NumberTheory by Frances Odumodu NAU
NumberTheory by Frances Odumodu NAU
NumberTheory by Frances Odumodu NAU
Contents
1 Basic Set Theory
1.1 Relations between
1.2 Set Identities . .
1.3 Quantifiers . . . .
1.4 Indexed sets . . .
sets
. . .
. . .
. . .
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.
2 Symbolic Logic
2.1 Basic Logical Operations
2.2 Important equivalences .
2.3 Quantifiers . . . . . . . .
2.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . .
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4 Relations
4.1 Ordered pairs and cartesian products
4.2 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Equivalence Relation . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Outline
Mathematics is the queen of the sciences and number theory is the queen of
Mathematics. Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss
Basic set theory. Symbolic logic. Methods of mathematical proof. Relationspartial ordering, equivalence, upper and lower bounds, maximal, minimal,
maximum and minimum elements of sets of real numbers. Elementary treatment of the well ordering principle, Zorns lemma and axiom of choice.
Prime numbers - infinitude of divisibility and modulo systems. GCDs and
LCMs. Euclids division algorithm. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic
or unique factorization theorem. Congruences and residue classes. Eulers
totient and the chinese remainder theorem. Continued fractions and the solvability of linear congruence. Transversals and the solvability of polynomial
congruence (elementary treatment only).
Set theory is at the foundation of Mathematics, and nearly every Mathematical object of interest is a set of some kind. Larry Gerstein
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. That is, it is defined in such a
way that we can determine for a given object x whether or not x belongs to
the set.
Example
The set of all sentences of a language.
The set of living human beings.
The set of vowels of the English language.
The set of students absent from this class.
The even integers 2, 4, 6, . . ..
If S is a set and s belongs to S, we write s S and say that s is an element
of S. If s does not belong to S, we write s 6 S. Example. If S = {s, t, u}
then s S and 4 6 S.
Sets are determined by their elements. Thus, we may define a set by listing its
members. The set is then said to be in tabular form. Example. A = {1, 2, 3}.
The order in which the elements are listed is irrelevant. Thus, {1, 2, 3} and
{3, 1, 2} represent the same set. Also, repetition of elements does not affect
the set being represented. For example, {1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3} is the same set as
{1, 2, 3}.
Many sets that occur frequently are given standard names:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}, the natural numbers or positive integers.
Z = {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} the set of integers or whole numbers.
Q = {x : x = ab for some a, b Z, b 6= 0} the set of rational numbers
or the rationals.
R the set of real numbers or the reals.
A set may also be defined by stating a property that completely characterises
the elements of a set. That is, it determines whether or not an object x
4
belongs to a set. The set is then said to be in set builder form. Examples. The
set of all planets in the solar system. The set of Mathematical Instruments.
Given a property P and an element s of a set S. We wrte P (s) to indicate
that s has property P . For a given element s, the statement P (s) should
either be True or False. Thus, we can write a set A = {s S : P (s)}, the
set of all elements of S having the property P .
1. E = {x : x is an even integer and x > 0}
= {x Z : x = 2y for some y Z}.
2. B = {x : x Z and 0 x 1000} = {0, 1, 2, . . . , 1000}.
Note that if we are given a set of the form S = {, Goodluck , 53, spaghetti , 4},
then it would be difficult to find a property that characterises the elements.
Exercise.
1. Describe the following sets in the form {x : p(x)}.
(a) A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, . . .}.
(b) B = {1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50, . . .}.
(c) C = {1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, . . .}.
(d) D = {1, 12 , 13 , 14 , 14 , . . .}.
(e) E = {lemon , 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}.
2. List the elements in the set {x Q : x N and 1 x 3}.
3. True or False.
(a) {1, 2, 3} = {3, 1, 2}.
(b) {a, c, b} = {b, b, c, c, a, c}.
(c) t {2, 5}.
(d) {1, 2}.
(e) {1, 2} = {1, 2}.
(f) {x R : x2 = 2} = .
1.1
Subset relation Given two sets, we may speak of whether or not one set
is contained in the other. A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every
element of A is also an element of B. Notation: A B.
In symbols: A B if and only if , for all x, if x A, then x B. That is.
A B x, x A = x B
If A is not a subset of B, we write A * B. To get the characterisation, we
negate the statement for A B. That is
A * B (x, x A = x B)
x such that x A ; x B
x such that x A and x B
Thus, to show that A * B, it suffices to show that A contains an element
which is not in B.
Exercise. Show that A A. Show also that if A B and B C, then
A C.
Example. N N Q R C.
A set A is said to be a proper subset of a set B if A is contained in B but
B is not contained in A. That is, there is an element in B which is not an
element of A. In symbols, A B A B and A 6= B. Notation: A B
or A ( B or A $ B.
Example. {1, 7} 6 {1, 7} {1, 2, 7} and A for any nonempty set A.
Let A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3}, C = {3, {1, 2}} and D = {1, 2, {1, 2}}. Then,
A B, A
/ B, A C, A * C, A D and A D.
Set equality. Two sets A and B are equal when they consist of the same
elements. That is, A = B if and only if, for all x, x A if and only if x B.
If A and B are not equal, we write A 6= B.
Exercise. Prove that A = B if and only if A B and B A.
Exercise. Let A = {x Z : x = 2(y 2) for some y Z} and B = {x Z :
x = 2z for some z Z}. Are A and B equal? Justify.
Set operation. We would like to define operations on sets that are somewhat similar to the operations of addition, multiplication and subtraction of
integers that you are familiar with.
Union. The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements that belong to
either A or B or both.
A B = {x : x A or x B}
Intersection. The intersection of two sets A and B is the set consisting of
elements of both A and B.
A B = {x : x A and x B}
Set difference. The difference of two sets A and B is the set consisting of
those elements of A that do not belong to B. The operation is called set
complement or complement of B in A.
A b = {x : x A and x
/ B}
Example. Let A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13} and B = {A, 2, 11, 18} then A B =
{A, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 18}, A B = {2, 11} and A B = {3, 5, 7, 13}.
Universal set. Usually, the sets we work with are susbet of some bigger
set. For example, the even numbers and the odd numbers are both subsets of
the set of integers. We call such a set a universal set or the set of discourse,
denoted by U. Thus, a universal set is the underlying set that all the sets
under examination are subsets of.
Thus, we may speak of the set difference U A, which is the set of those
elements of U that do not belong to A. That is,
Ac = U A = {x U : x
/ A}.
Empty set. Set operations may lead to a set containing no elements. If A
is any set and E is a set containing no elements, then E A. Thus, there is
a unique set containing no elements.
We call the set containing no elements the empty set or nullset. Notation:
{} or . Thus, = {x Z : x 6= x}.
Exercise. Verify that (Ac )c = A, c = U and U c = .
Disjoint sets. Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if A B = .
Singleton sets. A set with only one element is called a singleton set. Example. {x}.
Cardinality. A set is finite if it contains exactly n distinct elements where
n = 0 or n is a natural number. Otherwise, the set is infinite. For example,
and { the English alphabets}.
7
Power Set Let A be a set. The power set of A is the class of all subsets of
A, denoted by P(A). If A is a finite set, then so is its power set. If n(A) is
the number of elements in A, then n(P(A)) = 2n(A) .
1.2
Set Identities
There are a number of set identites that the set operations of union, intersection and set difference must satisfy. They are very useful in calculations
with sets. Let U be the universal set and A, B, C be any sets. Then
1. A B = B A; A B = B A. Commutativity.
2. (A B) C = A (B C); (A B) C = A (B C). Associativity.
3. A (B C) = (A B) (A C); A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
Distributivity.
4. A A = A; A A = A. Idempotent.
5. A (A B) = A; A (A B) = A. Absorption laws.
6. A = A; A = . Identity laws.
7. (A B)c = Ac B c ; (A B)c = Ac B c . De Morgans laws.
8. A Ac = U; A Ac = ; U c = ; c = U; (Ac )c = A. Complement
laws.
9. A B = A B c .
Exercise. Prove all the laws.
Prove that A (((B C c ) (D E c )) ((B B c ) Ac )) = .
Exercise.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6} and C = {x Z : x is even }. Then
1. Find A B; B A; B A; C B; (A B) C; (A B) C.
2. If Z is the universal set. Find Ac , C c , (A C)c .
1.3
Quantifiers
1.4
Indexed sets
Suppose you attend four Number Theory classes. We can denote the set of
classes by C = {c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 } where c1 = first class, c2 = second class, etc.
Here I = {1, 2, 3, 4} forms our labels or indexes. The set I is called the index
set. Having chosen an index set, we can write C = {ci : i I}.
Example. If we have the terms of a sequence {x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .}, we can instead
define our index set as N = {n : n N} so that our sequence becomes
{xn }nN .
Example. If we have a set of circles with different radii which are positive
real numbers then
p
Cr = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 = r}.
If we define R+ to be the set of positive real numbers, then we have a family
of circles with center (0, 0) for each r: {Cr }rR+ .
If we have an indexed family of sets: {Ai }iI . Then, we can define the union
[
Ai
iI
as the set of elements that belong to at least one Ai and the intersection
\
Ai
iI
and
\
iI
T
Note that if x
/ iI Ai then i I, x
/ Ai . That is, if x is not simultaneously in Ai for all i I, then there is an Ai that does not contain x.
Note:
c S of DeMorgans
c T
T Extension
S laws:
c
= iI Bi and
= iI Bic .
iI Bi
iI Bi
Exercise. If A1 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A2 = {0, 1, 2}, A3 = {1, 0, 1} and I =
{1, 2, 3}. Then, determine iI Ai and iI Ai . If U = Z, determine iI Aci
and iI Aci .
Exercise. Prove the extension of DeMorgans law.
An indexed family of sets {Ai }iI is said to be disjoint if
pairwise disjoint if Ai Aj = .
Pictorially:
10
iI
Ai = and
>0
Symbolic Logic
11
2.1
1. Negation or
Let P be a statement. Then, we can form the negation of P by writing
It is not the case that P holds or It is false that P holds or NOT
P . In symbol, P or P . The truth values of P can be represented
in a truth table:
P
T
F
P
F
T
The truth value of the negation of P is always the opposite of the truth
value of P . Example.
P : Paris is in France.
P : Paris is NOT in France.
P : 6 > 9.
P : 6 6> 9 i.e. 6 9.
2. Conjunction p q AND
Two statements p and q may be combined using and to form a compound statement p q read p and q. Its truth table is given by
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
pq
T
F
F
F
12
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
pq
T
T
T
F
pq
T
F
T
T
pq
T
F
F
T
The biconditional is true whenever p and q have the same truth value
and false otherwise.
If p and q are statements, so are (P ), (p q), (p q) (p q) and (p q).
Let P be a proposition. P is a tautology if it contains only T in the last
column of its truth table. That is, it is true for any truth values of its
variables. Example.
P
T
F
P
F
T
P P
T
T
P
T
F
P
F
T
P P
F
F
p XOR q
F
T
T
F
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
pq
T
F
F
T
(p q)
F
T
T
F
pq
T
F
T
T
q
F
T
F
T
p
F
F
T
T
q p
T
F
T
T
p
F
F
T
T
q (p) q
T
T
F
F
T
T
F
T
14
2.2
Important equivalences
1. Double negation:(p) = p.
2. Idempotent laws: p p = p and p p = p.
3. Commutative laws: p q = q p, p q = q p and p q = q p.
4. Associative laws: (p q) r = p (q r) and (p q) r = p (q r).
5. Distributive laws: p (q r) = (p q) (p r) and
p (q r) = (p q) (p r).
6. De Morgans laws: (p q) = p q and (p q) = p q.
7. Contrapositive: p q = q p.
8. Implication: p q = (p) q
9. p q = (p q) (q p) and p q = ((p) q) (p (q))
10. p q (p) q.
Exercise. Prove these using truth tables.
2.3
Quantifiers
15
2.4
Exercise
16
3.1
Direct Method
Many theorems are of the form if p then q. This is the standard form of
theorems, though it can be disguised. To prove p q, we assume p as well
as other established truths and prove q.
Most proofs are and should be direct proofs. Always try direct proofs first,
unless you have a good reason not to.
Examples.
Theorem 1. The sum of two odd integers is even.
17
(1)
(2)
and
Comparing corresponding equation in (1) and (2) we have that r1 + r2 = b
and r1 r2 = c.
Theorem 3. Let A and B be sets. If A B = A B then A B.
Proof. Assume A B = A B. We show that x A x B.
Let x A. Since A A B, we have that x A B. But A B = A B.
So x A B. That is, x A and x B. This implies that x B. Hence,
A B.
3.2
Indirect Method
18
3.2.1
Proof by Contraposition
Proof by Contradiction
2 is irrational.
a
2 = ; b 6= 0.
b
a
a2
2=
2 = 2 a2 = 2b2 .
b
b
19
a
b
is in its
Thus, a2 is even. This implies that a is even. Since a is even, we can write
a = 2k for some k Z. So,
a2 = 2b2 4k 2 = 2b2 b2 = 2k 2 .
Thus, b2 is even implying that b is even.
Thus a and b are both even, thatis, they have a common factor of 2. This
leads to a contradiction. Hence, 2 is irrational.
Example. A diophantine equations: equations for which you seek only integer
solutions.
Theorem 7. There are no positive integer solutions to x2 y 2 = 1.
Proof. Suppose for contradiction that there are positive integers x, y such
that x2 y 2 = 1. Then, x2 y 2 = (x y)(x + y) = 1.
Since x, y Z, then EITHER x y = 1 and x + y = 1 OR x y = 1 and
x + y = 1. If the first condition holds then x = 1 and y = 0 and we get a
contradiction. If the second condition holds, then x = 1 and y = 0 and we
also get a contradiction. Thus, the original statement must be true.
3.3
We use this method of proof when a hypothesis naturally divides itself into
different cases. We divide what we want to prove into cases and prove each
separately. We need to make sure that all the cases are exhausted.
Theorem 8. For a, b R, then |ab| = |a||b|.
Proof. Four cases arise:
1. a > 0, b > 0 then ab > 0, |a| = a, |b| = b. Then |ab| = |a||b|.
2. a > 0, b < 0 then ab < 0, |a| = a, |b| = b. Then |ab| = ab =
a b = |a||b|.
3. a < 0, b > 0 then ab < 0, |a| = a, |b| = b. Then |ab| = ab =
a b = |a||b|.
4. a < 0, b < 0 then ab > 0, |a| = a, |b| = b. Then |ab| = ab =
(a)(b) = |a||b|.
20
3.4
Existence Proofs
Existence proofs are proofs of the form x, P (x). Here we aim to find a c
such that P (c) holds. There are three ways to show the existence of such c.
1. Constructive Here we construct such a c. In otherwords, we demonstrate how to actually find or construct a specific element c for which
P (c) is true.
Example. A square exists that is a sum of two squares.
Proof. Pythagorean triple. We find a square 25 and we show that it is
a sum of two squares 9 and 16. That is, 32 + 42 = 52 .
2. Nonconstructive Here we show that such a c exists but we do not
actually find it.
3. Contradiction Here, we assume that no such c exists and then we
arrive at a contradiction.
21
3.5
Uniqueness proofs
A theorem may state that there is only one value c such that P (c) holds. We
prove such a theorem in two parts. Existence: We first show that such a value
does indeed exist using any of the methods of the last section. Uniqueness:
We show that there is only one such value.
Example.
Theorem 10. If 5x + 3 = 0 has a solution in R, then it is unique.
Proof. We first find a solution. Solving 5x+3 = a yields the solution x =
Question: Is this a constructive or nonconstructive proof?
a3
.
5
Next, we show that if there are two solutions x and y to this equation, then
they must be equal. So we equate, 5x+3 = a = 5y +3. Thus, 5x+3 = 5y +3
and this yields that x = y. And thus, we have proved uniqueness of the
solution.
3.6
Universal statements are of the form: x D, P (x). We prove such statement using
1. Direct proof: Take an arbitrary element x in D. Then show that P (x)
is true.
2. Contradiction: Assume that there is some c D such that P (c) is false.
Show that a contradiction results.
3.7
1
1
xy = 0 y = 0.
x
x
22
3.8
n(n+1)
.
2
.
Proof. put P (n) : 1 + 2 + . . . + n = n(n+1)
2
1(1+1)
Base step: P (1) : 1 = 2 = 1
Induction step: Suppose that P (k + 1) holds. That is suppose
1 + 2 + . . . + k = k(k+1)
.
2
We show that P (k + 1) holds:
k(k + 1)
+k+1
2
1
= (k + 1)(k + 2)
2
1
= (k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)
2
P (k + 1) : 1 + 2 + . . . + k + k + 1 =
1rn+1
;
1r
1rk+1
1r
r 6= 1 for all n N.
P(k+1):
1 rk+1
+ rk+1
1r
1 rk+1 + (1 r)rk+1
=
1r
k+2
1r
=
1r
1 r(k+1)+1
=
1r
1 + r + r2 + . . . + rk + rk+1 =
12 2
2
= 1.
P (k). Suppose 13 + 23 + . . . + k 3 =
k(k+1)
2
24
2
n(n+1)
2
2
Then, P (k + 1):
2
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + . . . + k + (k + 1) =
+ (k + 1)3
2
k 2 (k + 1)2
=
+ (k + 1)3
4
k2
2
+ (k + 1)
= (k + 1)
4
2
k + 4k + 4
2
= (k + 1)
4
2
2
(k + 1) (k + 2)
=
4
2
(k + 1)(k + 2
=
2
2
(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)
=
2
3
n(n+1)(2n+1
6
for all n N.
3.9
3.10
3.11
Exercises
xy
x+y
.
2
(c) If a Q and b
/ Q then a + b
/ Q.
(d) There do not exist integers x and y such that 9 = 4x + 2y.
4. Proof by cases: Prove that for all n Z, we have n2 n is even.
5. Prove by contraposition: If f is increasing on an interval I, then f is
one-to-one on I.
6. Prove: If x, a, b, R such that xa = xb, then either x = 0 or a = b.
7. Given A and B sets such that A B and A * C. Prove that B * C.
8. Prove or disprove: If x, y R are irrational then x + y is irrational? xy
is irrational?
9. Use direct method and contraposition to prove: Let A, B and C be sets
with A B and B C. Show that A C. Compare the effectiveness
of each approach.
10. Describe the general approach you would take to prove these theorems.
(a) If S R is compact, then S is closed and bounded.
(b) If A and B are sets such that A B is finite, then A is finite and
B is finite.
(c) THe subset 2Z of R consisting of all even integers is closed under
addition and multiplication.
Note that it is not necessary to know the meaning of technical terms
such as bounded in order to solve this question.
4
4.1
Relations
Ordered pairs and cartesian products
An ordered pair (a, b) is such that a is the first element and b is the second
element. Order is important in the sense that (a, b) 6= (b, a). Ordered pairs
are also called 2-tuples. Note also that (a1 , b2 ) = (a2 , b2 ) if and only if a1 = a2
and b1 = b2 .
Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product A B consists of all ordered
pairs (a, b) with a A and b B. That is,
A B = {(a, b) : a A, b B}.
Examples.
27
1. Let A = {3, 4, 5} and B = {b, c}. Then AB = {(3, b), (3, c), (4, b), (4, c), (5, b), (5, c)}
and B A = {(b, 3), (b, 4), (b, 5), (c, 3), (c, 4), (c, 5)}.
2. R2 = R R = {(x, y) : x, y R}.
Cartesian product is not commutative: A B 6= B A except when
1. A = B. Example A = B = {a, b} Then, A B = B A =
{(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}
2. OR when A or B is empty. Example: A = {1, 2} and B = . Then,
A B = B A = .
Cartesian product is not associative. Exercise: Prove that (A B) C 6=
A (B C). (Hint: find a counter example).
If n(A) is the number of elements in A. Then, n(A B) =n(A)n(B). Also,
n(A B) is infinite if either n(A) is infinte or n(B) is infinite and the other
set is not empty.
4.2
Relations
(a, b)
/ R that is a 6 Rb; a is not related to b.
Thus, R defines uniquely a subset of A B by R = {(a, b) : aRb}. On the
other hand, any subset R of A B defines a relation by: aRb if and only if
(a, b) R. Thus, there is a correspondence between subsets of A B and
relations from A to B.
Definition 4. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A B.
The domain of R is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs belonging
to R. Domain of R = {a : (a, b) R} A}. The Range of R is the
set of all second elements of the ordered pairs belonging to R. Range of
R = {b : (a, b) R} B}.
A relation R from a set A to itself is called a relation on A and is a subset
of A A.
Example. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Let
R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 2), (3, 1), (4, 4), (4, 3), (4, 2), (4, 1)} AA.
Then R is a relation on A. Note that (2, 2) R, so 2R2.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Let R be the relation divides on A. That is,
(a, b) R if and only if a|b. Then, we have the set
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 6), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}
Pictorially
Example. Let S be a set. Then S S is the universal relation on S and is
the empty relation on S. These relations are not interesting.
Example. An important relation on the set A is that of equality. That is
R = {(a, a) : a A}
This is called the identity or diagonal relation on A.
Let R be a relation from A to B. The inverse of R, denoted by R1 is the
relation from B to A which is given by R1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) R}. Note that
the domain of R is the range of F 1 while the range of R is the domain of
R1 .
Example. R = {(a, b), (c, d), (a, a), (c, c)}. Then, R1 = {(b, a), (d, c), (a, a), (c, c)}.
Properties of Relations
29
30
4.3
Equivalence Relation
31
33
4.4
Exercises
36