/child manner.

 Like file system, this model also had some limitations like
complex implementation, lack structural independence.

 It can't easily handle a many-many relationship, etc.

 It is also called IMS (Information Management System).

 Below diagram represents Hierarchical Data Model. Small

circle represents objects.
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 Hierarchical Data Model
Example of HDM

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 Network Data Model
 In this model, files are related as owners and members.

 Network data model identified the following components:

 Network schema (Database organization)

 Sub-schema (views of database per user)

 Data management language (procedural)

 This model also had some limitations like system complexity

and difficult to design and maintain.
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 Relational Data Model
 Relational Data Model has two main terminologies called
instance and schema.

 The instance is a table with rows or columns.

 Schema specifies the structure like name of the relation,

type of each column and name.

 This model uses some mathematical concept like set theory

and predicate logic.
 During the era of the relational database, many models
introduced such as object-oriented model, object-relational
model, etc.
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 Data Independence
 A database system normally contains a lot of data in addition
to users’ data. For example, it stores data about data, known
as metadata, to locate and retrieve data easily.

 It is rather difficult to modify or update a set of metadata

once it is stored in the database.

 But as a DBMS expands, it needs to change over time to

satisfy the requirements of the users.

 If the entire data is dependent, it would become a tedious and

highly complex job.
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 Data Independence
 The major objective of 3-level architecture of DBMS is to
provide data independence which means that upper levels
are unaffected by changes in lower levels.

 There are two types of data independence:

 Physical Data Independence

 Logical Data Independence

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 Data Independence
 Metadata itself follows a layered architecture, so that when
we change data at one layer, it does not affect the data at
another level. This data is independent but mapped to each
other.

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 Physical Data Independence
 It indicates that the physical storage structures or devices
could be changed without affecting the conceptual schema.

 All the schemas are logical, and the actual data is stored in
bit format on the disk.

 Physical data independence is the power to change the

physical data without impacting the schema or logical data.

 For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the

storage system itself − suppose we want to replace hard-
disks with SSD − it should not have any impact on the
logical data or schemas.
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 Logical Data Independence
 Logical data independence means that the conceptual schema
(middle level) can be changed without affecting the existing
external schemas.

 Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores

information about how data is managed inside. For example,
a table (relation) stored in the database and all its constraints,
applied on that relation.

 Logical data independence is a kind of mechanism, which

liberalizes itself from actual data stored on the disk. If we do
some changes on table format, it should not change the data
residing on the disk.
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 Database Language and Interfaces
 A DBMS has appropriate languages and interfaces to
express database queries and updates.
 Database languages can be used to read, store and update
the data in the database. It can be classified as:

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 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to
define database structure or pattern.

 It is used to create schema, tables, indices, constraints, etc.

in the database.

 Using the DDL statements, we can create the skeleton of

the database.

 Data definition language is used to store the information of

metadata like the number of tables and schemas, their
names, indexes, columns in each table, constraints, etc.
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 Data Definition Language (DDL)
The tasks performed by DDL are:

 Create: It is used to create objects in the database.

 Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.

 Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.

 Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.

 Rename: It is used to rename an object.

 Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.

 These commands are used to update the database schema

that's why they come under Data definition language.
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 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 DML stands for Data Manipulation Language.
 It is used for accessing and manipulating data in a
database.
 It handles user requests.
The tasks performed by DDL are:
 Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.

 Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.

 Update: It is used to update existing data within a table.

 Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.

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 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or
update operations.

 Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a

Java subprogram.

 Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.

 Lock Table: It controls concurrency.

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 Data Control Language (DCL)
 DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to
retrieve the stored or saved data.
 The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback
parameters.
 (But in Oracle database, the execution of data control
language does not have the feature of rolling back.)
The tasks performed by DCL are:
 Grant: used to give user access privileges to a database.
 Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.
 There are the following operations which have the
authorization of Revoke:
CONNECT, INSERT, USAGE, EXECUTE, DELETE,
UPDATE and SELECT.
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 Transaction Control Language (TCL)

 TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement.

 TCL can be grouped into a logical transaction.
The tasks performed by TCL are:

 Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the database.

 Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original since the

last Commit.

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 Data Sub Language (DSL)
 It is a combination of both DML and DDL.
DSL = DDL + DML

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 Storage Definition Language (SDL)

 It is defined as a language used to specify the internal

schema in the database.

 In SDL, the storage structure and access methods used by

the database system is specified by a set of statements.

 These statements define the implementation details of the

database schema which are usually hidden from the users.

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 View Definition Language (VDL)
 It is defined as a language used to specify user’s views
(external schema) and their mappings to the conceptual
schema.

 DDL is used to specify both the conceptual and external

schemas.

 There are two views of data:

Logical View of Data: It is the form that the
programmer perceives to be in.
Physical view of data: It is the form in which the data
is actually stored on storage devices like disk.
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 Host Language (HL)
 It is defined as a language in which DML commands are
embedded.
 Many DBMS have a facility for embedding SQL queries in
high-level programming languages such as VB 6.0, VC++
6.0 etc.

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 Fourth-Generation Languages (4GL)
 It is compact, efficient and non-procedural programming
language that is used to improve the productivity of the
DBMS.

 Examples of 4GLs are:

 SQL

 Report Generators

 Spreadsheets

 Code Generators

Automated Generation of HTML

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 Overall Database Structure
 A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with
each of the responsibilities of the overall system.

 The functional components of a database system can be broadly

divided into the storage manager and the query
processor components.

 The storage manager is important because databases typically

require a large amount of storage space.

 The query processor is important because it helps the database

system simplify and facilitate access to data.
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 Overall Database Structure

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 Overall Database Structure
Query Processor include
 DDL interpreter, which interprets DDL statements and
records the definitions in the data dictionary.
 DML compiler, which translates DML statements in a
query language written into an evaluation plan consisting
of low-level instructions that the query evaluation engine
understands.
A query can usually be translated into any of several alternative
evaluation plans that all give the same result. The DML
compiler also performs query optimization, that is, it picks the
lowest cost evaluation plan among the alternatives.
 Query evaluation engine, which executes low-level
instructions generated by the DML compiler.
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 Overall Database Structure
Storage Manager
 A storage manager is a program module that provides the
interface between the low-level data stored in the database
and the application programs and queries submitted to the
system.
 The storage manager is responsible for the interaction with
the file manager.
 The raw data are stored on the disk using the file system,
which is usually provided by a conventional operating system.
 The storage manager translates the various DML statements
into low-level file-system commands.
 Thus, the storage manager is responsible for storing,
retrieving, and updating data in the database.
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 Overall Database Structure
 A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a
single logical function in a database application.
 Each transaction is a unit of both atomicity and consistency.
 Thus, we require that transactions do not violate any
database-consistency constraints.
 That is, if the database was consistent when a transaction
started, the database must be consistent when the transaction
successfully terminates.
 Transaction - manager ensures that the database remains in a
consistent (correct) state despite of system failures (e.g.,
power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction
failures.
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 Overall Database Structure
 The storage manager components include:
Authorization and integrity manager: tests for the
satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority of
users to access data.
Transaction manager: ensures that the database remains in a
consistent state despite of system failures, and that concurrent
transaction executions proceed without conflicting.
File manager: manages the allocation of space on disk and the
data structures used to represent information stored on disk.
Buffer manager: is responsible for fetching data from disk
storage into main memory and deciding what data to cache in
main memory. The buffer manager is a critical part of the
database system, since it enables the database to handle data
sizes that are much larger than the size of main memory.
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 Entity
 An entity can be a real-world object, that can be easily
identifiable.
 For example, in a school database, students, teachers and
courses offered can be considered as entities.
 All these entities have some attributes or properties that give
them their identity.
 An entity set is a collection of similar types of entities. An
entity set may contain entities with attribute sharing similar
values.
 For example, a Students set may contain all the students of
University, similarly a Teachers set may contain all the
teachers of University from all faculties.

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 Attributes
 Entities are represented by means of their properties,
called as attributes.

 All attributes have values. For example, a student entity

may have name, class, and age as attributes.

 There exists a domain or range of values that can be

assigned to attributes.

 For example, a student's name cannot be a numeric value.

It has to be alphabetic.

 A student's age cannot be negative, etc.

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 Type of Attributes
 Simple attribute: Simple attributes are atomic values, which
cannot be divided further. For example, a student's phone number
is an atomic value of 10 digits.
 Composite attribute: Composite attributes are made of more
than one simple attribute. For example, a student's complete name
may have first name and last name.
 Derived attribute: Derived attributes are the attributes that do not
exist in the physical database, but their values are derived from
other attributes present in the database. For example,
average_salary in a department should not be saved directly in the
database, instead it can be derived.
 Single-value attribute: Single-value attributes contain single
value. For example: Social_Security_Number.
 Multi-value attribute: Multi-value attributes may contain more
than one values. For example, a person can have more than one
phone number, email_address, etc.
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 Type of Attributes
These attribute types can come together in a way like:

 Simple single-valued attributes

 Simple multi-valued attributes

 Composite single-valued attributes

 Composite multi-valued attributes

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 Keys
 Key is an attribute or collection of attributes that uniquely
identifies an entity among entity set.
 For example, the roll_number of a student makes him/her
identifiable among students.
 Super Key − A set of attributes (one or more) that
collectively identifies an entity in an entity set.
 Candidate Key − A minimal super key is called a
candidate key. An entity set may have more than one
candidate key.
 Primary Key − A primary key is one of the candidate keys
chosen by the database designer to uniquely identify the
entity set.
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 Relationship
 The association among entities is called a relationship. For
example, an employee works_at a department, a
student enrolls in a course. Here, Works_at and enrolls are
called relationships.
Relationship Set
 A set of relationships of similar type is called a relationship
set. Like entities, a relationship too can have attributes.
These attributes are called descriptive attributes.
Degree of Relationship
 The number of participating entities in a relationship
defines the degree of the relationship.
 For example, Binary = degree 2,Ternary = degree 3

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 Relationship
Mapping Cardinalities
 Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set,
which can be associated with the number of entities of other
set via relationship set.
 One-to-one − One entity from entity set A can be associated
with at most one entity of entity set B and vice versa.

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 Relationship
 One-to-many − One entity from entity set A can be
associated with more than one entities of entity set B
however an entity from entity set B, can be associated
with at most one entity.

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram
Attributes
Attributes are the properties of entities. Attributes are
represented by means of ellipses. Every ellipse represents one
attribute and is directly connected to its entity (rectangle).

If the attributes are composite, they are further divided in a tree

like structure. Every node is then connected to its attribute. That
is, composite attributes are represented by ellipses that are
connected with an ellipse.
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 Relationship
 Many-to-one − More than one entities from entity set A
can be associated with at most one entity of entity set B,
however an entity from entity set B can be associated
with more than one entity from entity set A.

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 Relationship
Many-to-many − One entity from A can be associated
with more than one entity from B and vice versa.

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram
ER Model is represented by means of an ER diagram. Any
object, for example, entities, attributes of an entity,
relationship sets, and attributes of relationship sets, can be
represented with the help of an ER diagram.

Entity
Entities are represented by means of rectangles. Rectangles
are named with the entity set they represent.

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram
Multivalued attributes are depicted by double ellipse.

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram
Derived attributes are depicted by dashed ellipse.

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram
Relationship
 Relationships are represented by diamond-shaped box.
 Name of the relationship is written inside the diamond-box.
 All the entities (rectangles) participating in a relationship, are
connected to it by a line.
Binary Relationship and Cardinality
 A relationship where two entities are participating is called
a binary relationship.
 Cardinality is the number of instance of an entity from a
relation that can be associated with the relation.

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram
 One-to-one − When only one instance of an entity is
associated with the relationship, it is marked as '1:1'. The
following image reflects that only one instance of each
entity should be associated with the relationship. It depicts
one-to-one relationship.

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram
 One-to-many − When more than one instance of an entity is
associated with a relationship, it is marked as '1:N'. The
following image reflects that only one instance of entity on
the left and more than one instance of an entity on the right
can be associated with the relationship. It depicts one-to-
many relationship.

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram
 Many-to-one − When more than one instance of entity is
associated with the relationship, it is marked as 'N:1'. The
following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity
on the left and only one instance of an entity on the right can be
associated with the relationship. It depicts many-to-one
relationship.

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 Entity- Relationship Diagram
 Many-to-many − The following image reflects that more than
one instance of an entity on the left and more than one
instance of an entity on the right can be associated with the
relationship. It depicts many-to-many relationship.

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 E-R model
 ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model.

 It is a high-level data model.

 This model is used to define the data elements and

relationship for a specified system.

 It develops a conceptual design for the database.

 It also develops a very simple and easy to design view of

data.

 In ER modeling, the database structure is portrayed as a

diagram called an entity-relationship diagram.
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 E-R model
For example, Suppose we design a school database. In this
database, the student will be an entity with attributes like address,
name, id, age, etc. The address can be another entity with
attributes like city, street name, pin code, etc and there will be a
relationship between them.

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 Components of E-R Diagram

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 Notation of ER diagram
Database can be represented using the notations. In ER diagram,
many notations are used to express the cardinality. These notations
are as follows:

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 Mapping Constraints
 A mapping constraint is a data constraint that expresses the
number of entities to which another entity can be related via a
relationship set.

 It is most useful in describing the relationship sets that involve

more than two entity sets.

 For binary relationship set R on an entity set A and B, there are

four possible mapping cardinalities. These are as follows:

One to one (1:1)

One to many (1:M)
Many to one (M:1)
Many to many (M:N)
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 DBMS Keys
 Keys play an important role in the relational database.
 It is used to uniquely identify any record or row of data
from the table. It is also used to establish and identify
relationships between tables.
 In Student table, ID is used as a key because it is unique for
each student. In PERSON table, passport_number,
license_number, SSN are keys since they are unique for
each person.

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 Types of key

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 Primary key
 It is the first key which is used to identify one and only one
instance of an entity uniquely. An entity can contain multiple
keys as we saw in PERSON table. The key which is most
suitable from those lists become a primary key.

 In the EMPLOYEE table, ID can be primary key since it is

unique for each employee. In the EMPLOYEE table, we can
even select License_Number and Passport_Number as primary
key since they are also unique.

 For each entity, selection of the primary key is based on

requirement of developers.

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 Primary key

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 Candidate Key
 A candidate key is an attribute or set of an attribute which
can uniquely identify a tuple.
 The remaining attributes except for primary key are
considered as a candidate key. The candidate keys are as
strong as the primary key.
 For example: In the EMPLOYEE table, id is best suited for
the primary key. Rest of the attributes like SSN,
Passport_Number, and License_Number, etc. are considered
as a candidate key.

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 Super Key
 Super key is a set of an attribute which can uniquely identify
a tuple. Super key is a superset of a candidate key.

 In the above EMPLOYEE table, for(EMPLOEE_ID,

EMPLOYEE_NAME) the name of two employees can be the
same, but their EMPLYEE_ID can't be the same. Hence, this
combination can also be a key.

 The super key would be EMPLOYEE-ID, (EMPLOYEE_ID,

EMPLOYEE-NAME), etc.

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 Foreign Key
 Foreign keys are the column of the table which is used to
point the primary key of another table.

 In a company, every employee works in a specific

department, and employee and department are two different
entities. So we can't store the information of the department
in the employee table. That's why we link these two tables
through the primary key of one table.

 We add the primary key of the DEPARTMENT table,

Department_Id as a new attribute in the EMPLOYEE table.

 Now in the EMPLOYEE table, Department_Id is the

foreign key, and both the tables are related.
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 Foreign Key

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 Generalization
 Generalization is like a bottom-up approach in which two or
more entities of lower level combine to form a higher level
entity if they have some attributes in common.
 In generalization, an entity of a higher level can also combine
with the entities of the lower level to form a further higher
level entity.
 Generalization is more like subclass and superclass system,
but the only difference is the approach. Generalization uses the
bottom-up approach.
 In generalization, entities are combined to form a more
generalized entity, i.e., subclasses are combined to make a
superclass.
 For example, Faculty and Student entities can be generalized
and create a higher level entity Person.
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 Generalization

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 Specialization
 Specialization is a top-down approach, and it is opposite to
Generalization. In specialization, one higher level entity can
be broken down into two lower level entities.

 Specialization is used to identify the subset of an entity set

that shares some distinguishing characteristics.

 Normally, the superclass is defined first, the subclass and its

related attributes are defined next, and relationship set are
then added.

 In an Employee management system, EMPLOYEE entity

can be specialized as TESTER or DEVELOPER based on
what role they play in the company.
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 Specialization

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 Aggregation

 In aggregation, the relation between two entities is treated as a

single entity. In aggregation, relationship with its
corresponding entities is aggregated into a higher level entity.

 Center entity offers the Course entity act as a single entity in

the relationship which is in a relationship with another entity
visitor. In the real world, if a visitor visits a coaching center
then he will never enquiry about the Course only or just about
the Center instead he will ask the enquiry about both.
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 Aggregation

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 Reduction of ER diagram to Table

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 Reduction of ER diagram to Table
 Entity type becomes a table.
 In the given ER diagram, LECTURER, STUDENT, SUBJECT
and COURSE forms individual tables.

 All single-valued attribute becomes a column for the table.

 In the STUDENT entity, STUDENT_NAME and
STUDENT_ID form the column of STUDENT table. Similarly,
COURSE_NAME and COURSE_ID form the column of
COURSE table and so on.
 Key attribute of the entity type represented by the primary
key.
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 Reduction of ER diagram to Table
 In the given ER diagram, COURSE_ID, STUDENT_ID,
SUBJECT_ID, and LECTURER_ID are the key attribute of
the entity.

 The multivalued attribute is represented by a separate

table.

 In the student table, hobby is a multivalued attribute. So it is

not possible to represent multiple values in a single column
of STUDENT table. Hence we create a table
STUD_HOBBY with column name STUDENT_ID and
HOBBY. Using both the column, we create a composite key.

 Composite attribute represented by components.

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 Reduction of ER diagram to Table
 In the given ER diagram, student address is a composite
attribute. It contains CITY, PIN, DOOR#, STREET, and
STATE. In the STUDENT table, these attributes can merge as
an individual column.

 Derived attributes are not considered in the table.

 In the STUDENT table, Age is the derived attribute. It can be

calculated at any point of time by calculating the difference
between current date and Date of Birth.

 Using these rules, We can convert the ER diagram to tables

and columns and assign the mapping between the tables. Table
structure for the given ER diagram is as below:
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 Reduction of ER diagram to Table

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 Relationship of Higher Degree
 The degree of relationship can be defined as the number of
occurrences in one entity that is associated with the number
of occurrences in another entity.

 There are the three degree of relationship:

One-to-one (1:1)
One-to-many (1:M)
Many-to-many (M:N)

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 Relationship of Higher Degree
One-to-one
 In a one-to-one relationship, one occurrence of an entity
relates to only one occurrence in another entity.
 A one-to-one relationship rarely exists in practice.
 For example: if an employee is allocated a company car then
that car can only be driven by that employee.
 Therefore, employee and company car have a one-to-one
relationship.

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 Relationship of Higher Degree
One-to-many
 In a one-to-many relationship, one occurrence in an entity
relates to many occurrences in another entity.
 An employee works in one department, but a department has
many employees.
 Therefore, department and employee have a one-to-many
relationship.

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 Relationship of Higher Degree
Many-to-many
 In a many-to-many relationship, many occurrences in an
entity relate to many occurrences in another entity.
 Same as a one-to-one relationship, the many-to-many
relationship rarely exists in practice.
 At the same time, an employee can work on several projects,
and a project has a team of many employees.
 Therefore, employee and project have a many-to-many
relationship.

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