Chapter 1- Basic Knowledge of Mathematics

1.1 Set Theory

Definition: (Set)

A set is a collection of objects. The objects are called elements (members).

The set that contains no elements is called the empty set (Notation: {} 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ∅)

Notation: 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶 ….will be used for sets while 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, ….will be used for elements; ∈ for “element
of” and ∉ for “not element of”.

Note: If an element is repeated in the set, it will be consider only once (for example{1,2,1,3} =
{1,2,3}) . The order of the elements of the sets is irrelevant.

The elements of the set can be listed within {} separated by commas; or as:
{𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝}. For instance: {1,2,3} =
{𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 4}.

Example:

𝐴𝐴 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐} is the set with that contains the three elements a, b and c. Here is 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑑𝑑 ∉ 𝐴𝐴.

A set could be finite like: {1,2,3,4} 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 {1,2, … ,99,100} or infinite as {1,2,3, … } and

{… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … }.

Definition: (cardinality)

For a finite set A, the cardinality of A refers to the number of elements of A. (Notation: #A).

Example:

Let 𝐴𝐴 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒}, then #A=5.

For the empty set ∅: #∅ = 0.

Definition: (equivalent sets)

Two sets A and B are equivalent if and only if they contain exactly the same elements. In other
words: 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ⇔ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐵𝐵.
Notes:

1. 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵 ⟹ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴 (symmetric property)
2. (𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵)𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐵𝐵 = 𝐶𝐶) ⟹ 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶 (transitivity)
3. If A and B are equivalent then #A=#B.

Example:

The set {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐} = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑏𝑏} = {𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑎𝑎}.

Definition: (subset)

For two sets A and B, A is called a subset of B, if all elements of A are elements of B.

Notation: 𝐴𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵𝐵

Notice that A and B are equivalent ⇔ (𝐴𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴𝐴)

Definition: (power-set)

The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power-set of A.(Notation: 𝑃𝑃(𝐴𝐴)).

Notice that:

• 𝑃𝑃(𝐴𝐴) allways contains the sets A and the empty set ∅. In other words: 𝐴𝐴 ∈ 𝑃𝑃(𝐴𝐴) and ∅ ∈
𝑃𝑃(𝐴𝐴)
• #𝑃𝑃(𝐴𝐴) = 2(#𝐴𝐴)

Example:

Let 𝐴𝐴 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐}. Then the power set of A contains 2(#𝐴𝐴) = 23 = 8 elements,

𝑃𝑃(𝐴𝐴) = �∅, {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐}, {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏}, {𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐}, {𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐}, {𝑎𝑎}, {𝑏𝑏}, {𝑐𝑐}�.

Definition: (intersection and union of sets)

Let A and B be two sets:

The set that contains elements that are in A and also elements in B is called the intersection of A
and B (Notation: ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ).

𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 = {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝐵}

The set that contains elements that are either elements in A or elements in B is called the union
of A and B (Notation: 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 ).

𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 = {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝐵}

Properties of union operation:

• 𝐴𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵
• 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐴𝐴
• (𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵) ∪ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∪ (𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶)
• 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴 ∪ ∅ = 𝐴𝐴

Properties of intersection operation:

• 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ⊂ 𝐵𝐵
• 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐴𝐴
• (𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵) ∩ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∩ (𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶)
• 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴 ∩ ∅ = ∅

Example:

Let 𝐴𝐴 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒}, 𝐵𝐵 = {𝑏𝑏, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒} 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑓𝑓}.Then:

𝐵𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴𝐴, 𝐶𝐶 ⊄ 𝐴𝐴

𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 = {𝑏𝑏, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒}.

𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐}.

𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 = ∅.

𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑, 𝑒𝑒, 𝑓𝑓}.

𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴.

A powerful tool for visualizing operations on sets is the Venn diagrams:

A B
 A
B C

Definition: (subtraction of sets)

The subtraction of the set A from B is the set that contains elements in A that are not elements in
B. (Notation: 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴\𝐵𝐵)

𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 = {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 ∉ 𝐵𝐵}

Using the following Venn diagram, A − B is illustrated by the red-shaded area.

A B
Example:

In the previous example: 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐}.

Theorem:

Let A, B be two sets then: 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴 − (𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵).

Proof is strait forward using the Venn diagram below!

 A B
Notice that parenthesis have priority and should be evaluated first:

𝐴𝐴 − (𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵) ≠ (𝐴𝐴 − 𝐴𝐴) ∩ 𝐵𝐵

Definition: (complement with respect to a universal set)

Given a universal set U and a set 𝐴𝐴 ⊂ 𝑈𝑈. The complement of A is defined as 𝑈𝑈 − 𝐴𝐴 (Notation:
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴̅)

𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 = 𝑈𝑈 − 𝐴𝐴 = {𝑥𝑥 | 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑈𝑈 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 ∉ 𝐴𝐴}

Example: Let 𝑈𝑈 = {1,2,3, … ,10} and 𝐴𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}, then:

𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 = 𝑈𝑈 − 𝐴𝐴 = {5,6,7,8,9,10}.

Definition: (Cartesian product)

Let A and B be two sets. The Cartesian product of A and B (Notation: 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) is the set of
ordered pairs defined as: 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 = {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)|𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐵𝐵}.

Notes:

• The cardinality of (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) is the cardinality of 𝐴𝐴 multiplied by the cardinality of 𝐵𝐵.

#(𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵) = #𝐴𝐴 ∙ #𝐵𝐵

• 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐵 × 𝐴𝐴 (not commutative)

Example:

Let 𝐴𝐴 = {𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐}, 𝐵𝐵 = {1,2}. Then:

 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 = {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)|𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐵𝐵}
= {(𝑎𝑎, 1), (𝑏𝑏, 1), (𝑐𝑐, 1), (𝑎𝑎, 2), (𝑏𝑏, 2), (𝑐𝑐, 2), (𝑎𝑎, 3), (𝑏𝑏, 3), (𝑐𝑐, 3)}.

#(𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵) = #𝐴𝐴 ∙ #𝐵𝐵 = 3 ∙ 3 = 9

This product could be illustrated using the so-called cartesian square:

1 2 3
a (a,1) (a,2) (a,3)

b (b,1) (b,2) (b,3)

c (c,1) (c,2) (c,3)

The Cartesian product could be generalized to more than two sets as follows:

Let 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝐴𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 be sets, then 𝐴𝐴1 × 𝐴𝐴2 × … × 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 =

{(𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 )|𝑎𝑎1 ∈ 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝑎𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴𝐴2 … . , 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 ∈ 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 }.

Examples:

𝑹𝑹 × 𝑹𝑹 × 𝑹𝑹 = 𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑 = {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)|𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 ∈ 𝑹𝑹}.

1.2 The Real Numbers

The Natural numbers 𝑵𝑵 = {𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟑, … }

The Whole numbers 𝑾𝑾 = {𝟎𝟎, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟑, … }

The set of Integers 𝒁𝒁 = {… , −𝟑𝟑, −𝟐𝟐, −𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟑, … } = {𝟎𝟎, ±𝟏𝟏, ±𝟐𝟐, ±𝟑𝟑, … }
𝒑𝒑
The rational numbers (Quotients) 𝑸𝑸 = �𝒒𝒒 �𝒑𝒑, 𝒒𝒒 ∈ 𝒁𝒁, 𝒒𝒒 ≠ 𝟎𝟎�
 1
Notice that any rational number in 𝑸𝑸 can also be represented in decimal form (for example:2 =
3
0.50 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 4
= 0.75); in this case the decimal form is either terminating (for example:−3 =
1 3 1
−3.00, +5 = +5.00, 2
= 0.50 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 4
= 0.75) or it is repeating (for example: 3
=
5
����).
0.33333� and 11 = 0.45454545

There are numbers that do not satisfy these properties like: √3 , 𝜋𝜋, 𝑒𝑒 (Euler’s Number). The set
containing all such numbers is called the set of irrational numbers (notation 𝑸𝑸́ or 𝑰𝑰).

The Set of Real Numbers is defined as: 𝑹𝑹 = 𝑸𝑸 ∪ 𝑸𝑸́

The Real Number Line:

There is an equivalence relation between the set of real numbers R and the real numbers line that
relates each real number in R to exactly one point on the real numbers line.

The Complex Numbers:

The square root of negative numbers (√−1) is not defined in R. The expansion of R to include
such numbers is the set of complex numbers C.

𝑪𝑪 = �𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑦𝑦 � 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑹𝑹, 𝑖𝑖 = √−1, �

Field Axioms:

Let 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑧𝑧 be real numbers, then there exists a unique number 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 and a unique
number 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 such that:

(F1) Associative rule

Addition: 𝑥𝑥 + (𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧) = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) + 𝑧𝑧

Multiplication: (𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑦) ∙ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 ∙ (𝑦𝑦 ∙ 𝑧𝑧)

(F2) Commutative rule

Addition: 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥

Multiplication: 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 ∙ 𝑥𝑥

(F3) Existence of neutral elements

Addition: there exists a unique real number 𝟎𝟎 in R for which 𝑥𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥𝑥 for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹.
The number 𝟎𝟎 is called the neutral element under addition.

Multiplication: There exists a unique number 1 in R, for which 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 1 = 𝑥𝑥 for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹.
The number 1 is called the neutral element under multiplication.

(F4) Existence of inverse elements

Addition: for each 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 there exists exactly one number 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 for which 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 0 .
We write 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥𝑥.

Multiplication: for each 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹, there exists exactly one number 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 for which 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑦 =
1
1 . We write 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
or 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 −1 .

(F5) Distributive rule: 𝑦𝑦 ∙ (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑧𝑧

Note: the neutral elements 0 and 1 are not equal (1 ≠ 0).

Definition: (Field)

The triple (𝑭𝑭, +,∙) is called a Field, where 𝑭𝑭 is a set and the two operations addition (+) and
multiplication (∙) are defined as

+∶ 𝐹𝐹 × 𝐹𝐹 → 𝐹𝐹 with (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) → 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 and

∙ : 𝐹𝐹 × 𝐹𝐹 → 𝐹𝐹 with (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) → 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑦,

if the axioms (F1) to (F5) are satisfied. We refer to these axioms as the field axioms.
Examples:

Fields: (Q,+, ∙) the set of rational numbers with addition and multiplication.

(R,+, ∙) the set of real numbers with addition and multiplication.

Not fields: (N,+, ∙) (Z,+, ∙) since there exists no multiplicative inverse.

Ordering axiom:

• For all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 exactly one of the following is true: 𝑥𝑥 > 0 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 < 0.
• From 𝑥𝑥 > 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 > 0, it follows : 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 > 0
• From 𝑥𝑥 > 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 > 0, it follows : 𝑥𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑦 > 0

Notice further that for any two real numbers 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 one of the following is true:

either 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑦𝑦.

Example: 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 5, −3 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 ∶ −5 < −3.

Definition: ( 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑦𝑦) ⇔ ( (𝑥𝑥 – 𝑦𝑦) > 0)

Subsets and Cartesian products of sets of real numbers:

An Interval is a continuous subset of real numbers:

𝐼𝐼 = {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 | 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏} = [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] 𝑎𝑎 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰

𝐼𝐼 = {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 | 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏} = (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ]𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏[ 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰

𝐼𝐼 = {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 | 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏} = [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏[ 𝑎𝑎 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰

𝐼𝐼 = {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 | 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏} = (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ]𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] 𝑎𝑎 𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰

𝑹𝑹 × 𝑹𝑹 = 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 = {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)|𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑹𝑹}

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅: [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] × [𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑] = {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)| 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 ∈ [𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑] ⊂ 𝑹𝑹 × 𝑹𝑹}

Inequalities are defined using the ordering operations, the solution of an inequality is the set of
real numbers that satisfy the inequality (i.e. make the inequality logically TRUE) as demonstrated
in the following example:
Example:

Solve −3𝑥𝑥 − 2 ≤ 5 ≤ −3𝑥𝑥 + 4 in R.

−3𝑥𝑥 − 2 ≤ 5 ≤ −3𝑥𝑥 + 4 ⇔ (−3𝑥𝑥 − 2) ≤ 5 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (−3𝑥𝑥 + 4 ) ≥ 5

7 1
⇔ −3𝑥𝑥 ≤ 7 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 3𝑥𝑥 ≥ 1 ⇔ �𝑥𝑥 ≥ − � 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑥𝑥 ≤ − )
3 3
7 1 7 1
The solution of the inequality is the set �𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹�− 3 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ − 3� or as interval: �− 3 , − 3�.

0
Note: In R (also in N, Z and Q): for all elements 0 ≠ r ∈ 𝑹𝑹, 𝑟𝑟 ∙ 0 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟
= 0.

𝑟𝑟
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢!
0

Definition: (Absolute value)

Let 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹, the absolute value of 𝑥𝑥 (𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: |𝑥𝑥|)is defined as:

−𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥 < 0
|𝑥𝑥| = �
𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0

Example: |−5| = −(−5) = +5; ∶ |+5| = 5.

|−3| = −(−3) = +3

|+3| = +3

Properties of absolute value:

For all 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑹𝑹:

1) |𝑎𝑎| ≥ 0
2) |𝑎𝑎| = 0 ⇔ 𝑎𝑎 = 0
3) |𝑎𝑎|. |𝑏𝑏| = |𝑎𝑎. 𝑏𝑏|
4) |𝑎𝑎| + |𝑏𝑏| ≥ |𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏| (Triangle Inequality)
5) |𝒂𝒂| ≤ 𝒃𝒃 ⇔ −𝒃𝒃 ≤ 𝒂𝒂 ≤ 𝒃𝒃
6) |𝒂𝒂| ≥ 𝒃𝒃 ⇔ 𝒂𝒂 ≤ −𝒃𝒃 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝒂𝒂 ≥ 𝒃𝒃

Note: the last two properties are helpful in solving inequalities with absolute value:

Examples:
(5)
1) |𝑥𝑥| < 2 ⇔ −2 < 𝑥𝑥 < 2
 2) Solve the inequality |𝒙𝒙 − 𝟑𝟑| ≤ 𝟗𝟗

Solution:
(5)
|𝑥𝑥 − 3| ≤ 9 ⇔ −9 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 − 3 ≤ 9

⇔ −6 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 12

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹|−6 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 12} or as interval = [−6,12]

3) Solve the inequality |𝒙𝒙 − 𝟏𝟏| ≥ 𝟐𝟐

Solution:
(6)
|𝑥𝑥 − 1| ≥ 2 ⇔ 𝑥𝑥 − 1 ≤ −2 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 − 1 ≥ 2

⇔ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ −1 𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 3

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹| 𝑥𝑥 ≤ −1 𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 3}; or as an interval:(−∞, −1] ∪ [3, ∞).

1.3 Relations and Functions:

Let X and Y be nonempty sets. As we defined earlier, the cartesian product of these sets is given
by

𝑋𝑋 × 𝑌𝑌 = {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦): 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑋𝑋, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑌𝑌}.

Definition: (Relation)

A Relation R is a set of ordered pairs. i.e. R is a subset of (𝑋𝑋 × 𝑌𝑌).

The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs (elements of X) is called the Domain of the
relation.

The set of all second elements of the ordered pairs (elements of Y) is called the Range of the
relation.

Example:

1. The set 𝑅𝑅 = {(1,2), (2,4), (3,6), (4,8)} is a relation.

The domain of 𝑅𝑅 = {1, 2,3,4}

 The range of 𝑅𝑅 = {2,4,6,8}

2. In a relation one element of X could be assigned more than one element in Y as in the relation
𝑆𝑆 = {(1,2), (2,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,7)}
Definition: (Function)

A Function is a relation in which each element x of the domain is assigned to exactly one
element y in the range.

In the previous example the relation R is a function, but the relation S is not a function!

Notation: 𝑓𝑓: 𝑋𝑋 → 𝑌𝑌, 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦

Example: 𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 .

The domain is the set of real numbers R. The range is the set of all nonnegative real numbers (the
interval [0, +∞[ ).

Note: x is also referred to as the independent variable (input) and y as the dependent variable
(output).

Definition: (composition function)

Let 𝑓𝑓: 𝑋𝑋 → 𝑌𝑌, 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔: 𝑌𝑌 → 𝑍𝑍, 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑦𝑦 → 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑧𝑧. We define the
composition function of the two functions 𝑔𝑔 and 𝑓𝑓 (Notation: 𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓) as:

ℎ = 𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔𝑔�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)�. Notice that ℎ: 𝑋𝑋 → 𝑍𝑍.

Example:

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 5 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = sin(𝑥𝑥) . 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔𝑔�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥 3 + 5 ) = sin(𝑥𝑥 3 + 5).

While 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑓𝑓�𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑓𝑓(sin(𝑥𝑥)) = (sin(𝑥𝑥))3 + 5.

Note: as shown in the previous example: 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 ≠ 𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓.

1.4 The coordinate system:

The Cartesian coordinate system (Rectangular Coordinate System or the XY-plane) is the plane
defined by two perpendicular real number lines called the axes. The horizontal line is called the
x-axis while the vertical line is called the y-axis. The x-axis and y-axis divide the XY-plane into
four quadrants (counted counterclockwise): Quad I, Quad II, Quad III and Quad IV as follows:
Consider the Cartesian product 𝑹𝑹 × 𝑹𝑹 = 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 = {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)|𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑹𝑹 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑹𝑹}. Each ordered pair
(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏)𝜖𝜖 𝐑𝐑𝟐𝟐 could be represented on the Cartesian coordinate by a unique point as the
intersections of the vertical line at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 and the horizontal line at 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏.

Example: The points representing (2,3), (−3,1) and (−1.5, −2.5) are shown in the figure below.
The intersection of the x-axis and the x-axis is called the origin; the point (0,0).
The polar coordinate system:

Another way of representing ordered pairs on the XY-plane is the so called the polar coordinates;
here is the point uniquely determined by a radius 𝑟𝑟 that connects the point with the origin and the
angle 𝜑𝜑 between 𝑟𝑟 and the positive X-axis in counterclockwise direction as shown in the
following figure. The value of 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟. cos(𝜑𝜑) and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟. sin(𝜑𝜑).

The angle 𝜑𝜑 ∈ [0,2𝜋𝜋].

If the coordinates of the point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) are known, the value of the angle 𝜑𝜑 can be calculated using:
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
𝜑𝜑 = tan−1 ( 𝑥𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 arctan(𝑥𝑥 ), in this case we have to consider the Quadrant where the point is
located:

−1
𝑦𝑦
⎧ tan ( 𝑥𝑥 ) , for Quad I, x ≠ 0
⎪ 𝑦𝑦
⎪ tan−1 + 2𝜋𝜋, for Quad IV, x ≠ 0
⎪ 𝑥𝑥
−1
𝑦𝑦
𝜑𝜑 = tan + 𝜋𝜋, for Quad II, Quad III, x ≠ 0
⎨ 𝑥𝑥
𝜋𝜋
⎪ , 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑦𝑦 > 0
⎪ 2
⎪ 3𝜋𝜋
⎩ 2 , 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑦𝑦 < 0

Example:
4
The point (-3,4) is located in Quad II: tan−1 ( −3) ≅ −0.295. 𝜋𝜋 → 𝜑𝜑 = −0.295. 𝜋𝜋 + 𝜋𝜋 =
0.7048 𝜋𝜋 ≅ 126.87°

𝑟𝑟 = �42 + 32 = 5.