Wa0033

1
I
NTERNATI
ONALLAW 1&2
EXAMI
NATI
ONPREPARATI
ON
Page|
1
1. JURI
SDI
CTI
ONPRI
VILEGESANDI
MMUNI
TIES:
St
atesov
erei
gnt
yandequal
i
tyar
ethef
oundat
ionalpr
inci
plesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw and
pr
otecteachst
ate’
sjur
isdi
cti
onalpower
sfr
om i
nter
fer
encebyot
herst
ates.Towhat
ext
ent
,howev
er,does i
nter
nat
ionall
aw r
ecogni
ze and pr
otectt
he exer
cise of
j
uri
sdi
cti
onbyst
ates,
andt
owhatext
entar
eli
mit
ati
onsi
mposedont
hepowerofst
ates
byv
irt
ueoft
hei
rint
eract
ionandpar
ti
cipat
ioni
nthei
nter
nat
ional
syst
em?
TheI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icei
ntheAr
restWar
rantcaseconsi
der
edt
heabi
l
ityofa
Bel
gianj
udget
oexer
cisecr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
onbyi
ssui
ngani
nter
nat
ionalar
restwar
rant
agai
nstt
het
henMi
nist
erf
orf
orei
gnAf
fai
rsoft
heDemocr
ati
cRepubl
i
coft
heCongo
1
(
DRC)f
oral
l
egedwarcr
imesandcr
imesagai
nsthumani
ty.Theact
sinquest
iondi
dnot
occuri
nBel
gium,norwasanyBel
giannat
ionalav
ict
im.TheDRCar
guedt
hatBel
gium
hadnoj
uri
sdi
cti
ont
oissuet
hewar
rant
,ast
her
ewasnoconnect
ionbet
weent
he
al
l
egedact
sandt
hatst
ate,andt
hatev
eni
fther
ewer
ejur
isdi
cti
onFor
eignMi
nist
er
Yer
odi
awaspr
otect
edbydi
plomat
ici
mmuni
ty.Thi
scasehasbecomesomet
hingofa
moder
nsy
mboloft
het
ensi
onbet
weent
hel
i
mit
sonj
uri
sdi
cti
ondesi
gnedt
opr
otecta
sov
erei
gn st
atef
rom ext
ernali
nter
fer
ence (
whatmi
ghtbe consi
der
ed t
he ‘
old’
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw)ont
heonehand,andt
heext
entt
owhi
chj
uri
sdi
cti
onmi
ghtext
end
acr
osssov
erei
gnbor
der
stopuni
shhei
nousi
nter
nat
ionalcr
imesbyst
ateagent
sand
of
fi
cial
s(t
he‘
new’
int
ernat
ional
law)ont
heot
her
.
1
Ar
restWar
rantof11Apr
il2000(
Democr
ati
cRepubl
i
coft
heCongovBel
gium)
(
Judgment
)[2002]I
CJRep3.2/Mal
col I
m N.Shaw,nt
ernat
ionalLaw(
Cambr
idge;
New
Yor
k:Cambr
idge
Uni
ver
sit
yPr
ess,
2008,
6thedn)
,647.
BACHELORSOFLAW 3RD YEAR

1
2.TYPESOFJURI
SDI
CTI
ON:
PRESCRI
PTI
ONANDENFORCEMENT
Pr
escr
ipt
iveJur
isdi
cti
on
Page|
2
Pr
escr
ipt
ive,orl
egi
sl
ati
ve,j
uri
sdi
cti
ondescr
ibest
hecompet
enceofst
atest
ocr
eat
e
nor
ms,r
ecogni
zedasv
ali
dbyi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Thi
spoweri
sbi
ndi
ngwi
thi
nast
ate’
s
t
err
it
oryand,undercer
tai
nci
rcumst
ances,bey
ond.Nat
ionall
awmaycov
eranysubj
ect
mat
ter
,buti
ncer
tai
nar
easast
atehasexcl
usi
vej
uri
sdi
cti
ont
hatmaynotbei
nter
fer
ed
wi
th byot
herst
ates.A st
ate maynotat
temptt
o al
tert
he l
egi
slat
ive,j
udi
cialor
admi
nist
rat
ive f
ramewor
kofaf
orei
gnst
atebysol
egi
slat
ing.Whi
l
ethi
swoul
dbe
i
nef
fect
ive,
ast
hel
egi
sl
ati
ngst
atewoul
dhav
enowayt
oenf
orcei
ts‘
ref
orms’
,themer
e
actofl
egi
slat
ingwoul
damountt
oani
nter
fer
encewi
tht
hesubj
ectst
ate’
ssov
erei
gnt
y.
Thi
spr
inci
pleext
endst
oot
hersov
erei
gnpr
erogat
ives,
bei
ngt
hoser
ight
sav
ail
abl
eonl
y
t
othest
ateandnotpr
ivat
eindi
vi
dual
s,suchast
hel
evy
ingoft
axes.Thesepower
sar
e
v
ali
dlyr
ecogni
zedbyi
nter
nat
ionall
aw whenex
erci
sedi
nrel
ati
ont
olocalandf
orei
gn
nat
ional
s,wher
ether
eisa‘
reall
i
nk’t
othet
err
it
ori
alst
ate.Thi
sli
nkcoul
dbet
he
nat
ional
i
tyorst
ateofdomi
cil
eoft
het
axpay
er,ort
hel
ocat
ion orsubj
ectoft
he
t
ransact
ion.Howev
er,i
not
hercont
ext
s,whatsuf
fi
cest
oest
abl
i
sht
hisconnect
ionmay
di
ff
er.
CI
VILANDCRI
MINALJURI
SDI
CTI
ON
Thequest
ionofwhet
heri
nter
nat
ionall
awt
reat
sci
vi
lasopposedt
ocr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
on
di
ff
erent
ly,i
ncasesi
nvol
vi
ngani
nter
nat
ionalel
ement
,isamat
terofdi
sput
e.I
tiscl
ear
t
hatdi
plomat
icpr
otesti
smor
efr
equent
lyr
aisedwi
thr
egar
dtot
heexcessi
veexer
cise
ofcr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
on.Ci
vi
ljur
isdi
cti
on,ont
heot
herhand,i
sfr
equent
lyexer
cisedi
n
casest
hathav
eli
mit
edconnect
ionwi
tht
hef
orum st
ate,andonl
yli
mit
eddi
plomat
ic
obj
ect
ionsar
erai
sed.I
ndeed,wher
eobj
ect
ioni
staken,i
tal
mostal
way
srel
atesnott
o
t
heexer
ciseofj
uri
sdi
cti
onbutt
osomeanci
l
lar
yissue.I
ftheabsenceofpr
otesti
staken
t
oref
lectt
he per
missi
ve nat
ure ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
nthe ar
ea,t
hen si
gni
fi
cant

1
l
i
mit
ati
onsont
heexer
ciseofci
vi
lj
uri
sdi
cti
on
ar
enotappar
ent
.
Commonl
aw cour
tspr
emi
seci
vi
ljur
isdi
cti
onont
hepr
operser
viceofl
egalpr
ocess,
Page|
3
whi
chnecessi
tat
esei
thert
hedef
endant
’spr
esencei
nthet
err
it
oryoft
hef
orum,ort
he
def
endant
’sv
olunt
arysubmi
ssi
ont
othecour
t’
sjur
isdi
cti
on.Thedur
ati
onofst
ayi
nthe
t
err
it
oryi
snotr
elev
ant
,sol
ongasser
vicei
saf
fect
edwi
thi
nthatper
iod.Whi
l
ecour
ts
mayst
aypr
oceedi
ngs
wher
ethei
rcont
inuat
ionwoul
dbeunj
ust
,thef
actt
hatadef
endanti
saf
orei
gnnat
ional
onl
ytempor
ari
l
ywi
thi
nthej
uri
sdi
cti
oni
snotperseasour
ceofi
njust
ice.I
ntheUni
ted
St
ates,t
hishasbeenext
endedt
oincl
udeuseoft
henot
ionof‘
tr
ansact
ionofbusi
ness’
wi
thi
nthef
orum t
err
it
ory
,sucht
hataper
sonsendi
ngal
ett
ert
hrought
hej
uri
sdi
cti
on,
f
lyi
ngov
eri
t,orhav
ingpr
evi
ousl
yhel
dameet
ingi
nit
,maybesubj
ectt
oaUScour
t’
s
j
uri
sdi
cti
on.
Cr
imi
nal
,li
keci
vi
l,j
uri
sdi
cti
oni
spr
imar
il
ybasedont
err
it
ory
.Itmaybeexer
cisedov
er
f
orei
gnnat
ional
swhoar
ewi
thi
nthef
orum t
err
it
orywi
thr
egar
dtoact
scommi
tt
edt
her
e.
Nat
ional
soft
hef
orum st
atemaybesubj
ectt
oadj
udi
cat
oryj
uri
sdi
cti
onwhi
l
ewi
thi
nthe
t
err
it
oryf
oract
sdone,
bot
hathomeandabr
oad.Howev
er,
uni
l
ater
alenf
orcementmay
onl
ybeconduct
edwhent
heof
fenderr
etur
nshome.Anyexer
ciseofof
fi
cialj
uri
sdi
cti
on
ont
het
err
it
oryofanot
hersov
erei
gnst
ate,
wit
houti
tsconsent
,amount
stoi
nter
fer
ence
wi
tht
hatst
ate’
s sov
erei
gnt
y and i
s pr
ohi
bit
ed by i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Exer
cisi
ng
enf
orcementandadj
udi
cat
ionj
uri
sdi
cti
onov
erf
orei
gnnat
ional
sforact
scommi
tt
ed
abr
oad i
sper
mit
ted onl
yin cer
tai
nli
mit
ed ci
rcumst
ances,aswi
l
lbe seen i
nthe
f
oll
owi
ngsect
ion.
Ter
ri
tor
ial
Pri
nci
ple
Thepr
inci
plet
hatt
hedomest
iccour
tsoft
hest
atei
nwhi
chacr
imei
scommi
tt
edhav
e
j
uri
sdi
cti
onov
ert
hatcr
imei
suni
ver
sal
l
yaccept
ed,ev
enwher
etheaccusedmaybea
f
orei
gnnat
ional
.Thi
sref
lect
stheexcl
usi
vi
tyofsov
erei
gnt
ywi
thi
nthest
ate’
ster
ri
tor
ial

1
l
i
mit
s(l
and,
seaandai
r)
,andi
tsr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ormai
ntai
ningor
der
.Assuch,
ther
eisa
cl
earpr
esumpt
ion
i
nfav
ouroft
hej
uri
sdi
cti
onoft
het
err
it
ori
alst
ate,
whi
chal
sor
efl
ect
sthef
actt
hati
nthe
gr
eatmaj
ori
tyofcasest
het
err
it
ori
alst
atei
sthemostconv
eni
entf
orum,
giv
ent
hatt
he
Page|
4
accused,
wit
nesses,
evi
denceandv
ict
imswi
l
lal
mostal
way
sbel
ocat
edt
her
e.
Ther
ear
etwopossi
bleappl
i
cat
ionsoft
err
it
ori
alj
uri
sdi
cti
on,r
efer
redt
oas‘
subj
ect
ive’
and‘
obj
ect
ive’
.The‘
subj
ect
ive’appl
i
cat
ionoft
err
it
ori
alj
uri
sdi
cti
ongr
ant
sjur
isdi
cti
on,
wher
eacr
imei
scommencedwi
thi
nthet
err
it
ori
alst
atebutcompl
etedi
nanot
her
,tot
he
st
atei
nwhi
cht
heconductwasi
nit
iat
ed.Forexampl
e,cr
imesl
i
kedr
ugt
raf
fi
cki
ng
f
requent
ly occuracr
oss nat
ionalf
ront
ier
s,and many pr
epar
ator
y act
s(such as
conspi
racy
)maybecar
ri
edouti
nonest
atebef
oret
hepr
inci
palof
fence(
sal
eorsuppl
y)
i
scommi
tt
ed i
nanot
herst
ate.Undert
hispr
inci
ple,t
hef
ir
stst
atehasj
uri
sdi
cti
on
not
wit
hst
andi
ngt
hef
actt
hatt
heof
fencei
scompl
etedorconsummat
edabr
oad.Of
cour
se,t
hesecondst
atewoul
dal
sobeabl
etov
ali
dlypr
osecut
e,andwhi
chst
ate
ul
ti
mat
elydoessowi
l
l(usual
l
y)dependont
hel
ocat
ionoft
hedef
endant
.Whi
l
ether
eis
noobl
i
gat
ioni
nsuchascenar
iof
ort
hef
ir
stst
atet
oexer
cisei
tsj
uri
sdi
cti
on(
atl
easti
n
cust
omar
y
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw)
,wher
etheexer
ciseofsuchj
uri
sdi
cti
onbyi
tisnecessar
ytocombat
t
ransnat
ionalori
nter
nat
ionalcr
ime,anumberoft
reat
ies(
andpossi
blycust
omar
y
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw)mi
ghtgi
ver
iset
oanobl
i
gat
iononi
tspar
ttoei
therpr
osecut
e,ort
o
ext
radi
tet
heaccusedt
oanot
herst
atet
odoso.
The‘
obj
ect
ive’appl
i
cat
ionoft
err
it
ori
alsov
erei
gnt
yref
erst
otheexer
ciseofj
uri
sdi
cti
on
byast
atewher
etheef
fect
sofacr
imear
efel
t,ev
ent
hought
hecr
ime(
oratl
easti
ts
i
nit
iat
ionorsubst
ant
ialel
ement
sofi
t)i
scommi
tt
edout
sidei
tst
err
it
ory
.Forexampl
e,a
f
raudul
entl
ett
erpost
edbyt
hedef
endanti
nEngl
and,t
othev
ict
imi
nGer
many
,maybe
t
ri
edi
nGer
many
.Thi
sappl
i
cat
ionoft
err
it
ori
alsov
erei
gnt
ywasconsi
der
edbyt
he
Per
manentCour
tofI
nter
nat
ionalJust
icei
nthel kLot
andmar uscase.I
nthatcase,a
Fr
enchst
eamer(
theSSLot
us)col
l
idedwi
thaTur
kishcol
l
ier(
theBoz-
Kour
t),si
nki
ng

1
andki
l
li
ngei
ghtpeopl heLot
e.Whent usr
eachedpor
t,i
nTur
key
,theFr
enchof
fi
cerof
t
hewat
chwasar
rest
edandchar
gedwi
thmansl
aught
er.Fr
ancepr
otest
edt
hatTur
key
hadnoj
uri
sdi
cti
ont
otr
yit
snat
ionali
nthi
sway
.Themaj
ori
tyj
udgmentconsi
der
edt
hat
i
twasaxi
omat
ict
oani
nter
nat
ionalsy
stem ofi
ndependentst
atest
hat‘
fai
l
ingt
he
Page|
5
exi
stenceofsomeper
missi
ver
ulet
othecont
rar
yst
ate.
Thecour
tconsi
der
ed,howev
er,t
hati
tdi
dnotf
oll
ow t
hat‘
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw pr
event
sa
st
atef
rom exer
cisi
ngj
uri
sdi
cti
oni
nit
sownt
err
it
ory
,inr
espectofanycasewhi
ch
r
elat
est
oact
swhi
chhav
etakenpl
aceabr
oad,andi
nwhi
chi
tcannotr
elyonsome
per
missi
ver
uleofi
nter
nat
ional
law’
.
Hav
ingoncest
atedt
hispr
inci
ple,howev
er,t
hemaj
ori
tywentont
odet
ermi
net
hatt
he
of
fencet
ookpl
aceonboar
daTur
kishshi
pwhi
ch,f
ort
hepur
posesofdet
ermi
ning
j
uri
sdi
cti
on,wast
obeconsi
der
edTur
kisht
err
it
ory
.Tur
keydi
dhav
ejur
isdi
cti
ont
otr
y
t
heFr
enchof
fi
ceroft
hewat
choncehewasi
nTur
key
,ont
hebasi
soft
heobj
ect
ive
t
err
it
ori
ali
typr
inci
ple.Thecr
imeor
igi
nat
edi
nFr
ance,orr
atheronboar
dtheFr
ench
v
essel
,butbecausea‘
const
it
uentel
ement[
oft
hecr
ime]
,andmor
eespeci
all
yit
sef
fect
s’
occur
redont
heTur
kishcol
l
ier
,whi
chamount
edt
oTur
kisht
err
it
ory
,thecr
imewas
‘
nev
ert
hel
esst
ober
egar
dedashav
ingbeencommi
tt
edi
nthenat
ionalt
err
it
ory
’oft
he
f
orum st
ate.Thi
sst
atementoft
hel
aw hasbeencr
it
ici
zedasper
mit
ti
ngt
oobr
oadan
exer
ciseofj
uri
sdi
cti
on.Somest
ates‘
str
etch’
thi
sdoct
ri
nebymeansoft
hel
egalf
ict
ion
oft
hecont
inui
ngof
fence,t
oper
mitpr
osecut
ion f
orexampl
e,f
ort
hef
twhenat
hief
,
hav
ingst
olengoodsi
nonest
ate,
crossesabor
derwhi
l
est
il
li
npossessi
onoft
hest
olen
goods,
aconst
it
uentel
ementoft
hecr
imesupposedl
ycont
inui
ngwhi
l
ethegoodsar
ein
hi
sorherpossessi
on.Ot
herst
atespr
osecut
ewher
eef
fect
sonl
yar
efel
tint
hatst
ate.
Akehur
star
guest
hatasst
atepr
act
icei
ssoi
nconsi
stenti
ntheappl
i
cat
ionoft
he
const
it
uentel
ementr
ule,t
heef
fect
sdoct
ri
nemustbepr
efer
red,buti
sini
tsel
ftoo
br
oad.Hepr
oposesl
i
mit
ingi
ttoonl
yef
fect
sfel
t‘di
rect
ly’ormost‘
subst
ant
ial
l
y’byt
he
st
ateseeki
ngt
oexer
cisej
uri
sdi
cti
on.Thi
s,hesuggest
s,i
stheonl
yrul
ecompat
ibl
ewi
th
deci
dedcases,
andpr
event
sexcessi
vecl
aimsofj
uri
sdi
cti
on.

1
Si heLot
ncet uscase,
thesubj
ect
iveandobj
ect
ivet
err
it
ori
ali
typr
inci
pleshav
eper
mit
ted
st
atest
oexer
cisej
uri
sdi
cti
onov
erpeopl
e,pr
oper
tyandev
ent
s,wher
eaconst
it
uent
el
ementoft
hecauseofact
ionoccur
swi
thi
nthei
rter
ri
tor
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rectorsubst
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ial
ef
fect
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emaybecompet
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ates
Page|
6
ov
erj
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egar
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Wi
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por
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ateshas
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ntheUSandt
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eezeal
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denomi
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Si
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orcementar
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Nat
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tyPr
inci
ple
Thenat
ional
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typr
inci
pleal
l
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atest
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uri
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cti
onov
ert
hei
rnat
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act
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side t
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ate’
ster
ri
tor
y.Thi
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inci
ple st
ems f
rom t
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ecogni
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Nat
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ernat
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rst
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basedsol
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snat
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i
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yext
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otheci
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imi
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j
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hest
ate’
scour
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tachment
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nter
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oget
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heexi
stence

1
ofr
eci
procal
right
sanddut
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thoutsuchagenui
neconnect
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int
ernat
ional
l
awwi
l
lnotr
ecogni
zet
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ty.
Cor
por
ati
onshav
ethenat
ional
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hest
ateofr
egi
str
ati
onori
ncor
por
ati
on,ort
hatof
Page|
7
t
hei
rmai
npl
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ness.Daught
ercompani
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omat
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l
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connect
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ianat
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tht
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rpar
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s.Shi
psandai
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henat
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t
hest
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egi
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ati
on,
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hest
ate
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iat
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ibi
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ochi
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ornat
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ty
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St
ateswi
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llaw t
radi
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emor
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atest
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j
uri
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ossal
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act
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orm ofj
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ylawmat
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tyoft
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ti
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ncommonl
aw st
ates,t
his
j
uri
sdi
cti
oni
sgener
all
yonl
yexer
cisedwi
thr
egar
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eryser
iouscr
imi
nalof
fences,or
wher
ethet
err
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ori
alpr
inci
plei
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eat
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fences,
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in
or
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eventnat
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avel
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ibed
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bit
ed.
Pr
otect
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inci
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St
atesf
requent
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ate’
seconomi
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mmi
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rencyandnat
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it
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ernment
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tedSt
atesofAmer
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dsconsi
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edanappealagai
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ext
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ti
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nstaThainat
ionalf
rom HongKongt
otheUS.Li
angsi
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oundt
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oimpor
ther
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rom Thai
l
and,butast
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ti
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raf
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cki
ng,USandThaiaut
hor
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iest
ri
cked

1
Li
angsi
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praser
tint
ogoi
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oHongKong,wher
ehet
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ectpay
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s
Page|
8
wasnecessar
yfort
heext
radi
ti
onor
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,undert
hepr
inci
pleofdoubl
ecr
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nal
i
ty.The
cour
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nchoat
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racy
,whi
chi
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ean
ef
fecti
nHongKong,
woul
dbet
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abl
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sdeci
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efl
ect
sthepr
otect
ivepr
inci
plei
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owi
ng
st
atest
oexer
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uri
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eract
sdoneout
sidet
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rter
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tor
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ing,orev
en
i
ntendi
ngt
ohav
e,apr
ejudi
cial
impactwi
thi
nthatst
ate.
nNussel
I einvBel
gium,aDut
chsol
dierwasconv
ict
edofai
dingt
heenemyont
hebasi
s
ofact
sdonebot
hinsi
deandout
sideBel
gium.TheBel
gianCour
tofCassat
ionhel
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i
thadj
uri
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ert
hesol
dieri
rr
espect
iveofwher
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hey
const
it
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cri
mes
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ernal
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Si
mil
arl
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cevDPP,af
orei
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eftEngl
andf
raudul
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lyusi
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Engl
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lybr
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ort
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twashel
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Br
it
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ancet
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own.Hence,
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tt
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cientt
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oundj
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Passi
vePer
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inci
ple
Thecont
rov
ersi
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plehasbeenaccept
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ff
erentst
atesat
di
ff
erentt
imes.Thepr
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pleal
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rjur
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orei
gn
nat
ional
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ionsdoneout
sidet
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y,butwhi
chaf
fectt
hef
orum st
ate’
s
nat
i s.The case ofCut
onal ti
ng i
sof
ten ci
ted t
oil
l
ust
rat
ethe pr
inci
ple.The case
concer
nedanAmer
icanwhopubl
i
shedmat
eri
aldef
ami
ngaMexi
cani
nTexas.Cut
ti
ng

1
wasl
aterar
rest
edwhi
l
einMex
icoandchar
gedont
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amat
ionwas
cr
imi
nali
nMexi
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ime,
thepr
osecut
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imi
nal
int
hej
uri
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oni
nwhi
cht
heact
Page|
9
wasdone.Nev
ert
hel
ess,hewassubj
ectt
othecr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
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henat
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uri
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okedt
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osecut
ionofat
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passi
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typr
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asf
arbackas1935,
consi
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and
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act
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Nonet
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aw,hav
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ecentcasebef
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nter
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ver
sal
Jur
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Uni
ver
sal
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oni
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oadconceptt
hati
sof
tenusedwi
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eci
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yismeant
.Thet
erm hasbeenempl
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ightof andof
ten
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ift
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efer
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Gui
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imes at
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1
descr
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Page|
10
anot
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rantcasebef
oret
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nter
nat
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tofJust
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n1993,
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gian cour
tswer
e gi
ven j
uri
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on bynat
ionall
egi
slat
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,thepar
ti
esandt
heCour
tagr
eedt
o

1
r
esol
vet
hemat
teront
hequest
ionofi
mmuni
tyal
one,
rej
ect
ingt
heoppor
tuni
tyt
ocl
ari
fy
t
heposi
ti
onofuni
ver
salj
uri
sdi
cti
oni
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.Asr
ight
lynot
edi
naj
oint
Separ
ate Opi
nion,t
he r
esol
uti
on oft
he quest
ion ofi
mmuni
tycannotpr
oper
lybe
r
esol
vedwi
thoutal
soaddr
essi
ngj
uri
sdi
cti
on–i
tisaf
teral
li
mmuni
tyf
rom j
uri
sdi
cti
on.
Page|
11
Thest
oryofBel
gium’
sendeav
orst
oext
endappl
i
cat
ionoft
heuni
ver
sal
i
typr
inci
plei
nit
s
j
uri
sdi
cti
oni
sper
hapsi
ndi
cat
iveoft
hecur
rentst
ateoft
hepr
inci
ple,andi
tscompl
ex
i
nter
rel
ati
onshi
pwi
thi
nter
nat
ionalpowerpol
i
tics.Hav
ingbol
dlyamendedi
tsl
awst
o
enabl
ethepr
osecut
ionofwarcr
imes,
cri
mesagai
nsthumani
tyandgenoci
deexer
cisi
ng
uni
ver
salj
uri
sdi
cti
on,andhav
ingasy
stem t
hatal
l
owedv
ict
imst
oini
ti
atecr
imi
nal
compl
aint
sbef
oreani
nvest
igat
ingj
udge,Bel
gium t
ri
edandconv
ict
edf
ourRwandans
f
ort
hegenoci
dei
nRwandaandaccept
edcompl
aint
sagai
nstanext
raor
dinar
yrangeof
pot
ent
ialdef
endant
s,i
ncl
udi
ngI
srael
iPr
imeMi
nist
erAr
ielShar
on,CubanPr
esi
dent
Fi
delCast
ro and I
raqiPr
esi
dentSaddam Hussei
n,among ot
her
s.The di
plomat
ic
r
esponsef
rom af
fect
edst
atest
othi
sincr
easedl
i
tigat
ionwasf
arf
rom f
avour
abl
e,and
i
ncl
udedI
sraelwi
thdr
awi
ngi
tsambassadori
npr
otest
.Aschal
l
engi
ngast
hiswas,t
he
wheel
sonl
yreal
l
yfel
lof
ftheBel
gianuni
ver
salj
uri
sdi
cti
onmachi
newhenI
raqiv
ict
ims
soughtt
obr
inganact
ionagai
nstUSPr
esi
dentGeor
geH.
W.Bush,Vi
ce-
Presi
dentDi
ck
Cheneyandot
her
sforcommi
tt
ingwarcr
imesi
nthe1991Gul
fwar
.Ov
ertt
hreat
sbyUS
Secr
etar
iesofSt
ateCol
i
nPowel
landl
aterDonal
dRumsf
eld,i
ncl
udi
ngt
her
efusalt
o
f
undanewNATOheadquar
ter
sinBel
gium,l
edt
oaser
iesofamendment
sbr
oughtby
t
heBel
gianPr
imeMi
nist
ert
hatsi
gni
fi
cant
lyemascul
atedt
heBel
gianl
aw,i
ncl
udi
ngt
he
r
emov hepar
aloft ti
eci
vi
lecomponentandr
ecogni
zi
ngawi
der
angeofi
mmuni
ti
es
underi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
tisf
airt
osayt
hatBel
gium’
sdomest
icexper
ience,aswel
las
t
her
uli
ngoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icei
ntheAr
restWar
rantcase,hasdel
i
ver
ed
somet
hingofabl
owt
othet
raj
ect
oryofat
rueuni
ver
sal
jur
isdi
cti
on.
2. I
MMUNI
TYFROM JURI
SDI
CTI
ON
AsJudgesHi
ggi
ns,
Kooi
j
mansandBuer
gent
halexpl
ainedi
nthei
rjoi
ntSepar
ateOpi
nion

1
i
ntheAr
restWar
rantcase:“
Immuni
ty”i
sthecommonshor
thandphr
asef
or“
immuni
ty
f
rom j
uri
sdi
cti
on”
.Ift
her
eis no j
uri
sdi
cton en pr
i inci
pe,t
hen t
he quest
ion ofan
i
mmuni
tyf
rom aj
uri
sdi
cti
onwhi
chwoul
dot
her
wiseexi
stsi
mpl
ydoesnotar
ise’
.Iti
s
t
her
efor
eimpor
tantt
ounder
standt
heconceptofi
mmuni
tywi
thi
nint
ernat
ionall
aw i
n
Page|
12
r
elat
iont
otheexi
stence
ofj
uri
sdi
cti
onal
aut
hor
it
yopent
oast
ate.
Or
igi
ns:
TheDoct
ri
neofAbsol
uteSov
erei
gnI
mmuni
ty
St
atesov
erei
gnt
y,unt
ilr
elat
ivel
yrecent
ly,
wasseenasv
est
ingi
ntheper
sonoft
hehead
ofst
ate.Asani
ndi
vi
dualf
rom whom al
lthepowerandaut
hor
it
yoft
hest
ateemanat
ed,
t
heheadofst
atecoul
dnotbesubj
ectt
otheaut
hor
it
yofhi
sorherowncour
ts,noron
t
hepr
inci
pleofsov
erei
gn
equal
i
ty–t
hecour
tsofaf
orei
gnst
ate.Ov
ert
ime,t
heper
sonal
i
tyoft
hesov
erei
gnwas
r
epl
acedbyt
heabst
ract
ionoft
hest
ate,
yett
hepr
inci
pleofsov
erei
gnequal
i
tyr
emai
ned
andt
hei
mmuni
tyaf
for
dedwaspr
eser
ved.Chi
efJust
iceMar
shal
lin TheSchooner
ExchangevMcFadden,consi
der
edt
hatt
hepr
inci
pleofsov
erei
gni
mmuni
tymeanst
hat
‘
ever
ysov
erei
gni
sunder
stoodt
owai
vet
heexer
ciseofpar
tof[
thei
r]compl
eteexcl
usi
ve
t
err
it
ori
alj
uri
sdi
cti
on’
.Thi
spr
inci
plewasconf
ir
medmor
erecent
lybyLor
dBr
owne-
Wi
l
ki nExpar
nsoni tePi
nochet(
No.3)
,whenheexpl
ainedt
hat‘
thef
orei
gnst
atei
s
ent
it
led t
o a pr
ocedur
ali
mmuni
tyf
rom t
he pr
ocessesoft
he f
orum st
ate’
,whi
ch
embr
acesbot
hcr
imi
nal
andci
vi
lpr
ocess.
Sov
erei
gn i
mmuni
ty has i
tsf
oundat
ion i
n cust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
aw and t
he
f
undament
alpr
inci
pleofsov
erei
gnequal
i
ty,andhasanci
entr
oot
sini
nter
nat
ionall
aw.
Sov
erei
gni
mmuni
tyi
sbasedont
hest
atusofani
ndi
vi
dual
.Oncei
tisdet
ermi
nedt
hat
t
heper
soni
sent
it
ledt
oimmuni
ty,
heorshecannotbesubj
ect
edt
othel
egalsy
stem of
t
hehostst
ateexcepti
naf
ewl
i
mit
edexcept
ions.Thet
radi
ti
onaldoct
ri
neofsov
erei
gn
i
mmuni
tymeantt
hatanagentofaf
orei
gnst
atecoul
dnev
erbebr
oughtbef
oret
he
cour
tsofanot
herst
ate.Thepr
inci
plewasexpl
ai nThePar
nedi lementBel
ge,i
nwhi
ch
Br
ettLJconsi
der
edt
hatst
ateshada‘
dut
ytor
espectt
hei
ndependenceanddi
gni
tyof

1
ev
eryot
hersov
erei
gnst
ate’
,andt
her
efor
eeachdecl
i
nest
oexer
cisebymeansofi
ts
cour
tsanyofi
tst
err
it
ori
alj
uri
sdi
cti
onov
ert
heper
sonofanysov
erei
gnorambassador
ofanyot
herst
ate,orov
ert
hepubl
i
cpr
oper
tyofanyst
atewhi
chi
sdest
inedt
opubl
i
c
use...t
houghsuchsov
erei
gn,
ambassadororpr
oper
tybewi
thi
nit
sjur
isdi
cti
on.
Page|
13
I
nappl
yi
ngt
hisst
atementofpr
inci
ple,i
twasnecessar
ytodet
ermi
newhi
chent
it
ies
wer
etobeconsi
der
edsov
erei
gnst
atesandwhati
nter
est
sinpr
oper
tywoul
dfal
lwi
thi
n
t
hepr
otect
ivescopeoft
hei
mmuni
ty.Twof
act
orsar
erel
evanti
ndet
ermi
ningt
hest
atus
ofent
it
iescl
aimi
ng
i
mmuni
ty.Thef
ir
sti
sthatst
ateor
gansneednotconf
ormt
oapar
ti
cul
armodeof
or
gani
zat
iont
oqual
i
fyassuch.Thewayi
nwhi
chst
ateagenci
esar
eincor
por
atedor
ot
her
wiseor
gani
zedi
samat
terf
ort
hest
ateandcour
tsneednotexami
net
hesei
n
det
ermi
ningcl
aimsofi
mmuni
ty.
Secondl
y,t
he i
ssue ofa cer
ti
fi
cat
e byt
he execut
ive,showi
ng r
ecogni
ti
on oft
he
st
atehoodoft
hecl
aimanti
ssuf
fi
cientt
oal
l
owacour
ttodet
ermi
nei
tsst
atusassuch.
Engl
i
shcour
tswi
l
lnotl
ookbey
ondsuchacer
ti
fi
cat
e.Asst
atesbegant
oengagei
n
commer
ce,nat
ional
i
zei
ndust
ryandempl
oypeopl
e,onal
argescal
einpubl
i
cagenci
es
andi
npr
ivat
ecapaci
ti
es,out
sidet
hei
rter
ri
tor
y,t
her
easonsf
ori
mmuni
tybasedsol
ely
onst
atusbegant
obequest
ioned.I
tnol
ongermadesensef
orf
orei
gnst
atest
obe
pr
otect
edf
rom l
i
abi
l
itywhenengagi
ngi
nthesameconductaspr
ivat
eent
it
ies,whi
ch
car
ri
edt
hef
ull
responsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
hei
rdel
i
cts.
TheRest
ri
cti
veorQual
i
fiedSov
erei
gnI
mmuni
tyDoct
ri
ne
Thesedev
elopment
s,whi
chhav
eoccur
redpar
ti
cul
arl
yandi
ncr
easi
ngl
ysi
ncet
heendof
t
heSecondWor
ldWar
,ledi
nmanyj
uri
sdi
cti
onst
othedev
elopmentoft
her
est
ri
cti
ve(
or
qual
i
fied)doct
ri
neofi
mmuni
tyt
orepl
acet
heabsol
uteappr
oacht
osov
erei
gni
mmuni
ty.
Ther
est
ri
cti
vedoct
ri
nedi
ff
erent
iat
esbet
weenact
sdonei
nthecapaci
tyofast
atef
or
whi
chi
mmuni
tyat
t j
aches(ur
eimper
ii
),andt
hoseact
sdonei
napr
ivat
ecapaci
ty.Thi
s
concept
ionofst
atei
mmuni
tyi
sbasedar
oundt
henat
ureoft
het
ransact
ionr
athert
han

1
t
hest
atusoft
heper
sont
ransact
ing.Thest
atusoft
heper
soni
sst
il
limpor
tanti
n
det
ermi
ningwhomaycl
aimi
mmuni
ty,buti
twi
l
lbeext
endedt
ocov yact
eronl ajur
e
i
mper
ii
,act
sint
henat
ureofpubl
i
caut
hor
it
y.Thi
sdi
sti
nct
ionhasf
ormedt
hebasi
sof
i
mmuni
ti
es l
egi
sl
ati
on enact
ed i
nthe 1970s and 1980s i
n many common l
aw
Page|
14
j
uri
sdi
cti
ons.
I
ntheUni
tedSt
ates,t
hepr
inci
plewasappl
i nVi
edi ctor
yTr
anspor
tInc.vComi
sar
ia
Gener
aldeAbast
eci
ement
osyTr
anspor
tes,
acaseconcer
ningt
hechar
terofashi
pbyan
ar
m oft
heSpani
shMi
nist
ryofCommer
ce,
tot
ranspor
tgr
ain.Thecour
tint
hiscasehel
d
t
hatt
ranspor
ti
nggr
ainwasnei
therpar
ti
cul
arl
ypol
i
ticalnorpubl
i
c,andhencedi
dnot
gi
ver
iset
oacl
aim ofi
mmuni
ty.I
ntheUK,t
heabsol
utepr
inci
pl n The
esetouti
Par
lementBel
ge,wasdef
ini
ti
vel
yov
ert
urnedbyt
hePr
ivyCounci
li he Phi
nt l
ippi
ne
Admi
ralcase,i
nwhi
chaf
orei
gnst
atewasconsi
der
ednott
obei
mmunef
rom t
he
j
uri
sdi
cti
onofl
ocalcour
tsi
nadmi
ral
tyact
ionsi
nrem wi
thr
espectt
ost
ate-
owned
commer
cialv
essel goes.Tr
sorcar endt
exTr
adi
ngCor
por
ati
onLt
dvCent
ralBankof
Ni
ger
ia,i
nwhi
cht
heCour
tofAppealunani
mousl
yaccept
edt
her
est
ri
cti
veappr
oachas
r
efl
ect
ingi
nter
nat
ionalpr
act
ice,i
snowt
heset
tl
edposi
ti
oni
nUKl
awandi
sof
tenci
ted
i
nint
ernat
ionalandnat
ionalcour
tsasr
efl
ect
ingt
hecont
empor
arydoct
ri
neofsov
erei
gn
i
mmuni
ty.Ther
est
ri
cti
veappr
oach i
snow enshr
ined i
nthenat
ionall
egi
slat
ion of
numer
ouscommonandci
vi
llaw count
ri
es,andi
sal
sor
efl
ect
edi
ncer
tai
nmul
ti
lat
eral
t
reat
ies.
TheNat
ureTest
Ther
est
ri
cti
veappr
oachr
equi
rescour
tst
odet
ermi
newhet
hert
hesov
erei
gnwasact
ing
i
nit
spubl
i
corpr
ivat
ecapaci
tyi
nther
elev
antt
ransact
ion,
inor
dert
oascer
tai
nwhet
her
j
uri
sdi
cti
oni
stobeaf
fi
rmedornot
.Ini
ti
all
y,anumberofmet
hodswer
eempl
oyedt
o
maket
hisdet
ermi
nat
ion.Cour
tsi
ndi
ff
erentj
uri
sdi
cti
onsconsi
der
edt
henat
ureoft
he
r
elat
ionshi
pencompassedbyt
het
ransact
ion(
apr
ivat
econt
ractf
orexampl
e),whet
her

1
pr
ivat
eent
it
iesar
ecapabl
eofengagi
ngi
ntheconduct
,andt
hepur
poseoft
heconduct
i
nthei
rdet
ermi
nat
ionsont
hispoi
nt.I
tseemsnow t
obegener
all
yaccept
edt
hatt
he
pur
poseoft
het
ransact
ioni
snotr
elev
antast
oit
schar
act
eri
zat
ionasanactj
urei
mper
ii
oranactj
uregest
ioni
s.Thepur
posi
veappr
oachpr
esent
sdi
ff
icul
ti
esasi
tinev
itabl
y
Page|
15
i
nvol
vesapol
i
ticalj
udgmentast
owhati
sapubl
i
cpur
poseandwhati
snotand,as
Mi
tchel
landBear
dpoi
ntout
,‘
al
mostanyactofasov
erei
gncanbesai
dtohav
eapubl
i
c
pur
poseofsomesor
t’
.Lor
dDenni
ng’
srul
i
ngi
ntheTr
endt
exTr
adi
ngcase,i
nwhi
chhe
st
ated
t
hatt
hepur
poseofacont
racti
sir
rel
evantt
othequest
ionofi
mmuni
ty.Thatcase
concer
nedt
hesuppl
yofconcr
etef
rom aSwi
sscompanyt
otheNi
ger
iangov
ernment
f
ort
hepur
poseofconst
ruct
inganar
mybar
racks.Thedi
sput
ear
osewhent
heNi
ger
ian
gov
ernmentr
efusedt
opayandcl
aimedt
hatt
het
ransact
ionwassubj
ectt
osov
erei
gn
i
mmuni
ty.TheCour
thel
dthat
,whi
l
ethepur
poseoft
hecont
ractwasr
elat
edt
oapubl
i
c
pur
pose(
thebui
l
dingofar
mybar
racks)
,thet
ransact
ionwascl
ear
lyi
nthenat
ureofa
commer
cialt
ransact
ion,t
o whi
ch i
mmuni
ty di
d notat
tach.So,t
oo,t
he Ger
man
Const
it
uti
onal
Cour
t,i
ntheEmpi
reofI
rancase,
stat
edt
hat‘
one
shoul
drat
herr
efert
othe nat
ure oft
he st
atet
ransact
ion ort
he r
esul
ti
ng l
egal
r
elat
ionshi
ps,
andnott
othemot
iveorpur
poseoft
hest
ateact
ivi
ty.
Funct
ionali
mmuni
typr
event
sast
atef
rom exer
cisi
ngj
uri
sdi
cti
onov
erf
orei
gnof
fi
cial
s
f
oract
scar
ri
edouti
ntheconductoft
hei
rof
fi
cialdut
ies.Suchact
sar
eat
tr
ibut
abl
eto
t
hest
ater
athert
hant
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.Lor
dMcNai
r,consi
der
i he McLeod i
ngt nci
dent
,
st
atedt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
inci
ple:Ani
ndi
vi
dual
doi
ngahost
il
eactaut
hor
izedandr
ati
fi
edby
t
hegov
ernmentofwhi
chhei
samembercannotbehel
dindi
vi
dual
l
yanswer
abl
easa
pr
ivat
etr
espasserormal
efact
or,butt
hatt
heActbecomesonef
orwhi
cht
heSt
atet
o
whi
chhebel
ongsi
sinsuchacaseal
oner
esponsi
ble.
Mor
erecent
ly,t
heI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalTr
ibunalf
ort
hef
ormerYugosl
avi
aexpl
ained
f
unct
ionali
mmuni
tyi
nter
msoft
heaut
hor
it
yofst
atest
o det
ermi
net
hei
rint
ernal
st
ruct
ureand,
inpar
ti
cul
ar,
todesi
gnat
ethei
ndi
vi
dual
sact
ingasst
ateagent
soror
gans,
aswel
lasast
ate’
sri
ghtt
oissuei
nst
ruct
ionst
othoseor
gans,whet
heroper
ati
ng

1
i
nter
nal
l
yorabr
oad,
and t
o pr
ovi
de sanct
ions f
ornon-
compl
i
ance.The necessar
yimpl
i
cat
ion oft
his
aut
hor
it
yist
hat‘
eachst
atei
sent
it
ledt
ocl
aimt
hatact
sort
ransact
ionsper
for
medby
oneofi
tsor
gansi
nit
sof
fi
cialcapaci
tybeat
tri
but
edt
othest
ate,sot
hatt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
Page|
16
or
ganmaynotbehel
daccount
abl
efort
hoseact
sort
ransact
ions’
.Thi
spr
otect
ion
shar
est
hesamer
ati
onalf
oundat
ionast
hef
orei
gnst
atei
mmuni
tydoct
ri
nedi
scussed
abov
e.I
ndeed,
iti
sacor
oll
aryoft
heequal
i
tyofsov
erei
gnst
atest
hati
ndi
vi
dual
sdonot
i
ncurr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
oract
ionscar
ri
edouti
nper
for
manceoft
hei
rfunct
ionasst
ate
agent
s.Accor
dingl
y,t
hei
mmuni
tyi
shel
dbyt
hest
ate,nott
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.Itmer
ely
ext
endst
oembr
acet
hei
rconduct
.Assuch,
wai
veroft
hei
mmuni
tymaybedonebyt
he
st
ate,
nott
hei
ndi
vi
dual
,andnot
hingpr
event
sindi
vi
dual
agent
sbei
ngt
ri
edi
fthesendi
ng
st
atewai
vesi
tsi
mmuni
ty,
irr
espect
iveoft
hewi
shesoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
repr
esent
ati
ve.
Exact
lywhoi
sli
kel
ytobepr
otect
edbyt
hisi
mmuni
tyandt
heext
entofi
tar
econsi
der
ed
bel
ow.
Thescopeoff
unct
ional
immuni
ty
Funct
ionali
mmuni
typr
event
stheexer
ciseofj
uri
sdi
cti
onov
eragent
sandor
gansof
f
orei
gnst
ateswi
thr
egar
dtoconducti
ntheexecut
ionoft
hei
rof
fi
cialdut
ies.Conduct
out
sidet
hescopeoft
hoseact
sat
tri
but
abl
etot
hest
atei
snot
,howev
er,subj
ectt
o
i
mmuni
tyandmayf
ormt
hesubj
ectofal
egalcl
aim.Af
urt
herl
i
mit
ati
ononi
mmuni
ty
appl
i
eswher
etheof
fi
ci
alacti
sin
br
each of t
he sendi
ng st
ate’
sint
ernat
ionall
egalobl
i
gat
ions and i
ncl
udes t
he
commi
ssi
onofaser
iouscr
imeundert
hel
awoft
hehostst
ate.I
nsuchci
rcumst
ances,
t
he i
ndi
vi
dualmaybe pr
osecut
ed orsubj
ectt
o puni
ti
ve measur
es i
n addi
ti
on t
o
i
nter
nat
ionall
egalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyat
tachi
ng t
othe sendi
ng st
ate.Thi
s except
ion i
s
i
l
lust
rat heRai
edbyt nbowWar
ri
ori
nci
dent
andsubsequentar
bit
ralawar
d.Thi
sinci
dentconcer
nedt
hebl
owi
ngupofaGr
eenpeace
shi
p(heRai
t nbow War
ri
or)byFr
enchi
ntel
l
igenceagent
sdur
ingaper
iodofpr
otest
agai
nstFr
enchnucl
eart
est
ingi
ntheSout
hPaci
fi
ccase.

1
Theshi
pwasatt
het
imedockedi
nAuckl
andHar
bourandaGr
eenpeacephot
ogr
apher
waski
l
ledi
ntheat
tack,l
eadi
ngt
othef
indi
ngbyaNewZeal
andcour
tthatFr
ancehad
i
nter
fer
edwi
thNew Zeal
and’
ssov
erei
gnt
yandi
tsagent
swer
egui
l
tyof
,amongot
her
of
fences,mansl
aught
er.Thesi
nki
ngoft
heshi
pwasani
nter
fer
encewi
thNewZeal
and
Page|
17
sov
erei
gnt
yinbr
eachofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,occur
ri
ngont
het
err
it
oryoft
hef
orum st
ate,
whi
chi
nvol
vedav
eryser
iouscr
imi
nalof
fence.Whi
l
etheact
ionsoft
heFr
enchagent
s
wer
eper
for
medi
nthecour
seoft
hei
rdut
yasagent
sofFr
ance,
becauset
heact
swer
ea
br
eachofFr
ance’
sint
ernat
ionall
egalobl
i
gat
ionst
heagent
swer
enotpr
otect
edby
f
unct
ional
immuni
ty.
Asecondexcept
ioni
nvol
vesi
nter
nat
ionalcr
imes.I
ntheBl
aski
c'
scasebef
oret
heI
CTY,
t
heAppeal
sChamberconsi
der
edt
hati
mmuni
tydoesnotext
endt
oconductdi
scl
osi
ng
i
nter
nat
ionalcr
imes,suchasgenoci
de,warcr
imesandcr
imesagai
nsthumani
ty.The
nor
mspr
ohi
bit
ingsuchcr
imespr
ecl
udet
heav
ail
abi
l
ityofi
mmuni
ty.Asi
ntheRai
nbow
War
ri
orcase,i
nter
nat
ionalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ori
nter
nat
ionalcr
imeswi
l
lat
tacht
othest
ate
aswel
lascr
imi
nal
li
abi
l
ityat
tachi
ngt
othei
ndi
vi
dual
responsi
blef
ort
hecommi
ssi
onof
,
orcont
ri
but
iont
o,t
hesecr
imes.Justasext
rat
err
it
ori
al(
incl
udi
nguni
ver
sal
)jur
isdi
cti
on
mayat
tacht
ocr
imest
hatv
iol
atet
he‘
l
awsofhumani
ty’
,sot
ooar
esuchcr
imesexempt
f
rom cl
aimsofi
mmuni
ty.Thi
ssent
imentcanbet
racedatl
eastbackt
othedi
plomat
ic
pr
otestbyt
heFr
ench,Br
it
ishandRussi
angov
ernment
scondemni
ngt
hemassi
veand
wi
despr
eaddepor
tat
ionandext
ermi
nat
ionofov
erone
mi
l
li
onChr
ist
ianAr
meni
ansbyt
heOt
tomangov
ernmenti
n1915.
I
nvi
ew oft
hesenew cr
imesofTur
keyagai
nsthumani
tyandci
vi
li
sat
ion,t
heAl
l
ied
gov
ernment
sannouncepubl
i
clyt
othe Subl
i
mePor
tet
hatt
heywi
l
lhol
dper
sonal
l
y
r
esponsi
blef
ort
hesecr
imesal
lmember
soft
heOt
tomanGov
ernmentandt
hoseof
t
hei
ragent
swhoar
eimpl
i
cat
edi
nsuchmassacr
es.Asweshal
lsee,howev
er,t
he
per
sonalorst
atusi
mmuni
ti
es,par
ti
cul
arl
yinr
elat
iont
oheadsofst
ateandsi
tt
ing
f
orei
gnmi
nist
ers,i
nsomeci
rcum Twooft
heagent
s,Maj
orMaf
artandCapt
ainPr
ieur
,
wer
esubsequent
lyar
rest
edi
nNew Zeal
andand,hav
ingpl
eadedgui
l
tyt
ochar
gesof

1
mansl
aught
erandcr
imi
naldamage,wer
esent
encedbyaNew Zeal
andcour
ttot
en
y
ear
s’i
mpr
isonmentst
ancesext
end ev
en t
othepr
otect
ion oft
heseof
fi
cesf
rom
pr
osecut
ioni
nrel
ati
ont
osuchhei
nousof
fences.Thespeci
fi
cimmuni
ti
esofheadsof
st
ate,ot
herseni
orof
fi
ci
alsanddi
plomat
sar
eper
sonalandwi
l
ldependont
hei
rst
atus.
Page|
18
Thesear
edi
scussedbel
ow.
Per
sonal
stat
usi
mmuni
ty
Headsofst
atesandgov
ernment
s,andseni
orgov
ernmentof
fi
cial
ssuchasf
orei
gn
mi
nist
ersanddi
plomat
icst
aff,ar
eimmunef
rom t
heexer
ciseofst
atej
uri
sdi
cti
onwi
th
r
egar
dtot
heconductoft
hei
rof
fi
cialf
unct
ionsasagent
soft
hei
rst
ate,asdi
scussed
abov
e.I
n addi
ti
on,cer
tai
n of
fi
cial
senj
oyl
i
mit
ed i
mmuni
tywi
thr
espectt
o pr
ivat
e
conduct
,thepr
emi
seswher
etheycar
ryoutt
hei
rof
fi
cialf
unct
ionsandt
hei
rpr
ivat
e
r
esi
dences.Thei
mmuni
tyher
eisbasedont
heneedt
opr
eventi
nter
fer
encewi
tht
he
of
fi
cial
’
sfunct
ions– nei
mpedi
aturof
fici
um.Hencei
tisnecessar
ytopr
otectt
he
of
fi
cial
’
spr
ivat
eli
febyr
ender
ingpr
ivat
eact
sandpr
oper
tyi
mmuneori
nvi
olabl
e.I
nthi
s
way
,ast
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icehasunequi
vocal
l
yst
ated,
cer
tai
nof
fi
cial
sofa
st
ate(
atl
eastheadsofst
ate,
headsofgov
ernmentandf
orei
gnaf
fai
rsmi
nist
ers)enj
oy
compl
eteandi
nvi
olabl
eimmuni
tyf
rom al
lact
s,publ
i
corpr
ivat
e,whi
l
etheyar
einof
fi
ce.
Thi
simmuni
tyat
tachest
otheper
sonev
enf
oract
scommi
tt
edpr
iort
othet
aki
ngof
of
fi
ce,ast
hepur
poseoft
hei
mmuni
tyi
stoenabl
east
atet
oexer
cisei
tsof
fi
cial
f
unct
ions(
thr
ough t
heper
son oft
heseni
orgov
ernmentagent
)unf
ett
ered byt
he
exer
ciseofj
uri
sdi
cti
onoff
orei
gncour
ts.
Unl
i
ke f
unct
ionali
mmuni
ti
es,per
sonali
mmuni
ti
esext
end ev
en t
o pr
otect
ion f
rom
pr
osecut
ionf
orcr
imesundernat
ionalandi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.I
ntheAr
restWar
rantcase,
t
hemaj
ori
tyoft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icehel
dthatt
her
ewasnoexcept
iont
othe
per
sonali
mmuni
tyofaser
vingf
orei
gnmi
nist
ert
hatwoul
dper
mitaf
orei
gnst
atet
o
pr
osecut
eev
eni
nter
nat
ionalcr
imes,suchascr
imesagai
nsthumani
tyorwarcr
imes.

1
Thedeci
siondr
ewconsi
der
abl
ecr
it
ici
sm (
from schol
arsaswel
lasf
rom j
udgesoft
he
Cour
twhodi
ssent
edorpr
ovi
dedSepar
ateOpi
nions)
,bot
h
f
ori
tsl
ackofl
egalcoher
enceandf
ort
hemessaget
hati
tsentaboutt
hei
mpuni
tyof
st
atel
eader
swhocommi
tthemosthei
nouscr
imesagai
nstt
hei
rownpeopl
e.The
Page|
19
maj
ori
tyconsi
der
edt
hati
mmuni
tydi
dnotamountt
oimpuni
ty,asv
ari
ousj
uri
sdi
cti
onal
possi
bil
i
tiesexi
stedf
orhi
s
pr
osecut
ion:
Despi
tet
his,asJudgesHi
ggi
ns,Buer
gent
halandKooi
j
manspoi
ntout
,thel
i
kel
i
hoodof
anyoft
hesecondi
ti
onsbei
ngmetwasr
atherr
emot
e,andwoul
dnotpr
eventi
mpuni
tyi
n
pr
act
ice.The i
mpor
tance ofdi
plomat
icr
elat
ions i
nint
ernat
ionall
aw cannotbe
ov
erst
ated.Ther
oleofdi
plomat
sasr
epr
esent
ati
vesoft
hei
rst
atei
scr
it
icalt
othe
f
unct
ioni
ngofi
nter
nat
ional
lawandr
elat
ions,
whet
herbet
weenf
ri
endl
yorhost
il
est
ates,
i
nti
mesofpeaceandi
nar
medconf
li
ct.Di
plomat
ici
mmuni
ti
es,
necessar
ytoensur
ethe
i
ntegr
it
yoft
hef
orei
gnst
ate’
sagent
sandpr
oper
ty.
Di
plomat
ici
mmuni
tyf
ort
hemostpar
tcov
erst
hef
unct
ions,pr
oper
tyandconductofa
st
ate’
sdi
plomat
icagent
s.Thesepr
eventi
nter
fer
encewi
tht
heaswel
laspubl
i
cli
feof
di
plomat
icst
affandsoensur
etheyar
eabl
etocar
ryoutt
hei
rmi on–nei
ssi mpedi
atur
l
egat
io.Assuch,t
hei
mmuni
ti
esar
eext
endedt
ofami
l
ymember
sfor
mingpar
toft
he
househol
d,whoar
enotnat
ional
soft
hehostst
ate.
Asi
nthecaseoft
heot
herf
ormsofi
mmuni
tydi
scussed,i
tdoesnotat
tacht
othe
i
ndi
vi
dualbuti
srat
heranext
ensi
onoft
hesov
erei
gnt
yoft
hesendi
ngst
ate.Thatst
ate
hast
hepowert
owai
veormai
ntai
nthati
mmuni
ty,asi
tisf
ort
hatst
ate’
sbenef
it
,not
t
hatoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
towhom i
t
at
taches.Di
plomat
icper
sonnelar
eimmune,subj
ectt
oexcept
ionsi
dent
if
iedi
nthe
Vi
ennaConv
ent
ion,f
rom cr
imi
nalj
uri
sdi
cti
onandpower
sofar
restanddet
ent
ion.The
hostst
atecan,
ofcour
se,
decl
areadi
plomatper
sonanongr
ataandr
equi
ret
hesendi
ng
st
ater
emov
ehi
m orher
.Thi
sref
lect
sthef
actt
hatt
her
eisnor
ightofl
egat
ionandal
l

1
di
plomat
icr
elat
ionsar
ebasedonconsent
.Ift
hesendi
ngst
atedoesnotr
emov
eit
s
r
epr
esent
ati
vewi
thi
nar
easonabl
eti
me,t
hehostst
atemayceaset
orecogni
zet
he
di
plomataspar
toft
hemi
ssi
on,
andactast
houghdi
plomat
ici
mmuni
tyhasl
apsed.
Page|
20
Ci
vi
ljur
isdi
cti
onmaybeexer
cisedov
erdi
plomat
icst
affonl
ytot
heext
entt
hati
tis
r
elev
antt
othei
rpr
ivat
eact
ivi
ti
es.Speci
fi
cal
l
y,j
uri
sdi
cti
onmaybeexer
cisedi
nmat
ter
s
r
elat
ingt
orealpr
oper
tyi
nthehostst
ate,nothel
dforanof
fi
cialpur
pose,successi
on,
andanypr
ofessi
onalorcommer
cialact
ivi
ti
esbey
ondt
hei
rof
fi
cialr
ole.Al
so,per
sonnel
hav
etheabi
l
ityt
owai
vet
hei
rimmuni
tybyv
olunt
ari
l
ysubmi
tt
ingt
othej
uri
sdi
cti
onby
,
f
orexampl
e,f
il
ingacl
aimi
nacour
toft
hehostst
ate.Thei
mmuni
tycoul
dnott
henbe
r
aisedt
ohav
eacount
ercl
aim st
ruckout
.
Thepr
emi
sesoff
orei
gndi
plomat
icmi
ssi
onsar
einv
iol
abl
e.Theyr
emai
npar
toft
he
t
err
it
oryoft
hehostst
ate,butt
heaut
hor
it
iesoft
hehostst
atemaynotexer
cise
j
uri
sdi
cti
on on t
he pr
emi
ses ofa f
orei
gn di
plomat
ic mi
ssi
on wi
thoutt
he expr
ess
consentoft
heheadoft
hemi
ssi
on.Fur
ther
,Ar
ti
cle22(
2)makesi
tincumbentont
he
hostst
atet
opr
eventanydi
stur
banceoft
hepeaceori
mpai
rmentoft
hedi
gni
tyoft
he
mi
ssi
on.Si
mil
arl
y,t
he pr
ivat
eresi
dences ofi
ndi
vi
dualdi
plomat
ic per
sonnelar
e
i
nvi
olabl
e,asar
eanyr
ecor
ds,paper
sandcor
respondence.Thepr
oper
tyoft
hef
orei
gn
mi
ssi
onmaynotbesubj
ectt
osear
ch,r
equi
sit
ion,orexecut
ion;t
hedi
plomat
icbag,
cour
ier
,codedmessagesandci
phermaynotbe‘
vi
olat
ed’
.
Fi
nal
l
y,di
plomat
icagent
sar
eimmunef
rom anyr
equi
rement
stopayt
axes,subj
ectt
o
l
i
stedexcept
ioni
nAr
ti
cl
e34.Wher
eadi
plomati
saper
manentr
esi
dentornat
ionalof
t
her
ecei
vi
ngst
ate,
anumberoft
hesei
mmuni
ti
esdonotappl
y.Thi
sisi
nthei
nter
estof
ensur
ingaccount
abi
l
ityi
natl
eastonej
uri
sdi
cti
on.Thef
unct
ionali
mmuni
tyel
ementwi
l
l
r
emai
nast
heof
fi
cialr
emai
nsanagentoft
hesendi
ngst
ate,butAr
ti
cle38(
1)pr
ovi
des
t
hat‘
excepti
nsof
araspr
ivi
l
egesandi
mmuni
ti
esmaybegr
ant
edbyt
her
ecei
vi
ngst
ate,
adi
plomat
icagentwhoi
sanat
ionaloforper
manent
lyr
esi
denti
nthatst
ateshal
lenj
oy
onl
yimmuni
tyf
rom j
uri
sdi
cti
onandi
nvi
olabi
l
ity
,inr
espectofof
fi
cialact
sper
for
medi
n

1
t
heexer
ciseofhi
sfunct
ions.
2. STATERESPONSI
BILI
TY:
Responsi
bil
i
tyi
sthecor
oll
aryofi
nter
nat
ional
law,
thebestpr
oofofi
tsexi
stenceandt
he
Page|
21
mostcr
edi
blemeasur
eofi
tsef
fect
iveness.Ev
eryl
egalsy
stem al
l
ocat
esr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.
Nor
ms,orsecondar
yrul
es’
,oper
atet
ohol
daper
sonaccount
abl
eforcont
rav
eni
nga
‘
pri
mar
y’l
egalobl
i
gat
ion.Forexampl
e,apr
imar
yrul
eindomest
icl
aw mi
ghtbet
he
obl
i
gat
ionnott
oint
erf
erewi
thanot
herper
son’
spr
oper
ty.Whet
hert
hei
nter
fer
encei
s
at
tr
ibut
abl
etoapar
ti
cul
arper
sonand,i
fso,whatr
emedi
est
hev
ict
im canseekar
e
det
ermi
nedbyt
hesecondar
yrul
es.St
ater
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ori
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulact
s
f
oll
owst
hesamel
ogi
c. Secondar
yrul
esi
nint
ernat
ionall
aw ar
enodi
ff
erentf
rom
pr
imar
yrul
esi
nthatt
heymustbeshownt
oder
ivef
rom at
reat
y,cust
om orgener
al
pr
inci
ples.As t
he t
erm suggest
s,howev
er,secondar
yrul
es ar
ethe r
ight
s and
obl
i
gat
ionst
hatappl
yaf
terapr
imar
yrul
ehasbeenv
iol
ated.
Thel
eadi
ngsour
cei
nthi
sar
eai
stheI
nter
nat
ionalLaw Commi
ssi
on’
sAr
ti
cleson
Responsi
bil
i
tyofSt
ates f
orI
nter
nat
ional
l
yWr
ongf
ulAct
s(2001)(
‘I
LC Ar
ti
cles’or
‘
Art
icl
es’
).The Ar
ti
cles hav
e under
gone a l
ong gest
ati
on per
iod and t
heyexer
ta
power
ful
inf
luenceont
hedev
elopment
oft
hel
aw.
THEI
LCARTI
CLESANDTHECHANGI
NGDI
SCOURSEOFSTATERESPONSI
BILI
TY
TheLongRoadt
oCodi
fi
cat
ion
Al
thoughi
nit
ial
l
ypl
aguedbyaf
ixat
ionwi
tht
hel
awont
het
reat
mentofal
i
ens,
dri
venby
t
het
hir
dspeci
alRappor
teur
,Rober
toAgo,t
heI
LC mov
edi
nthe1960st
owar
dsa
measur
eofpol
i
ticalaccept
anceoft
heAr
ti
clesbyi
ntr
oduci
ngt
hedi
sti
nct
ionbet
ween
‘
pri
mar
y’and‘
secondar
y’r
ules.Rat
hert
hancodi
fyi
ngal
lrul
esonr
esponsi
bil
i
ty,t
heI
LC
deci
dedt
oconf
inei
tsel
ftot
her
ulesofgener
alappl
i
cat
ion.TheI
LC Comment
ari
es
accompany
ingt
heAr
ti
cles(
‘Comment
ari
es’
)descr
ibet
hewor
kasbei
ngconcer
nedwi
th:
t
hegener
alcondi
ti
onsunderi
nter
nat
ional
lawf
ort
hest
atet
obeconsi
der
edr
esponsi
ble

1
f
orwr
ongf
ulact
ionsoromi
ssi
ons,andt
hel
egalconsequenceswhi
chf
lowt
her
efr
om.
TheAr
ti
clesdonotat
temptt
odef
inet
hecont
entoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ions,
breach
ofwhi
chgi
vesr
iset
oresponsi
bil
i
ty.
Page|
22
Thehi
ghl
evelofabst
ract
ionandpol
i
ticalneut
ral
i
tyoft
heAr
ti
cleswasaweakness,
but
,
gi
vent
heI
LC’
spr
opensi
tyt
opost
ponet
hepr
ojectov
ert
ime,
itwasal
soast
rengt
h.Two
t
opi
csdi
dnotsur
viv
etocodi
fi
cat
ionast
heywer
econsi
der
edt
obet
oopr
ogr
essi
ve.
Fi
rst
,a di
sput
e set
tl
ementmechani
sm f
orcl
aimsar
isi
ng outoft
he Ar
ti
cleswas
suggest
ed.Themechani
sm wasul
ti
mat
elydr
oppedgi
veni
tsunpopul
ari
tywi
thst
ates
andt
hebel
i
eft
hatast
atei
nbr
eachcoul
dinv
oket
he(
necessar
il
ylengt
hy)pr
ocedur
est
o
f
rust
rat
egenui
necount
ermeasur
es.
Secondl
y,Dr
aftAr
ti
cl
e19oft
he1996Dr
aftAr
ti
clesdef
inedan‘
i
nter
nat
ionalcr
imeof
st
ate’as br
each ofan obl
i
gat
ion ‘
so essent
ialf
ort
he pr
otect
ion off
undament
al
i
nter
est
soft
hewhol
e’
.Thepr
oposal
’
sval
i
dit
ywasst
rongl
ycont
est
edbyschol
arsand
st
ates,whi
chi
snotsur
pri
singgi
vent
hatnost
atepr
act
iceexi
stedf
orst
atecr
imi
nal
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Al
so,
unl
i
ket
hear
eaofi
ndi
vi
dualcr
imi
nalr
esponsi
bil
i
ty,
theDr
aftAr
ti
cles
l
ackedanydef
inedmechani
smsf
ort
heat
tri
but
ionofr
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
hati
s,pr
oper
def
ini
ti
onofcr
imes,ani
nvest
igat
ivepr
ocess,t
her
ightt
oaf
airt
ri
al,puni
ti
vesanct
ions
andasy
stem ofr
ehabi
l
itat
ion.I
ndeed,
someoft
heseconcept
ssi
mpl
ydonotal
i
gnwi
th
t
hei
deaoft
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyofanent
it
ysuchasast
ate.
I
n2000,
Draf
tAr
ti
cle19wasdel
etedandr
epl
acedwi
t heconceptofj
ht uscogens,
whi
ch
i
s si
gni
fi
cant
lyl
ess cont
rov
ersi
alSuppor
ti
ng t
he l
ogi
c oft
he I
LC’
s appr
oach,t
he
I
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
icei
ntheBosni
anGenoci
decaseconsi
der
edwhet
herSer
bia
(
successorst
atet
otheFeder
alRepubl
i
cofYugosl
avi
a(FRY)
)wasr
esponsi
blef
ort
he
Sr
ebr
eni
ca genoci
de commi
tt
ed by t
he Bosni
an Ser
binsur
rect
ionalmov
ement
,
Republ
i
kaSr
pska(
RS)
.

1
TheCour
thel
dthatt
heGenoci
deConv
ent
ioni
mpl
i
edl
yimposedst
ater
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
or
genoci
de,i
ncl
udi
ngcompl
i
cit
yingenoci
de.I
nit
sjudgment
,theCour
tref
err
edt
othe
I
LC’
s r
eject
ion of st
ate cr
imes and expr
essl
y deni
ed t
hat ‘
obl
i
gat
ions and
r
esponsi
bil
i
tiesunderi
nter
nat
ional
law’
canbe‘
ofacr
imi
nal
nat
ure.
Page|
23
Si
gni
fi
canceoft
heAr
ti
cles
Ther
eisnoov
erar
chi
ngmul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
yandmostr
esponsi
bil
i
tyr
ulesar
ecust
omar
y
i
nnat
ure.Al
thought
heAr
ti
clesar
eint
hef
orm ofadr
aftconv
ent
ion,
theI
LCdeci
dednot
t
osubj
ectt
hem t
oadi
plomat
icconf
erence.Att
hesamet
ime,pr
evi
ousdr
aft
shad
al
readybeenci
tedDr
aftAr
ti
clesont
heResponsi
bil
i
tyofSt
atesf
orI
nter
nat
ional
l
y
Wr
ongf
ulAct
sadopt
edonf
ir
str
eadi
ng,Repor
toft
heI
LC,[
1996]I
I2)Year
( bookoft
he
I
LC.wi
thappr
ovalbyt
heI
CJandv
ari
ousi
nter
nat
ionalt
ri
bunal
sandt
heI
LCf
eltt
hey
coul
dexer
tani
nfl
uenceont
hecr
yst
all
i
zat
ionofcust
om.
Accor
dingl
y,t
heGener
alAssembl
ydi
dnot
hingmor
ethan‘
takenot
e’oft
heAr
ti
cles.
Si
ncet
hent
heAr
ti
cl
eshav
ebeenci
tedasakeysour
ceby
ecour
tsandt
ri
bunal
s.Whi
l
e
t
heAr
ti
clesmay
,andof
tenar
e,r
eli
edupont
odet
ermi
net
hecont
entofr
ulesofst
ate
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty,t
her
eisanar
gumentt
obemadet
hatt
hisi
slesst
hansat
isf
act
ory
.In
i
nter
nat
ional
lawdev
oidasi
tisofa
const
it
uti
on,l
egi
sl
atur
eand acompel
l
ing enf
orcementr
egi
mei
tisaxi
omat
ict
hat
‘
subsi
diar
y’sour
cesl
i
ket
heAr
ti
cles(
ort
hej
udi
ci
aldeci
sionsonwhi
cht
heAr
ti
clesar
e
pr
imar
il
ybased)ar
enoti
nter
pret
edandappl
i
edasf
ormalsour
cesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.
Car
emustbet
akent
oensur
ethatt
heAr
ti
clesdonotbecomeasubst
it
utef
oran
exami
nat
ionofst
atepr
act
iceandopi
nioj
uri
sint
hedet
ermi
nat
ionoft
hecont
entof
r
ulesofcust
om orgener
alpr
inci
plesofi
nter
nat
ional
law.
I
NTERNATI
ONALLYWRONGFULACTS
An i
mpor
tantpr
inci
ple gr
ounded i
n sov
erei
gn equal
i
tyi
sthatev
eryi
nter
nat
ional
l
y

1
wr
ongf
ulactofast
ateent
ail
sthei
nter
nat
ionalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
hatst
ate(
Art
icl
e1of
t
heAr
ti
cles)
.Ani
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulacti
sdef
inedi
nAr
ti
cle2asanact
ionor
omi
ssi
on t
hat(
1)i
sat
tri
but
abl
etot
hest
ate,and (
2)const
it
utesabr
each ofan
i
nter
nat
ional
obl
i
gat
ionoft
hest
ate.
Page|
24
Ther
eisnor
equi
rementt
hatdamagebecausedt
oanot
herst
ate.TheAr
ti
clesal
so
r
eaf
fi
rmt
henowgener
all
yaccept
edpr
inci
pleofobj
ect
iver
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Forexampl
e,i
n
heCai
t recaset
hequest
ionar
oseast
owhet
herMexi
cowasr
esponsi
blef
ort
heact
ions
ofMexi
cansol
dier
swhoshotaFr
enchnat
ionalaf
tert
ryi
ngt
o ext
ortmoneyf
rom hi
m.
I
nfi
ndi
ngMexi
cor
esponsi
ble,t
heFr
ench–Mexi
canCl
aimsCommi
ssi
onappl
i
edt
he
pr
inci
pleofobj
ect
iver
esponsi
bil
i
ty,
def
ini
ng
i
tas‘
ther
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
heact
soft
heof
fi
cial
soror
gansofast
ate,whi
chmay
dev
olv
euponi
tev
eni
ntheabsenceofany“
faul
t”ofi
tsown’
.I
nit
sComment
ary
,theI
LC
consi
der
sthat f
aul
tmayf
orm par
toft
hepr
imar
yobl
i
gat
ion,butt
her
eisnogener
al
(
secondar
y)r
ulet
othatef
fect
.
Ar
ti
cle 3 oft
he Ar
ti
cl
es f
urt
herpr
ovi
des t
hatt
he char
act
eri
zat
ion ofan actas
i
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
uli
snotaf
fect
edbyi
tschar
act
eri
zat
ioni
nint
ernall
aw.Thi
s
r
efl
ect
sthebasi
cpr
inci
pledi
scussedi
nChapt
er3t
hatast
atemaynotl
egi
slat
eaway
i
tsi
nter
nat
ional
obl
i
gat
ionsorpl
eadi
nsuf
fi
ciencyofi
tsi
nter
nal
law.
THERULESOFATTRI
BUTI
ON
Ast
atei
sint
ernat
ional
l
yresponsi
blei
fabr
eachofapr
imar
yobl
i
gat
ioni
sat
tr
ibut
edi
t.
At
tri
but
ion,ori
mput
ing an actt
o a st
ate,i
sthus a necessar
y pr
erequi
sit
efor
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
oaccr
uet
othatst
ate.
St
ateOr
gans
Theconductofanyst
ateor
ganshal
lbeconsi
der
edanactoft
hest
ate,whet
hert
he
or
ganexer
cisesl
egi
sl
ati
ve,
execut
ive,
judi
cialoranyot
herf
unct
ion,
what
everposi
ti
oni
t
hol
dsi
ntheor
gani
zat
ionoft
hest
ate,andwhat
everi
tschar
act
erasanor
ganoft
he
cent
ral
gov
ernmentorofa

1
t
err
it
ori
aluni
toft
hest
ate(
Art
icl
e4oft
heAr
ti
cles)
.Anor
gani
ncl
udesanyper
sonor
ent
it
ywhi
chhast
hatst
atusi
naccor
dancewi
tht
hei
nter
nal
l
aw oft
hest
ate,al
thought
hisdef
ini
ti
oni
snotexhaust
ive.Ani
nter
nat
ionalcour
twi
l
l
consi
deral
ltheci
rcumst
ancest
odet
ermi
newhet
heraper
sonnotcl
assi
fi
edasan
Page|
25
or
ganunderi
nter
nall
awi
s,i
ntr
uth,par
toft
hest
ateappar
atus.Thef
actt
hatanor
gan
ofanaut
onomousgov
ernmenti
naf
eder
ati
ont
hewr
ongf
ulactdoesnotabsol
vet
he
st
ateofr
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Anexampl
eofbr
eachbyt
hej
udi
ciar
yiswher
eitcommi
tsa
deni
alofj
ust
icei
nrel
ati
ont
oaf
orei
gnnat
ional
.Fur
ther
,abr
eachbyt
hel
egi
slat
uremay
occuri
fitf
ail
stohonourt
hest
ate’
str
eat
ycommi
tmentt
opasscer
tai
nlegi
slat
ion.
I
ntheabsenceofaspeci
fi
ccommi
tment
,legi
slat
ionmustt
ypi
cal
l
ybeact
eduponf
or
st
ater
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
oar
ise.Howev
er,
inPr
osecut
orvFur
undži
j
a,t
heI
CTYst
ated:I
nthe
caseoft
ort
ure,t
hemer
efactofkeepi
ngi
nfor
ceorpassi
ngl
egi
slat
ioncont
rar
ytot
he
i
nter
nat
ional
prohi
bit
ionoft
ort
uregener
atesi
nter
nat
ional
Stat
eresponsi
bil
i
ty.Thev
alue
off
reedom f
rom t
ort
urei
ssogr
eatt
hati
tbecomesi
mper
ati
vet
opr
ecl
udeanynat
ional
l
egi
slat
iveactaut
hor
izi
ngorcondoni
ngt
ort
ure.Whet
herl
egi
slat
iongi
vesr
iset
ost
ate
r
esponsi
bil
i
tywi
l
lther
efor
edepend
upont
heobj
ectandpur
poseoft
hepr
imar
yrul
einquest
ion.
Gov
ernment
alAut
hor
it
y
Act
ionsofper
sonswhoar
enotst
ateor
ganswi
l
lbeat
tr
ibut
edt
othest
atei
ftheyar
e
empower
ed t
o exer
cise el
ement
s ofgov
ernment
alaut
hor
it
yand t
heyacti
nthat
capaci
tyi
nthepar
ti
cul
ari
nst
ance(
Art
icl
e5oft
heAr
ti
cles)
.Twoel
ement
smustbe
sat
isf
ied:t
hatt
hepowerexer
cisedi
sofagov
ernment
alnat
ure,andt
hatt
heent
it
ywas
empower
edt
oexer
cisei
t.Ast
othef
ormer
,int
ernat
ionalcasel
aw suggest
sthatt
wo
enqui
ri
esagai
n ar
erel
evant
.Thef
ir
stenqui
ryi
swhet
hert
her
eisahi
gh l
evelof
gov
ernmentcont
roloft
heent
it
y.I
nthecaseofacompany
,ar
ebut
tabl
epr
esumpt
ionof
gov
ernment
alaut
hor
it
y ar
ises wher
ethe st
ate cont
rol
sthe v
oti
ng poweroft
he
company
.Thesecondenqui
ryi
swhet
hert
hef
unct
ionsbei
ngexer
cisedar
e‘t
ypi
cal
l
y’or
‘
essent
ial
l
y’st
atef
unct
i nOi
ons.I lFi
eldofTexas,I
nc.vI
ran,t
heI
ran-
Uni
tedSt
ates

1
Cl
aimsTr
ibunalhadt
odeci
dewhet
hert
heNat
ionalI
rani
anOi
lCompany(
NIOC)was
exer
cisi
ng gov
ernment
alf
unct
ions i
nthe cont
extofbr
eaches by an associ
ated
companyofagr
eement
s wi
th an Amer
ican companyf
ort
he l
ease ofpet
rol
eum
expl
orat
ionanddr
il
li
ngequi
pment
.TheTr
ibunalf
oundNI
OC’
sbr
eachesat
tr
ibut
abl
eto
Page|
26
I
ranasI
ranwast
hecompany
’ssol
eshar
ehol
derandNI
OCwasest
abl
i
shedi
nor
dert
o
exer
ciset
heowner
shi
pri
ghtoft
heI
rani
annat
ioni
ntheoi
landgasr
esour
ces.
Thesecondel
ementofAr
ti
cle5i
sthatt
heent
it
ywas‘
empower
edbyl
aw’t
oexer
cise
t
hosef
unct
ions.Thi
srequi
rementshi
eldst
hest
atef
rom r
esponsi
bil
i
tywher
eithasnot
appoi
ntedt
heent
it
ytot
hef
unct
ionsi
tispur
por
tedl
yexer
cisi
ng.Act
sofanor
ganoran
ent
it
yempower
edt
oexer
cisegov
ernment
alaut
hor
it
ythatexceedt
hei
raut
hor
it
yor
cont
rav
enet
hei
rinst
ruct
ionswi
l
l
st
il
lbeconsi
der
edanactoft
hest
atei
ftheent
it
yact
sint
hecapaci
tyofast
ateent
it
y
(
Art
icl
e7)
.I heUni
nt onBr
idgeCompanycaseaBr
it
ishr
ail
wayof
fi
cialconf
iscat
ed
neut
ral
proper
tybel
i
evi
ngi
ttobel
ongt
oabel
l
iger
ent
.
TheTr
ibunalhel
dthat
:li
abi
l
ityi
snotaf
fect
edei
therbyt
hef
actt
hathedi
dsoundera
mi
stakeast
othechar
act
erandowner
shi
poft
hemat
eri
alort
hati
twasat
imeof
pr
essur
eandconf
usi
oncausedbywar
,orbyt
hef
act...t
hatt
her
ewasnoi
ntent
ionon
t
he par
toft
he Br
it
ish aut
hor
it
ies t
o appr
opr
iat
ethe mat
eri
ali
n quest
ion.A f
ine
di
sti
nct
ioni
s,howev
er,dr
awnast
owhenanent
it
yact
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Page|
27
Ar
ti
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1
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Page|
28
I
CTYhadt
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egi
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1
Uni
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Page|
29
Adopt
ionandI
nsur
rect
ionMov
ement
s
Anot
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tri
but
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rani
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itant
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ail
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Thesi
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Howev
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10)
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Der
ivedResponsi
bil
i
ty
UnderAr
ti
cle16oft
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ti
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ai
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1
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redi
sknowl
edgeoft
he
Page|
30
‘
speci
fi
cint
ent
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herst
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Thesegener
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1
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Page|
31
Ther
eis some doct
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her t
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heassi
stanceofmember
soft
heBr
it
ishcr
ew,br
ought
Page|
32
t
hef
ugi
ti
veback.ThePer
manentCour
tofAr
bit
rat
ionhel
dthatFr
enchsov
erei
gnt
yhad
notbeenv
iol
ated,asal
lpar
ti
eshadact
edi
ngoodf
ait
handt
heBr
it
ishof
fi
cial
swer
e
ent
it
ledt
oregar
dthebehav
i hegendar
oroft measv
ali
dconsentt
othei
ract
ionsi
nthe
ci
rcumst
ances.
Sel
f-
def
ence
Thewr
ongf
ulnessofanactofast
atei
spr
ecl
udedi
ftheactconst
it
utesal
awf
ul
measur
eofsel
f-
def
encet
akeni
nconf
ormi
tywi
tht
heUNChar
ter(
Art
icl
e21)
.
For
cemaj
eur
e
For
cemaj
eur
eappl
i
eswhenanacti
scar
ri
edouti
nresponset
otheoccur
renceof
i
rr
esi
sti
blef
orceorofanunf
oreseenev
ent
,bey
ondt
hecont
roloft
hest
ate,maki
ngi
t
mat
eri
all
yimpossi
blei
ntheci
rcumst
ancest
oper
for
mtheobl
i
gat
ion.Ast
atecannot
i
nvokef
orcemaj
eur
eift
hesi
tuat
ionwascaused,ei
theral
oneori
ncombi
nat
ionwi
th
ot
herf
act
ors,
byt
heconductoft
hest
ateori
fithasassumedt
her
isk(
Art
icl
e23oft
he
Ar
ti
cl .For
es) cemaj
eur
ecanar
isef
rom pur
elynat
uralcauses,suchasbadweat
her
f
orci
ngt
hedi
ver
sionofanai
rcr
aftont
oanot
herst
ate’
ster
ri
tor
y,orf
rom humancauses
out
sidet
hest
ate’
scont
rol
,suchast
heconductofi
nsur
rect
ionmov
ement
s.Si
mil
art
o
t
hecognat
econceptofsuper
veni
ngi
mpossi
bil
i
tyofper
for
mancei
nthel
awoft
reat
ies,
t
hef
actt
hatper
for
mancei
srender
edmor
edi
ff
icul
tbecauseofaneconomi
ccr
isi
s,f
or
exampl
edoesnotexcusenon-
per
for
mance.
Di
str
ess
Thewr
ongf
ulnessofanactofast
atei
spr
ecl
udedi
ftheaut
horoft
heacthasnoot
her
r
easonabl
eway
,inasi
tuat
ionofdi
str
ess,
ofsav
ingt
heaut
hor
’sl
i
feort
hel
i
vesoft
hose
ent
rust
edt
otheaut
hor
’scar
e.Di
str
esscannotbei
nvokedi
fthesi
tuat
ioni
scaused,

1
ei
theral
oneori
ncombi
nat
ion
wi
thot
herf
act
ors,byt
heconductoft
hei
nvoki
ngst
ate,ori
ftheacti
sli
kel
ytocr
eat
ea
compar
abl
eorgr
eat
erper
il(
Art
icl
e24)
.Iti
ssuf
fi
cientt
hatt
heaut
horr
easonabl
y
bel
i
evedt
hatt
hedangerexi
sted.
Page|
33
I
ntheRai
nbowWar
ri
ori
nci
dent
,twoFr
enchagent
shaddest
roy
edashi
pint
hepor
tof
Auckl
and.Byt
reat
y,Fr
anceagr
eedt
omaket
hepr
isoner
sser
veoutt
hei
rsent
enceson
t
hei
slandofHao.Howev
er,
bef
oret
hei
rsent
enceshadexpi
red,
Francer
epat
ri
atedt
hem
t
othei
rhomel
andi
ncont
rav
ent
ionofi
tsunder
taki
ngst
oNewZeal
and.ThePer
manent
Cour
tofAr
bit
rat
ion
accept
edFr
ance’
sar
gumentofdi
str
essi
nrel
ati
ont
ooneoft
heagent
s,whohadt
obe
r
epat
ri
atedt
orecei
vet
reat
mentf
oraser
iousmedi
calcondi
ti
ont
hatcoul
dthr
eat
enhi
s
l
i
fe.The Cour
thel
dthatFr
ance had demonst
rat
ed an ‘
ext
reme ur
gencyi
nvol
vi
ng
medi
calorot
herconsi
der
ati
onsofanel
ement
arynat
ure’
.Byr
equi
ri
ngat
hreatt
oli
fe,
t
heI
LCdel
i
ber
atel
ydepar
tedf
rom t
hear
bit
ral
body
’sf
ormul
ati
oni
ntheRai
nbowWar
ri
or
caset
hatdi
str
esshadt
obet
ight
lyci
rcumscr
ibedt
oav
oidabuse.I
tthusr
emai
ns
uncl
earwhet
herdi
str
essi
sav
ail
abl
eforsi
tuat
ionsf
all
i
ngshor
toft
hreatt
oli
fe.
Necessi
ty
Necessi
tyi
sanexcept
ionalexcusef
ornon-
per
for
mance.Necessi
tycannotbei
nvoked
unl
essi
tist
heonl
ymeanst
osaf
eguar
danessent
iali
nter
estoft
hest
ateagai
nsta
gr
aveandi
mmi
nentper
il
,andi
tdoesnoti
mpai
ranessent
iali
nter
estoft
hest
ate
t
owar
dswhi
cht
heobl
i
gat
ionexi
sts,
oroft
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyasawhol
e.I
tisonl
yint
erest
sofasi
mil
argr
avi
tyt
o
pr
eser
vat
ionoft
henat
uralenv
ironment
,economi
csur
viv
alort
hesubsi
stenceoft
he
popul
ati
ont
hatwoul
dbe‘
essent
ial
’
.Forexampl
e,whent
heLi
ber
iansuper
tankerTor
rey
Cany
onr
anont
osubmer
gedr
ocks,Br
it
ainwasj
ust
if
iedi
nbombi
ngt
heshi
ptobur
nup
t
heoi
lthatwoul
dot
her
wisehav
ethr
eat
enedt
heBr
it
ishcoast
li
ne.Whati
s‘essent
ial
’
andwhet
hera‘
grav
eandi
mmi
nentper
il
’exi
stedi
sjudgedobj
ect
ivel
y,r
athert
hanf
rom
t
hesubj
ect
ivei
ntentoft
hei
nvoki
ngst
ate,
andbr
eachi
ngt
hepr
imar
yobl
i
gat
ionmustbe

1
t
heonl
ymeansofpr
event
ingt
hatper
il
.
Fur
ther
mor
e,necessi
tymaynotbei
nvokedi
fthepr
imar
yrul
eexcl
udest
hepossi
bil
i
tyof
i
tsi
nvocat
ion,ev
eni
fimpl
i
cit
ly.Forexampl
e,i
ntheI
srael
iWal
lcase,t
heI
CJhel
dthat
Page|
34
t
hecour
sechosenbyI
srael
fort
hewal
lwas‘
necessar
ytoobt
aini
tssecur
it
yobj
ect
ives’
.
Howev
er,
in
doi
ngsoI
srael
woul
dbe‘
grav
elyi
nfr
ingi
ng’
int
ernat
ional
humanr
ight
sandhumani
tar
ian
l
aw,and t
hosei
nfr
ingement
s‘cannotbej
ust
if
ied bymi
l
itar
yexi
genci
esorbyt
he
r
equi
rement
sofnat
ional
secur
it
yorpubl
i
cor
der
’
Necessi
tycannotbei
nvokedi
fthest
atehascont
ri
but
edt
othesi
tuat
ionofnecessi
ty.I
n
heHungar
t ianDamscase,necessi
tywascl
osedt
oHungar
yasi
thad‘
hel
ped’t
obr
ing
aboutanysi
tuat
ionofnecessi
ty.Howev
er,ont
hepoi
ntof‘
grav
eandi
mmi
nentper
il
’,
Hungar
ianDamsconsi
der
edt
hataper
ilappear
ingi
nthel
ongt
erm mi
ghtbe‘
i
mmi
nent
’
i
fit
soccur
rencewasnev
ert
hel
essi
nev
itabl
e.
CONSEQUENCESOFBREACH
Oncei
tisest
abl
i
shedt
hatani
nter
nat
ionalobl
i
gat
ionhasbeenbr
eachedandt
hatt
he
br
eachi
sat
tri
but
abl
etoast
atet
hatcannotav
aili
tsel
fofci
rcumst
ancespr
ecl
udi
ng
wr
ongf
ulness,new secondar
yobl
i
gat
ionsdescendupont
hatst
atet
omakegoodt
he
i
njur
ycausedt
othei
njur
edst
ate
ort
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
tyasawhol
e.
Cessat
ion
Theobl
i
gat
ionofcessat
ioni
scr
uci
alt
othei
nter
nat
ionalr
uleofl
awandt
heunder
lyi
ng
pr
inci
pleofpact
asuntser
vanda.Asawr
ongf
ulactdoesnotaf
fectt
hest
ate’
scont
inued
dut
ytoper
for
mtheobl
i
gat
ion,
ast
atei
sunderadut
ytoceasei
tsact
,ifi
tiscont
inui
ng
(
Art
icl
e30(
a)oft
heAr
ti
cles)
.Inpr
act
ice,
cessat
ioni
sof
tent
hepr
imar
yremedysought
.
I
nsomecasescessat
ioncanbei
ndi
sti
ngui
shabl
efr
om r
est
it
uti
on,
especi
all
ywher
ethe
wr
ongf
ulconducti
sanomi
ssi
on,suchast
heobl
i
gat
iononI
rant
ofr
eet
hehost
agesi
n
Tehr
anHost
agescase.Cessat
ionwasi
nappl
i
cabl
einRai
nbowWar
ri
or,ast
hev
iol
ated

1
t
reat
yobl
i
gat
ionwasnol
ongeri
nfor
ce.
Assur
ancesandGuar
ant
eesofNon-
repet
it
ion
Ast
atei
sal
sounderanobl
i
gat
iont
oof
ferappr
opr
iat
eassur
ancesandguar
ant
eesof
Page|
35
nonr
epet
it
ion,
ift
heci
rcumst
ancessor
equi
re(
Art
icl
e30(
b))
.InLaGr
and,t
heI
CJf
ound
t
he Uni
ted St
ates t
o be i
n br
each ofdi
plomat
icl
aw i
nit
sfai
l
uret
oinf
orm t
wo
condemnedGer
manpr
isoner
soft
hei
rri
ghtt
ocommuni
cat
ewi
tht
heGer
manconsul
ate.
TheCour
tconsi
der
edt
hatt
heapol
ogybyt
heUni
tedSt
atesdi
dnotsuf
fi
cei
nthe
ci
rcumst
ances.TheCour
tnot
edt
hatt
heUni
tedSt
ates’commi
tmentt
oimpl
ementa
‘
vastanddet
ail
edpr
ogr
amme’t
oensur
efut
urecompl
i
ancewasmetwi
th‘
Ger
many
’s
r oragener
equestf alassur
anceofnon-
repet
it
ion’ ospeci
.Ast fi
cassur
ances,t
heI
CJ
i
nti
mat
edt
hati
ftheUni
tedSt
atesagai
nbr
eachedt
her
ulet
othedet
ri
mentofGer
man
nat
ional
s,andi
fthei
ndi
vi
dual
sconcer
nedwer
esubj
ect
edt
opr
olongeddet
ent
ionor
sent
encedt
osev
erepenal
ti
es,‘
i
twoul
dbei
ncumbentupont
heUni
tedSt
atest
oal
l
ow
t
her
evi
ew andr
econsi
der
ati
onoft
heconv
ict
ionandsent
ence’
.Theci
rcumst
ancesi
n
whi
chast
ateshoul
dof
ferguar
ant
eesorassur
ancesar
eexcept
ional
,andt
hear
eai
s
st
il
ldev
elopi
ng.Ther
ulei
sli
kel
ytoappl
yonl
yift
her
eisar
ealr
iskt
hataser
iousbr
each
causi
ngsubst
ant
iali
njur
ytoanot
herst
atemayber
epeat
ed.Thechoi
ceofmeansof
compl
i
ancewi
l
lusual
l
ybel
eftt
othedi
scr
eti
onoft
her
esponsi
blest
ate.
Repar
ati
ons
nChor
I zówFact
ory
,thePer
manentCour
tofI
nter
nat
ionalJust
iceor
der
edPol
andt
opay
r
epar
ati
onst
oGer
manyf
orwr
ongf
ull
yappr
opr
iat
ingl
andownedbyGer
mancompani
es
i
nPol
i
shUpperSi
l
esi
a.Undert
reat
y,Pol
andcoul
donl
yappl
yst
ate,andnotpr
ivat
e,
pr
oper
tyi
npay
mentofGer
manwarr
epar
ati
ons.Thef
oll
owi
ngst
atementi
scanoni
cal
.
Repar
ati
onmust
,asf
araspossi
ble,
wipeoutal
ltheconsequencesoft
hei
l
legalactand
r
e-est
abl
i
sht
hesi
tuat
ionwhi
chwoul
d,i
nal
lpr
obabi
l
ity
,hav
eexi
stedi
fthatacthadnot
beencommi
tt
ed’
.Thi
sisr
efl
ect
edi
nAr
ti
cle31oft
heAr
ti
cles,whi
chpr
ovi
desf
oran
obl
i
gat
ionoff
ullr
epar
ati
onf
ort
hei
njur
ycausedbyt
hei
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulact
.The
conceptof‘
i
njur
y’i
sbr
oadandi
ncl
udesanydamage,mat
eri
alormor
al.I
nsul
tst
oa

1
st
ateandpai
nandsuf
fer
ingar
ethemai
nexampl
esof‘
mor
al’
damage.I
ntheI
’
m Al
one
case, t
he US-
Canadi
an Cl
aims Commi
ssi
on hel
dthatt
he si
nki
ng ofa Canadi
an
r
egi
ster
edpr
ivat
evesselbyt
heUni
tedSt
atesdi
dnotcauseanymat
eri
aldamaget
o
Canadaasi
twasownedandoper
atedbyAmer
icanci
ti
zens.Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
heact
Page|
36
causedmor
aldamaget
oCanada,f
orwhi
cht
heCommi
ssi
onr
ecommendedt
hatt
he
Uni
ted St
ates apol
ogi
se and pay$25,
000 compensat
ion.The Ar
ti
cles onl
ypar
tl
y
el
abor
ateont
hepr
inci
pleofcausat
ion.TheComment
aryt
akest
hev
iewt
hatquest
ions
of‘
dir
ect
ness’and‘
remot
enessofdamage’ar
etoof
lexi
blet
ober
educedt
oa‘
si
ngl
e
v
erbal
for
mul
a’
.
Howev
er,undert
he mi
ti
gat
ion r
ulei
n Ar
ti
cle 39,accountshal
lbe t
aken oft
he
cont
ri
but
iont
othei
njur
ybywi
l
lfulornegl
i
gentconductoft
hei
njur
edst
ateorper
son
(
forexampl
e,anat
ional
)inr
elat
iont
owhom t
hei
njur
edst
ateseeksr
epar
ati
on.The
Ar
ti
clesdonotaddr
esst
hesi
tuat
ion
wher
ethei
njur
yispar
tl
ycausedbyal
awf
ulactofat
hir
dpar
ty,orquest
ionsof
cont
ri
but
ion as bet
ween t
wo r
esponsi
ble st
ates.The wayi
n whi
ch t
hese gener
al
pr
inci
plesappl
yini
nter
nat
ionall
awi
slar
gel
yunexpl
ored.Repar
ati
ont
akest
hef
orm of
,
si
ngl
yori
ncombi
nat
ion,
rest
it
uti
on,
compensat
ionandsat
isf
act
ion.
Ar
ti
cle35oft
heAr
ti
clesr
est
atest
heor
thodoxyt
hatr
est
it
uti
oni
sthepr
imar
yremedy
f
ori
njur
ycausedbyani
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulact
.Rest
it
uti
oncant
aket
hef
orm of
r
est
orat
ionoft
err
it
ory
,per
sonsorpr
oper
tyorr
ever
salofaj
uri
dicalact
.Forexampl
e,i
n
heTempl
t eofPr
eahVi
hearcase,t
heI
CJr
equi
redThai
l
andt
owi
thdr
awi
tsdet
achment
ofar
medf
orcesandr
est
oreanyobj
ect
sitr
emov
edf
rom aCambodi
ant
empl
e.
I
ntheAr
restWar
rantcase,
Bel
gium wasobl
i
gedt
ocancel
anar
restwar
ranti
nbr
eachof
st
atei
mmuni
ty.Rest
it
uti
oni
snotav
ail
abl
etot
heext
entt
hati
tismat
eri
all
yimpossi
ble
(
forexampl
e,i
fappr
opr
iat
edpr
oper
tyhasbeendest
roy
edorsol
dtoat
hir
dpar
ty)
,ori
fit
i
nvol
vesabur
denoutofal
lpr
opor
ti
ont
othebenef
itbei
ngsoughtf
rom r
est
it
uti
on,

1
especi
all
yifcompensat
ionwoul
dbeasuf
fi
cientr
emedy
.Thesel
i
mit
ati
onsmeant
hati
n
somear
eas,suchast
radeori
nvest
ment
,rest
it
uti
oni
srar
elyor
der
ed.Despi
tet
hese
r
eser
vat
ions,r
etai
ningr
est
it
uti
onasapr
imar
yremedyi
sjust
if
iedt
odi
scour
ager
ich
st
atesf
rom pay
ingf
ori
l
legal
l
yobt
ainedadv
ant
agest
hatcannotbesoobt
ainedby
Page|
37
poor
erst
ates.
Compensat
ion
Tot
heext
entt
hatdamagei
snotmadegoodbyr
est
it
uti
on,t
her
esponsi
blest
atemust
paycompensat
ionf
oranyf
inanci
all
yassessabl
edamage,i
ncl
udi
ngl
ossofpr
ofi
ts
(
Art
icl
e36 oft
heAr
ti
cles)
.A commonand f
lexi
bler
emedy
,compensat
ionusual
l
y
compr
isest
he‘
fai
rmar
ketv
alue’ofpr
oper
ty(
appr
opr
iat
elyv
alued)
,anawar
dofl
ost
pr
ofi
tsi
fnott
oospecul
ati
ve,
andi
nci
dent
alexpensesi
ncur
red.
Forper
sonali
njur
ytoanat
ional
,compensat
ionl
i
esf
ormedi
calexpenses,l
ossof
ear
ningsandmor
aldamage.Thesest
atement
sar
ever
ygener
alandt
hemeasur
eof
damages v
ery much depends on t
he pr
imar
y obl
i
gat
ion br
eached and t
he
ci
rcumst
ancesoft
hecase.Equi
tabl
econsi
der
ati
onsandpr
opor
ti
onal
i
tyal
sopl
ayar
ole.
The f
lexi
bil
i
ty of compensat
ion i
s demonst
rat
ed by t
he j
uri
spr
udence on
nat
ional
i
zat
ions.Wher
east
ateex
propr
iat
est
hepr
oper
tyofaf
orei
gnnat
ional
,ther
eis
nogener
alcust
omar
yrul
eof‘
prompt
,adequat
eandef
fect
ive’compensat
ion(
theso-
cal
l
ed‘
Hul
lfor
mul
a’
),asdev
elopi
ngst
ateshav
elongconsi
der
edt
hatexpr
opr
iat
ion
dur
ingnon-
discr
imi
nat
oryl
argescal
enat
ional
i
zat
ionsf
orapubl
i
cpur
posedonotobl
i
ge
st
atest
opayf
ull
compensat
ion.Appr
opr
iat
ecompensat
ionmustt
akei
ntoaccountt
he
st
ate’
sri
ghtt
oper
manentsov
erei
gnt
yov
eri
tsr
esour
ces.
Sat
isf
act
ion
Thet
hir
dremedyi
ssat
isf
act
ion(
Art
icl
e37oft
heAr
ti
cles)
.Sat
isf
act
ionmayconsi
stof
anacknowl
edgementoft
hebr
each,af
ormalapol
ogyoranot
herappr
opr
iat
emodal
i
ty,
suchasani
nqui
ryi
ntot
hecausesofani
nci
dentort
hepr
osecut
ionofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.
Assur
ancesandguar
ant
eesofnon-
repet
it
ionmayal
sohav
etheef
fectofpr
oduci
ng

1
sat
isf
act
ion.Somet
imes t
he I
CJ has consi
der
ed t
hati
ts condemnat
ion oft
he
r
esponsi
blest
atei
sadequat
esat
isf
act
ion.Sat
isf
act
ionmaynotbeoutofpr
opor
ti
ont
o
t
he i
njur
yorbe humi
l
iat
ing.I
mpor
tant
ly,sat
isf
act
ion maynotamountt
o puni
ti
ve
damages,a r
emedyofdet
err
ence notknown t
oint
ernat
ionall
aw.Sat
isf
act
ion i
s
Page|
38
par
ti
cul
arl
ysui
ted t
oremedymor
aldamaget
hati
snotf
inanci
all
yassessabl
e,as
demonst
rat heI
edbyt ’
m Al
onecasedi
scussedabov
e.
I
NVOCATI
ONOFSTATERESPONSI
BILI
TY
Cent
ralt
oint
ernat
ionall
aw i
sthemechani
sm f
orhol
dingst
atesaccount
abl
ebef
ore
t
hei
rint
ernat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulact
s.TheAr
ti
clesr
ight
lydef
ined‘
i
nvocat
ion’nar
rowl
y–
t
hati
s,ast
hecommencementofpr
oceedi
ngsbef
oreani
nter
nat
ionalcour
tort
ri
bunal
.
Thi
s ensur
es t
hatst
ates do nothav
eto show st
andi
ng f
orpr
otest
s orsi
mil
ar
expr onsofopi
essi nioj
uri
s.
TheI
njur
edSt
ate
Ast
atei
sent
it
ledasan‘
i
njur
edst
ate’
toi
nvoket
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyofanot
herst
atei
fthe
obl
i
gat
ionbr
eachedi
sowedt
o
(
a)t
hatst
atei
ndi
vi
dual
l
y;or
(
b)agr
oupofst
atesi
ncl
udi
ngt
hatst
ateandt
hebr
each
(
i)speci
all
yaf
fect
sthatst
ate;
or
(
ii
)radi
cal
l
ychangest
heposi
ti
onofal
ltheot
herst
atest
owhi
cht
he
obl
i
gat
ioni
sowedwi
thr
espectt
othef
urt
herper
for
manceof
t
heobl
i
gat
ion(
Art
icl
e42oft
heAr
ti
cles)
.
TheNon-
inj
uredSt
ate
A‘
non-
inj
uredst
ate’
mayi
nvoker
esponsi
bil
i
tywher
etheobl
i
gat
ionbr
eachedi
sowedt
o
(
a)agr
oupofst
atesi
ncl
udi
ngt
hatst
ate,andi
sest
abl
i
shedf
oracol
l
ect
ivei
nter
estof

1
t
hegr
oup(
suchascol
l
ect
ivedef
ence)
,or
(
b)t
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
tyasawhol
e(Ar
ti
cl
e48(
1)oft
heAr
ti
cles)
.Ar
ti
cle48(
1)(
b)
r
efl
ect
sthepr
inci
pl hater
et gaomnes obl
i
gat
ions,i
ncl
udi
ngbutnotl
i
mit oj
edt us
cogensnor
ms,
canbei
nvokedbyanyst
ate.I
nsuchacase,
anon-
inj
uredst
atecanseek
Page|
39
cessat
ionandassur
ancesandguar
ant
eesofnon-
repet
it
ion.
Undert
heAr
ti
cl
es,
wher
east
atecommi
tsaser
ious(
thati
sgr
ossorsy
stemat
ic)br
each
ofj
uscogens,al
lst
ateshav
eadut
ytocooper
atet
oendt
hebr
eacht
hroughl
awf
ul
means.Thi
sdut
yisadmi
tt
edl
yapr
ogr
essi
vedev
elopment
.Theot
herconsequencei
s
t
hatst
atesshal
lnotr
ecogni
ze
as l
awf
ula si
tuat
ion cr
eat
ed bysuch a br
each,norr
enderai
d orassi
stance i
n
mai
ntai
ningt
hatsi
tuat
ion.I
ntheI
srael
iWal
lcase,t
heI
CJdecl
aredGi
vent
hechar
act
er
andt
hei
mpor
tanceoft
her
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ionsi
nvol
ved,t
heCour
tisoft
hev
iewt
hat
al
lSt
atesar
eunderanobl
i
gat
ionnott
orecogni
zet
hei
l
legalsi
tuat
ionr
esul
ti
ngf
rom t
he
const
ruct
ionoft
hewal
l
..Theyar
eal
so
underanobl
i
gat
ionnott
orenderai
dorassi
stancei
nmai
ntai
ningt
hesi
tuat
ioncr
eat
ed
bysuchconst
ruct
ion.
Pl
ural
i
tyofI
njur
edorResponsi
bleSt
ates
Wher
esev
eralst
atesar
einj
uredbyt
hesamewr
ongf
ulact
,eachmaysepar
atel
yinv
oke
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty. Si
mil
arl
y, wher
e sev
eral st
ates ar
e r
esponsi
ble f
or t
he same
i
nter
nat
ional
l
ywr
ongf
ulact
,ther
esponsi
bil
i
tyofeachmaybei
nvoked.Thi
srul
edoes
notappl
ywher
est
atescommi
tdi
ff
erentwr
ongf
ulact
scausi
ngt
hei
njur
y,suchaswher
e
onest
ateai
dsorassi
sts
anot
hert
ocommi
tawr
ongf
ulact
.Ani
mpor
tantpr
ocedur
alr
ulei
sthatr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
cannotbei
nv fanecessar
okedi yst
epi
nthecl
aimi
saf
indi
ngofawr
ongf
ulactbyanon
-
par
tyt
othepr
oceedi
ngs.I
nthe EastTi
morcase,Aust
ral
i
aacqui
red cer
tai
nEast

1
Ti
mor
esesubmar
iner
esour
cesunderat
reat
ywi
thI
ndonesi
a.Por
tugalcl
aimedt
hat
Aust
ral
i
ahadbr
eachedi
tser
gaomnesobl
i
gat
ionnott
oinf
ri
nget
heEastTi
mor
ese
peopl
e’
sri
ghtt
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion.TheCour
tdi
smi
ssedt
hecl
aim,asi
twoul
dhav
e
hadt
opr
onounceont
hel
awf
ulnessofI
ndonesi
a’
scl
aimt
oEastTi
mor
.
Page|
40
Count
ermeasur
es
I
nter
nat
ionall
aw di
sti
ngui
shes bet
ween r
epr
isal
s(f
orci
ble unl
awf
ulr
esponses)
,
count
ermeasur
es (
non-
for
cibl
e unl
awf
ulr
esponses)and r
etor
sions (
unf
ri
endl
y but
l
awf
ulr
esponses)
.Repr
isal
sar
epr
ohi
bit
ed.Howev
er,
inadecent
ral
i
zedsy
stem suchas
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw count
ermeasur
esar
etol
erat
edasasel
f-
hel
pmechani
sm pr
ovi
ded
st
ri
ctr
equi
rement
sar
eobser
ved.Ani
njur
edst
atemayt
akecount
ermeasur
est
hat
compr
isenonper
for
manceofobl
i
gat
ionsi
towest
other
esponsi
blest
ate,pr
ovi
ded
r
esumpt
ionoft
heobl
i
gat
ioni
spossi
ble.
Thus,i
ntheHungar
ianDamscase Czechosl
ovaki
a’
sir
rev
ersi
blest
epofdi
ver
ti
ngt
he
Danube,t
aken i
n r
esponse t
o Hungar
y’st
reat
y br
eaches,was not a l
awf
ul
count
ermeasur
e.Ast
heobj
ectofcount
ermeasur
esi
stoi
nducet
her
esponsi
blest
atet
o
ceasei
tswr
ongf
ulconduct
,theymustbet
ermi
nat
edassoonast
her
esponsi
blest
ate
hascompl
i
edori
fthedi
sput
eispendi
ngbef
oreacompet
entcour
tort
ri
bunal
.
Secondl
y,Ar
ti
cl
e51oft
heAr
ti
clesr
equi
rescount
ermeasur
est
obe‘
commensur
atewi
th
t
hei
njur
ysuf
fer
ed’
,i
nvi
ewoft
hegr
avi
tyoft
hewr
ongf
ulactandt
hei
mpor
tanceoft
he
r
ight
sinquest
ion.Couchedi
ntheposi
ti
ve,t
hisr
equi
rementi
shar
derf
orani
njur
ed
st
atet
osat
isf
ythan
t
hef
ormul
ati
oni
ntheAi
rSer
vicescase,i
nwhi
chFr
ancewr
ongf
ull
yref
usedt
oal
l
owa
changeofgaugei
nLondononPanAm f
li
ght
sfr
om t
heUSwestcoast
.TheAr
bit
ral
Tr
ibunalhel
dthatt
heUni
tedSt
ates’suspensi
onofal
lAi
rFr
ancef
li
ght
stoLosAngel
es
was‘
notcl
ear
lydi
spr
opor
ti
onat
e’asi
thad‘
somedegr
eeofequi
val
encewi
tht
heal
l
eged
br
each’
.
Hence,pr
opor
ti
onal
i
tyr
emai
nsanunset
tl
edar
ea.Bef
oret
aki
ngcount
ermeasur
es,t
he

1
i
njur
edst
atemustnot
if
yther
esponsi
blest
ateofi
tsdeci
sionandof
fert
onegot
iat
e,but
i
tcandi
spense
wi
tht
hisr
equi
rementi
fur
gentcount
ermeasur
esar
enecessar
ytopr
eser
vei
tsr
ight
s.
Page|
41
THESTATE’
SDI
PLOMATI
CPROTECTI
ONOVERI
TSNATURALANDJURI
STI
CPERSONS:
Fol
l
owi
ngt
hej
uri
spr
udenceofVat
telt
hePer
manentCour
tofI
nter
nat
ionalJust
ice
st
at nMav
edi romat
ti
s:aSt
atei
sent
it
ledt
opr
otecti
tssubj
ect
s,wheni
njur
edbyact
s
cont
rar
ytoi
nter
nat
ionall
aw commi
tt
edbyanot
herSt
ate,f
rom whom t
heyhav
ebeen
unabl
etoobt
ainsat
isf
act
iont
hrought
heor
dinar
ychannel
s.Fol
l
owi
ngdecol
oni
zat
ion,
di
sagr
eement
sbet
weenst
atespar
aly
zedl
egaldev
elopmenti
nthi
sar
ea.Dev
eloped
st
atesconsi
der
edt
her
ewasani
nter
nat
ionalmi
nimum st
andar
dfort
het
reat
mentof
al
i
ens,
whi
l
edev
elopi
ngst
atesdeni
edt
hatal
i
enscoul
dbet
reat
edmor
efav
our
abl
ythan
nat
ional
s.
Equal
l
ydi
vi
siv
ewast
hequest
ionofper
manentsov
erei
gnt
yov
ernat
uralr
esour
cesand
whet
hert
ojet
ti
sont
hef
ict
iont
hatt
hest
atesuesonaccountofi
njur
ytoi
tsel
f.Ther
efor
e
i
twasonl
yin2006t
hatt
heI
LCpr
oduced,andt
heGener
alAssembl
ytooknot
eof
,it
s
Dr
aftAr
ti
clesonDi
plomat
icPr
otect
ion.Howev
er,t
heDr
aftAr
ti
clesdealonl
ywi
tht
he
pr
ocedur
alr
ulesr
elat
ingt
onat
ional
i
tyofcl
aimsandexhaust
ionofl
ocal
remedi
es.
Somesubst
ant
iver
uleshav
edev
eloped.Gener
all
y,ast
atecanf
reel
ychooset
oref
use
ent
ryt
oanal
i
enorsetcondi
ti
onsonent
ry,i
ncl
udi
ngr
efusi
ngt
hem ci
vi
lri
ght
ssuchas
t
her
ightt
ovot
e.188Expul
sion,howev
er,mustnotbear
bit
rar
y,di
scr
imi
nat
oryori
n
br
eachoft
heexpel
l
ingst
ate’
s
obl
i
gat
ions.Ast
atemayal
sosuef
oradeni
alofj
ust
icecommi
tt
edagai
nsti
tsnat
ional
t
heact
ionher
eisf
oundedont
hemal
funct
ioni
ngoft
hest
ate’
sjudi
cial
syst
em.
3. PACI
FICRESOLUTI
ONOFDI
SPUTES

1
THELEGALFRAMEWORK
Peacef
uldi
sput
eresol
uti
onatt
hei
nter
nat
ionall
evelhasoccur
redmor
eorl
essf
ormal
l
y
si
nce t
he exi
stence ofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw i
tsel
f.Long bef
oret
he cr
eat
ion oft
he
Per
manentCour
tofAr
bit
rat
ion or
,indeed,t
heUN Char
ter
,st
atesengaged i
nthe
Page|
42
set
tl
ementofdi
sput
est
hrough a r
ange ofbi
l
ater
aland ad hocmechani
sms.An
i
mpor
tantni
net
eent
h-cent
uryexampl
ewast
heset
tl
ementoft amousCar
henowf oli
ne
di
sput
e,r
elat
ingt
othesi
nki
ngbyt
heBr
it
ishofaUSshi
p.Thatev
ent
,st
il
lsi
gni
fi
canti
n
under
standi
ngsel
f-
def
encei
nint
ernat
ionall
aw,wasr
esol
vedbydi
plomat
icexchanges
bet
weent
heaf
fect
edst
ates.Mor
eanci
entexampl
esofst
atesr
esol
vi
ngt
hei
rdi
sput
es
bypeacef
ulmeanscanbef
oundatl
eastasf
arbackast
heRomansy
stem ofj
us
gent
ium.
Ofcour
se,di
sput
eswer
enotal
way
sset
tl
edpeacef
ull
yand,unl
i
ket
heposi
ti
ont
oday
undert
hemoder
nUN Char
terr
egi
meofcol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
y,t
her
ewasl
i
ttl
eorno
i
mpedi
mentunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw t
ost
atesr
esor
ti
ngt
otheuseoff
orcet
oresol
ve
t
hei
rdi
sput
es.Whi
l
eiti
sof
tensai
dthatpr
iort
o1945t
her
ewasnouni
ver
sal
l
yaccept
ed
pr
ohi
bit
ionagai
nstt
heuseoff
orcebyst
atest
oset
tl
edi
sput
es,
ther
ewasatl
eastsome
f
ramewor
kin pl
ace.The Hague Peace Conf
erences of 1899 and 1907 wer
e
unsuccessf
uli
npr
event
ingt
heSecondWor
ldWar
,despi
tet
hecr
eat
ionofanar
bit
ral
f
ramewor
k,a Per
manentCour
tofI
nter
nat
ionalJust
ice and a mul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
y
r
ender
ingt
heuseoff
orcei
nlar
gepar
tunl
awf
ul(
theKel
l
ogg-
Bri
andPact
3).Ev
enso,
t
hesenor
mat
ivedev
elopment
sdi
dlendgr
eat
erl
egi
ti
macyt
othepr
osecut
ionofGer
man
andJapanesel
eader
sfol
l
owi
ngt
heSecondWor
ldWarf
ort
hecr
imeofaggr
essi
on.
TheUni
tedNat
ionsChar
teri
n1945gav
ebi
rt
htoar
adi
calnewi
nter
nat
ionalf
ramewor
k
underwhi
chst
atesmustnev
err
esor
ttoar
medf
orcet
oset
tl
edi
sput
esexcepti
nli
mit
ed
ci
rcumst
ances.Ar
ti
cle2(
4)oft
heUN Char
terpr
ohi
bit
sthet
hreatoruseoff
orceby
st
atesot
hert
hani
n
i
ndi
vi
dualorcol
l
ect
ivesel
f-
def
ence(
Art
icl
e51)
.Ar
ti
cle2(
3)pr
ovi
dest
hatal
lmember
s
‘
shal
lset
tl
ethei
rint
ernat
ionaldi
sput
esbypeacef
ulmeansi
nsuchamannert
hat

1
i
nter
nat
ionalpeaceandsecur
it
y,andj
ust
ice,ar
enotendanger
ed’
.Ar
ti
cle33(
1)f
urt
her
obl
i
gespar
ti
est
oadi
sput
etoseekr
esol
uti
onf
ir
stby‘
negot
iat
ion,enqui
ry,medi
ati
on,
conci
l
iat
ion,
arbi
tr
ati
on,
judi
cialset
tl
ement
,resor
ttor
egi
onalagenci
esorar
rangement
s,
orot
herpeacef
ulmeansoft
hei
rownchoi
ce’
.Ar
ti
cle33(
2)gi
vest
heSecur
it
yCounci
lthe
Page|
43
powert
ocal
luponpar
ti
est
oset
tl
edi
sput
esbysuchmeansast
hosel
i
stedi
nAr
ti
cle
33(
1)wheni
tdeemsnecessar
y.TheSecur
it
yCounci
l
al
so has t
he powerunderChapt
erVI
Itot
ake measur
es t
o mai
ntai
n orr
est
ore
i
nter
nat
ionalpeaceandsecur
it
y,whi
chi
ncl
udest
hecr
eat
ionofi
nter
nat
ionalcr
imi
nal
t
ri
bunal
s.
NON-
JUDI
CIALSETTLEMENTPROCEDURES(
NON-
BINDI
NG)
Negot
iat
ion
Negot
iat
ioni
nvol
vesdi
scussi
onsbet
weent
hedi
sput
ingpar
ti
esseeki
ngt
ounder
stand
t
hedi
ff
erentposi
ti
onst
heyhol
dinor
dert
oresol
vet
hedi
sput
e.Ther
eisgener
all
yno
t
hir
d par
tyi
nvol
vement
,and t
he negot
iat
ionsar
e pur
elyconsensualand i
nfor
mal
.
Ther
efor
e,f
ornegot
iat
ions t
o be successf
ult
heyr
equi
re a measur
e ofgoodwi
l
l,
f
lex
ibi
l
ityandmut
ualunder
standi
ngbet
weent
hepar
ti
es.Ev
eni
fanegot
iat
ionf
ail
sto
r
esol
ve a di
sput
e,i
twi
l
lof
ten assi
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he par
ti
es i
n cl
ari
fyi
ng t
he nat
ure oft
he
di
sagr
eementandt
hei
ssuesi
ndi
sput
eandi
nobt
aini
ngacl
ear
eri
deaoft
hei
rownand
eachot
her
’sposi
ti
ons,
whatt
heyar
ewi
l
li
ngt
ocompr
omi
seonandwhati
tmi
ghtt
aket
o
r
esol
vet
hedi
sput
e.Manyt
reat
iespr
ovi
def
ornegot
iat
ionasapr
econdi
ti
ont
obi
ndi
ng
i
nter
nat
ionaldi
sput
eresol
uti
on.Exampl
esi
ncl
udeAr
ti
cle84oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ion
ont
heRepr
esent
ati
onofSt
atesi
nthei
rRel
ati
onswi
thUni
tedNat
ionsChar
ter
,Ar
t.39.
Thi
spowerwast
hebasi
soft
hecr
eat
ionoft
headhocI
nter
nat
ionalCr
imi
nalTr
ibunal
f
ort
hef
ormerYugosl
avi
aandt
heI
nter
nat
ional
Cri
minal
Tri
bunal
forRwanda.
I
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ions(
1975)andAr
ti
cle41oft
heConv
ent
ionont
heSuccessi
on
ofSt
ates i
n RespectofTr
eat
ies (
1978)
.Howev
er,nei
theri
nthe UN Char
ternor
ot
her
wisei
nint
ernat
ionall
aw i
sther
eanygener
alr
ulet
hatr
equi
rest
heexhaust
ionof
di
plomat
icnegot
iat
ionsasapr
econdi
ti
onf
oramat
tert
ober
efer
redt
oacour
tor

1
t
ri
bunal
.Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
hecour
tort
ri
bunalmaydi
rectpar
ti
esatt
hepr
eli
minar
yst
ages
oft
hepr
oceedi
ngst
onegot
iat
eingoodf
ait
handt
oindi
cat
ecer
tai
nfact
orst
obet
aken
i
ntoaccounti
nthatnegot
iat
ionpr
ocess.Ul
ti
mat
ely
,ther
eisnoobl
i
gat
iononst
atest
o
r
eachagr
eement
,onl
ythat‘
ser
iousef
for
tst
owar
dst
hatend wi
l
lbemade’
.
8 Thi
s
Page|
44
r
equi
respar
ti
est
o‘negot
iat
e,bar
gai
nandi
ngoodf
ait
hat
temptt
oreachar
esul
t
accept
abl
etobot
hpar
ti
es’
.Exampl
esofabr
eachofgoodf
ait
hhav
eincl
udedunusual
del
ays,cont
inuedr
efusalt
oconsi
derpr
oposal
sandbr
eaki
ngof
fdi
scussi
onswi
thout
j
ust
if
icat
ion.Negot
iat
ionsmaycont
inuewhi
l
ether
ear
eot
herr
esol
uti
onpr
ocesses
underway
,for
mal
ori
nfor
mal
,andar
esol
uti
onmayber
eachedatanyt
ime.
I
nqui
ry
Ar
ti
cle50oft
heI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
iceSt
atut
epr
ovi
dest
hatt
heCour
tmay‘
at
anyt
ime,ent
rustanyi
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vi
dual
,body
,bur
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gani
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t
maysel
ect
,wi
tht
het
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ngoutanenqui
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nganexper
topi
nion’
.The
possi
bil
i
ty ofengagi
ng a f
ormalcommi
ssi
on ofi
nqui
ry car
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eput
abl
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obser
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ect
ivel
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ir
stenv
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nthe 1899 Hague
Conv
ent
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ort
hePaci
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cSet
tl
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nter
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Di
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es.
12Thesepr
ovi
sionswer
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ncl
udedi
nthe1907HagueConv
ent
ion
f
oll
owi
ngt
hei
rsuccessf
ulappl
i
cat
ioni
ntheDoggerBankcase.Thi
ssuccessal
sol
edt
o
i
nqui
rypr
ovi
si
onsbei
ngi
ncor
por
atedi
ntomanyt
reat
iesatt
het
ime.Ther
ehasbeen
v
eryl
i
ttl
euseofi
nqui
rypr
ovi
sionsi
npr
act
iceov
ert
hey
ear
s,t
hought
her
ehav
ebeen
someoccasi
onsi
nrecentt
imes,
par
ti
cul
arl
yinr
elat
iont
oar
mscont
rol
treat
ies.
GoodOf
fi
ces
Goodof
fi
cesi
sanot
heri
nfor
malmeansofassi
sti
ngpar
ti
est
oresol
veadi
sput
e.Thi
s
i
nvol
vest
heat
temptbyani
mpar
ti
alt
hir
dpar
tyt
oinf
luencet
hedi
sput
ingpar
ti
est
o
ent
eri
nto negot
iat
ions.The Secur
it
yCounci
lit
sel
fhas engaged i
nthi
sfor
m of
i
nter
nat
ionaldi
plomacy
,of
tenusi
ngar
ecogni
zedandr
espect
edper
sont
onegot
iat
e
wi
tht
hepar
ti
est
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dsaset
tl
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Anexampl
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heusebyBar
ackObamaoff
ormerUSPr
esi
dentBi
l
lCl
i
ntont
o

1
assi
sti
nnegot
iat
ingt
her
eleaseofUSj
our
nal
i
stshel
dbyNor
thKor
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n2009,and
f
ormerUSPr
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mmyCar
tert
osecur
ether
eleaseofanAmer
icanci
ti
zeni
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Anot
hersuccessf
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nter
vent
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iAnnan whi
ch l
ed t
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agr
eementbet
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orPr
esi
dentMwaiKi
bakiandt
heopposi
ti
oni
nthe
Page|
45
Keny
anpost
-el
ect
iont
urmoi
l
,inwhi
chadi
sput
eov
eranel
ect
ioni
n2007l
edt
oweeksof
v
iol
ence.Anunusualexampl heBeagl
ewast eChanneldi
sput
einwhi
cht
hePopewas
r
equest
edbybot
hpar
ti
est
opr
ovi
dehi
sgoodof
fi
cesi
nadi
sput
ebet
weenAr
gent
ina
andChi
l
e,andathi
ssuggest
ionbot
hcount
ri
esagr
eedt
ocompl
ywi
tht
hepr
oposed
out
come.
Per
hapsoneoft
hemosti
mpr
essi
vemoder
nexampl
esofgoodof
fi
cesconcer
nst
he
i
ntr
act
abl
e di
sput
erel
ati
ng t
othe Locker
biei
nci
dent
.The pr
obl
em concer
ned a
j
uri
sdi
cti
onaldi
sput
eov
erwhowast
otr
ytwoLi
byanmenaccusedofpl
anni
ngand
execut
ingt
hei
nfamoust
err
ori
st
at
tackonaPanAm f
li
ghtbl
ownupov
erLocker
bie,Scot
land,i
nDecember1988.Bot
h
t
heUSandt
heUKhadi
nit
iat
edl
egalpr
oceedi
ngsagai
nstt
hemen,
whom Li
byar
efused
t
otr
ansf
eri
naccor
dancewi
thbot
hit
sownext
radi
ti
onl
awsandar
eadi
ngoft
he
Mont
real
Conv
ent
ionf
ort
he
Suppr
essi
onofUnl
awf
ulAct
sagai
nstt
heSaf
etyofCi
vi
lAv
iat
ion1971.Thecasewent
bef
oret
heI
CJwhi
ch,
inabsur
dci
rcumst
ances,
ref
usedt
oor
derpr
ovi
sional
measur
es.
Medi
ati
onandConci
l
iat
ion
Bot
hmedi
ati
onandconci
l
iat
ionar
eopent
othepar
ti
esi
ndi
sput
easaf
lexi
blemeansof
di
sput
eresol
uti
on.Amedi
atorf
aci
l
itat
esnegot
iat
ionsbet
weent
hepar
ti
es,andmay
pr
oposesol
uti
onst
othedi
sput
e.Ther
efor
e,t
hemedi
atorwi
l
lneedt
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lrespect
ed,
accept
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lpar
ti
es and sensi
ti
vet
oar
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ff
erentcont
ext
uali
ssues.
Conci
l
iat
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nvol
ves a t
hir
d par
tyi
nvest
igat
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he basi
s oft
he di
sput
e and
submi
ssi
onofar
epor
tsuggest
ingmeansbywhi
chaset
tl
ementmayber
eached.I
t
t
endst
oinv
olv
eel
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om bot
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ryandmedi
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on.Conci
l
iat
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epor
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ff
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hem f
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bit
rat
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nqui
ry,conci
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ionhas
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arasamet
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vi
ngdi
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1
TheGener
alRol
eoft
heUni
tedNat
ions
UnderAr
ti
cle36oft
heUNChar
ter
,theSecur
it
yCounci
lmay
,atanyst
ageofadi
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‘
recommendappr
opr
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ocedur
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ust
ment
’.
21Ar
ti
cle37r
equi
res
Page|
46
par
ti
eswhof
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rdi
ff
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,
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ti
cle38
al
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orr
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ti
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di
sput
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hatbet
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gent
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sraelov
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hear
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chmann,
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Howev
er,
ther
ear
edi
ff
eri
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iewsast
othet
rueef
fect
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itat
or
oft
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fi
cset
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es wi
thsomecl
aimst
hat‘
thel
i
nebet
weenpaci
fi
c
set
tl
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orcementhasbl
urr
ed’
I
NTERNATI
ONALARBI
TRATI
ON(
BINDI
NG)
Ar
bit
rat
ioni
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ndi
ngf
orm ofdi
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on.Ar
ti
cle37oft
heHagueConv
ent
ion
cont
ains t
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ed def
ini
ti
on ofar
bit
rat
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nter
nat
ionall
aw:I
nter
nat
ional
ar
bit
rat
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ori
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ectt
heset
tl
ementofdi
sput
esbet
weenSt
atesbyJudgesof
t
hei
rownchoi
ceandont
hebasi
sofr
espectf
orl
aw.Recour
set
oar
bit
rat
ioni
mpl
i
esan
engagementt
osubmi
tingoodf
ait
htot
he
Awar
d.I
tcanbedi
sti
ngui
shedf
rom j
udi
cialr
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uti
onasi
tisnor
mal
l
yanadhocbody
,
cr
eat
edspeci
fi
cal
l
yfort
her
esol
uti
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ti
cul
ardi
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naddi
ti
on,t
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ti
es
hav
egr
eat
ercont
rolov
ert
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ocessi
nthatt
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eeonhowt
hecasewi
l
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wi
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egar
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hei
ssuest
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nter
nat
ionall
aw i
sappl
i
ed,t
he
par
ti
esmayagr
eet
hatcer
tai
npr
inci
plesbeconsi
der
ed.Thepar
ti
esmustal
sodeci
de
onhow manyandwhot
hear
bit
rat
orswi
l
lbe.Ar
bit
rat
ionmayar
iseoutofat
reat
y
pr
ovi
si
onorasar
esul
tofanadhocagr
eement
.Onepr
omi
nentexampl
eofi
nter
nat
ional
ar
bit
rat
ioni
stheRai
nbow War
ri
orcase.Fr
anceandNew Zeal
andwer
einv
olv
edi
na
di
sput
eaf
tert
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enchmi
l
itar
ysecur
it
yser
vi heRai
cesankt nbowWar
ri
orshi
pwhi
l
ein

1
Auckl
andHar
bouri
n1985.TwoFr
enchsecr
etser
viceagent
swer
e
ar
rest
edandchar
gedi
nNewZeal
andandt
henconv
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edf
ormansl
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erandwi
l
lful
damage.TheFr
enchgov
ernmentev
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ual
l
yacknowl
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edunder
or
der
sandar
guedt
hatt
her
efor
etheyshoul
dnotbebl
amed.New Zeal
andnot
if
ied
Page|
47
Fr
ancet
hati
twoul
dbepur
sui
ngacl
aimf
orcompensat
ion.Negot
iat
ionst
ookpl
ace
bet
weent
het
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rsent
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Theest
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shmentoft
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Appel
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I
nter
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TheI
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I
TLOSonl
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I
nter
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Cri
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The I
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Cri
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tcompl
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1
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angeofmoder
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ernat
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imest
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tyandwarcr
imes,as
Page|
48
wel
last
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onaf
ter2016.I
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NTERNATI
ONALCOURTOFJUSTI
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ions.Thi
ssect
ionwi
l
lconsi
dermor
edeepl
yther
olepl
ayedbyt
he
I
CJ.
Pr
ocedur
eandPr
act
ice:
Admi
ssi
bil
i
tyandOr
gani
zat
ion
Ar
ti
cle92oft
heUNChar
terpr
ovi
dest
hatt
heI
CJi
s‘t
hepr
inci
palj
udi
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ganoft
he
Uni
tedNat
ions’
,whi
l
eAr
ti
cle93(
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atest
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lmember
soft
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epar
ti
est
othe
St
atut
eoft
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nter
nat
ionalCour
tofJust
ice.
76TheI
CJcanbeengagedi
nadi
sput
eby
t
heoper
ati
onofAr
ti
cl
es35(
1)and36(
1)oft
heUN Char
ter
.Ar
ti
cle35(
1)pr
ovi
desa
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oraMemberoft
heUni
tedNat
ionst
obr
ingadi
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ebef
oret
heGener
al
Assembl
yorSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Ar
ti
cle36(
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henpr
ovi
desameansf
ort
heSecur
it
y
Counci
lto‘
recommendappr
opr
iat
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ocedur
esormet
hodsofadj
ust
ment
,incl
udi
ng
r
efer
ral
tot
heI
nter
nat
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ice.

1
Rol
eandJur
isdi
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on
Appl
i
cabl
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uri
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I
ndet
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ecour
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sAr
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1).
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ovi
desf
ort
henowuni
ver
sal
l
yaccept
edand
Page|
49
r
ecogni
zedsour
cesofi
nter
nat
ional
Pr
eli
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yconsi
der
ati
ons
Foracaset
obebr
oughtbef
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Art
icl
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heCour
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tto
beal
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e.I
fther
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ioni
nacaseast
owhet
herornott
heCour
thas
j
uri
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cti
on,t
wo pr
inci
plesmustbeconsi
der
ed.Thef
ir
sti
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encedel
a
compét
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inci
ple,wher
ebyAr
ti
cle36(
6)oft
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ovi
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di
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uri
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hemat
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.Ther
ear
eanumberofobj
ect
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atemaybr
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egar
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uri
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hemostpr
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ngt
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emedi
eshav
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beenexhaust
ed.
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ent
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uri
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cti
on
I
tisonet
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lmember
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CJ.I
tisanot
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hing
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osayt
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atei
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ectt
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uri
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thoutt
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ate’
sconsent
.
Thi
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esentwhatst
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ewedasani
mper
missi
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ntot
her
eal
m
ofst
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ort
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ti
cle36(
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ipul
atest
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,pr
iort
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ty
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ectt
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udi
cialdet
ermi
nat
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ti
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efert
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rcaset
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I
CJf
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ermi
nat
ion.Thi
smaybeachi
evedi
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Speci
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atesmayr
eferamat
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nst
eadofmer
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t
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ise on t
he speci
fi
c di
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e bet
ween t
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ates,t
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eemental
l
ows st
ates t
o ask t
he Cour
tto setoutt
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elev
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inci
ples of
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nter
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ovi
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ky,

1
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manyandt
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lands
Page|
50
enabl
edt
heCour
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esol
vet
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lasdecl
ari
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hebr
oaderpr
inci
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minat
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ear
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easonswhyast
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ause
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ear
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ightofst
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equi
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ermi
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ausewasr
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Cour
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eeday
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cat
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.TheCour
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ndet
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herat
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ioni
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inci
pleofgoodf
ait
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l
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ermi
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nar
ecent
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ermi
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ause,Aust
ral
i
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ew i
ts
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tinant
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ionofpr
oceedi
ngst
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br
oughtbyEastTi
mor
.
Pr
ovi
sional
Measur
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Ar
ti
cle41oft
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atut
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ovi
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emedyofani
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ti
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soal
l
owst
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t
oactexpedi
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eventi
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epar
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TheCour
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idenceofi
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abl
e
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1
gr
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he
Conv
ent
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shmentoft
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imeofGenoci
de,
andr
equest
ed
Page|
51
pr
ovi
si
onalmeasur
est
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ovi
dedbyt
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tinor
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opr
eventt
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imeof
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Genoci
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wi
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eventcommi
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.Iti
s wor
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ing,howev
er,t
hatt
heI
CJ’
sdeci
sion f
ail
ed t
o br
ing anypr
act
icalchange,
ev
idencedbyt
hemassacr
eofSr
ebr
eni
cai
n1995,under
takenbyYugosl
avi
ainbr
each
oft
heI
CJ’
sdi
rect
ive.Ont
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ther
ehav
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ail
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nthe2009caseofQuest
ionsRel
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osecut
eor
Ext
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te(
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gium vSenegal
)(cur
rent
lypendi
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,ar
equestwasmadet
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hav
ethef
ormerPr
esi
dentofChadext
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tedt
oBel
gium i
nli
ghtofaf
ort
hcomi
ngwar
cr
imest
ri
al.Pendi
ng t
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come oft
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ti
on,Bel
gium r
equest
ed t
hatt
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Pr
esi
denti
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atel
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err
edt
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gium.TheCour
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nit
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Pr
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Remedi
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orcement
Themostcommonr
emedysoughtbyst
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udgmenti
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appl
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ati
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espondenthasbr
eachedi
nter
nat
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smaybe
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ari
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oci
ti
zensandpr
oper
ty.Oncear
emedyhas
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ermi
ned,
thequest
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t
hent
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ti
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‘
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1
bi
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ti
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.Thi
s
Ar
ti
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i
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npr
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ice,
howev
er,deci
si
ons and Adv
isor
y Opi
nions whi
ch adv
ance t
he j
uri
spr
udence of
Page|
52
i
nter
nat
ional
lawar
eref
erenced
andusedi
nsuppor
tofsubsequentdeci
sionsbot
hbyt
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tandot
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ri
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Adv
isor
yOpi
nions
UnderAr
ti
cle65(
1)t
heI
CJi
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veanAdv
isor
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egalquest
ionatt
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t
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tedNat
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’.UnderAr
ti
cle96oft
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Char
ter
,theGener
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it
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equestanAdv
isor
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sohast
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odoso.Thepur
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ovi
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pri
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aw.
4. STATESUCCESSI
ON:
Pol
i
ticalent
it
iesar
enoti
mmut
abl
e.Theyar
esubj
ectt
ochange.Newst
atesappearand
ol
dst
atesdi
sappear
.Feder
ati
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ger
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uti
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onst
akepl
ace.
I
nter
nat
ionall
aw hast
oincor
por
atesuchev
ent
sint
oit
sgener
alf
ramewor
kwi
tht
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mi
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ionandi
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abi
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ity
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oresi
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endoft
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ldWarandt
heest
abl
i
shmentofov
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es.
Di
ff
icul
ti
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tfr
om t
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i
ticalsov
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gnt
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erapar
ti
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ar
t
err
it
ori
alent
it
yfort
hepur
posesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw andt
hewor
ldcommuni
ty.For
i
nst
ance,
howf
ari
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het
reat
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ract
sent
eredi
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pr
evi
oussov
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het
err
it
ory
?Doesnat
ional
i
tyaut
omat
ical
l
ydev
olv
eupont
he
i
nhabi
tant
stor
epl
acet
hatoft
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edecessor
?Whathappenst
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i
cpr
oper
tyof

1
t
hepr
evi
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enti
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it
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ol
d?
St
atesuccessi
oni
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ernat
ionall
awcannotbeconf
usedwi
thsuccessi
oni
nmuni
cipal
Page|
53
l
aw andt
het
ransmi
ssi
onofpr
oper
tyandsof
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odomest
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rom
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ti
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hcent
ury
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tht
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orm oft
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ple,underwhi
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atesacqui
red
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yfr
eef
rom encumbr
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mi
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ort
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,forexampl
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ati
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ger
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ight
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plesofi
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andasaconsequenceofsov
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gn.Thei
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rom
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ionsofsuccessi
onofgov
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ti
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arl
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olut
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ial
pat
ter
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ecogni
ti
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i
ty.
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nmanycases,
suchpr
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l
lbedeal
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thbyt
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hermul
ti
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1
deal
i
ngwi
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imar
il
yter
ri
tor
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ti
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eat
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n,
1919,whi
chr
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ionsr
elat
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Aust
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Hungar
ianEmpi
re,orbi
l
ater
alagr
eement
sasbet
ween,f
ori
nst
ance,col
oni
al
powerandnew st
ate,whi
ch,howev
er,woul
dnotbi
ndt
hir
dst
ates.Thesy
stem of
Page|
54
dev
olut
ion agr
eement
s si
gned by t
he col
oni
alpowerwi
tht
he successor
,newl
y
decol
oni
sedst
ate,
wasusedby
,forexampl
e,t
heUK,
France
andt
heNet
her
lands.Suchagr
eement
spr
ovi
dedi
ngener
alt
hatal
lther
ight
sand
benef
it
s,obl
i
gat
ionsandr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesdev
olv
ingupont
hecol
oni
alpoweri
nrespectof
t
het
err
it
oryi
nquest
ionar
isi
ngf
rom v
ali
dint
ernat
ionali
nst
rument
s,woul
dther
efor
e
dev
olv
eupont
henew
st
ate.
Thi
ssy
stem,
howev
er,
wasnotseenassat
isf
act
orybymanynewst
atesandsev
eralof
t
hem r
esor
tedt
ouni
l
ater
aldecl
arat
ions,
prov
idi
ngf
orat
ransi
ti
onalper
ioddur
ingwhi
ch
t
reat
iesent
eredi
ntobyt
hepr
edecessorst
atewoul
dcont
inuei
nfor
ceandbesubj
ectt
o
r
evi
ew ast
owhi
chshoul
dbeaccept
edandwhi
chr
eject
ed. I
nthecaseofbi
l
ater
al
t
reat
ies,t
hose notsur
viv
ing undercust
omar
ylaw woul
d be r
egar
ded as hav
ing
t
ermi
nat
edatt
heendoft
heper
iod.
Howev
er,t
hei
ssueofst
atesuccessi
oni
nint
ernat
ionall
aw i
spar
ti
cul
arl
ycompl
ex.
Manyoft
her
uleshav
edev
elopedi
nspeci
fi
cresponset
opar
ti
cul
arpol
i
ticalchanges
and such changes hav
e notal
way
s been t
reat
ed i
n a consi
stentmannerbyt
he
i
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.
TheAr
bit
rat
ionCommi
ssi
onest
abl
i
shedbyt
heConf
erenceonYugosl
avi
a,f
ori
nst
ance,
emphasi
sedt
hat‘
ther
ear
efew wel
l
-est
abl
i
shedpr
inci
plesofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw t
hat
appl
ytost
atesuccessi
on.Appl
i
cat
ionoft
hesepr
inci
plesi
slar
gel
ytobedet
ermi
ned
casebycase,t
hought
he1978and1983Vi
ennaConv
ent
ionsdoof
fersomegui
dance’
,
whi
l
etheGer
manFeder
alSupr
emeCour
tnot
edi
ntheEspi
onagePr
osecut
ioncaset
hat
‘
thepr
obl
em ofst
atesuccessi
oni
soneoft
hemostdi
sput
edar
easofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw’
.
Thei
nter
nat
ionalaspect
sofsuccessi
onar
egov
ernedt
hrought
her
ulesofcust
omar
y

1
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Ther
e ar
etwo r
elev
antConv
ent
ions,t
he Vi
enna Conv
ent
ion on
Successi
onofSt
atesi
nRespectofTr
eat
ies,
1978,
whi
chent
eredi
ntof
orcei
n1996,
and
t
heVi
ennaConv
ent
iononSuccessi
onofSt
atesi
nRespectofSt
atePr
oper
ty,
Ar
chi
vesandDebt
s,1983,whi
chi
snoty
eti
nfor
ce.Howev
er,manyoft
hepr
ovi
sions
Page|
55
cont
ainedi
ntheseConv
ent
ionsr
efl
ectexi
sti
ngi
nter
nat
ional
law.
St
atesuccessi
oni
tsel
fmaybebr
ief
lydef
inedast
her
epl
acementofonest
ateby
anot
heri
nther
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
hei
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionsoft
err
it
ory
.Howev
er,t
his
f
ormul
ati
onconceal
sahostofpr
obl
emssi
ncet
her
eisacompl
exr
angeofsi
tuat
ions
t
hatst
ret
chesf
rom cont
inui
tyofst
atehoodt
hroughsuccessi
ont
onon-
successi
on.
St
atesuccessi
oni
sessent
ial
l
yanumbr
ell
ater
mforaphenomenonoccur
ri
ngupona
f
act
ualchangei
nsov
erei
gnaut
hor
it
yov
erapar
ti
cul
art
err
it
ory
.Inmanyci
rcumst
ances
i
tisuncl
earast
owhi
chr
ight
sanddut
ieswi
l
lfl
owf
rom
oneaut
hor
it
ytot
heot
heranduponwhi
chpr
eci
sebasi
s.Muchwi
l
ldependupont
he
ci
rcumst
ancesoft
hepar
ti
cul
arcase,f
orexampl
ewhet
herwhathasoccur
redi
sa
mer
geroft
wost
atest
ofor
m anew st
ate;t
heabsor
pti
onofonest
atei
ntoanot
her
,
cont
inui
ngst
ate;
acessi
onoft
err
it
oryf
rom onest
atet
oanot
her
;secessi
onofpar
tofa
st
atet
ofor
m anewst
ate;t
hedi
ssol
uti
onordi
smember
mentofast
atet
ofor
mtwoor
mor
est
ates,
ort
heest
abl
i
shmentofanewst
ateasar
esul
tofdecol
oni
sat
ion.
Ther
oleofr
ecogni
ti
onandacqui
escencei
nthi
spr
ocessi
sespeci
all
yimpor
tant
.The
r
elev
antdat
eofsuccessi
oni
sthedat
eatwhi
cht
hesuccessorst
ater
epl
acest
he
pr
edecessorst
atei
nther
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
ort
hei
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionsoft
het
err
it
oryt
o
whi
cht
hesuccessi
onr
elat
es.Thi
sisi
nvar
iabl
ythedat
eofi
ndependence.Howev
er,
pr
obl
emsmayar
isewher
esuccessi
vedat
esofi
ndependencear
isewi
thr
egar
dtoa
st
atet
hati
s sl
owl
y di
sint
egr
ati
ng,such as Yugosl
avi
a.The Yugosl
av Ar
bit
rat
ion
Commi
ssi
onnot
edofal
lther
elev
antci
rcumst
ances.
Cont
inui
tyandsuccessi
on
Quest
ionsr
elat
ingt
ocont
inui
tyandsuccessi
onmaybepar
ti
cul
arl
ydi
ff
icul
t.Wher
ea

1
newent
it
yemer
ges,onehast
odeci
dewhet
heri
tisat
otal
l
ysepar
atecr
eat
uref
rom i
ts
pr
edecessor
,orwhet
heri
tisacont
inuat
ionofi
tinasl
i
ght
lydi
ff
erentf
orm.Forexampl
e,
i
tseemst
obeaccept
edt
hatI
ndi
aist
hesamel
egalent
it
yasBr
it
ishI
ndi
aandPaki
stan
i
sat
otal
l
ynew st
ate.Yugosl
avi
awasgener
all
yregar
dedast
hesuccessorst
atet
o
Page|
56
Ser
bia,andI
sraelasacompl
etel
ydi
ff
erentbei
ngf
rom Br
it
ishmandat
edPal
est
ine.
Cessi
onorsecessi
onoft
err
it
oryf
rom anexi
sti
ngst
atewi
l
lnotaf
fectt
hecont
inui
tyof
t
he l
att
erst
ate,ev
en t
hough i
tst
err
it
ori
aldi
mensi
ons and popul
ati
on hav
e been
di
mini
shed.Paki
stanaf
tert
hei
ndependenceofBangl
adeshi
sagoodexampl
eoft
his.
I
nsuchacase,t
heexi
sti
ngst
ater
emai
nsi
nbei
ng,compl
etewi
tht
her
ight
sanddut
ies
i
ncumbentuponi
t,sav
efort
hosespeci
fi
cal
l
yti
edt
othecededorsecededt
err
it
ory
.
Wher
e,howev
er,ast
atei
sdi
smember
edsot
hatal
lofi
tst
err
it
oryf
all
swi
thi
nthe
t
err
it
oryoft
woormor
est
ates,
theser
ight
sanddut
ieswi
l
lbeal
l
ocat
edasbet
weent
he
successorst
ates.I
n deci
ding whet
hercont
inui
tyorsuccessi
on hasoccur
red wi
th
r
egar
dtooneoft
hepar
ti
est
othepr
ocess,onehast
oconsi
dert
hecl
assi
calcr
it
eri
aof
t
hecr
eat
ionofst
atehood,t
oget
herwi
thasser
ti
onsast
ost
atusmadebyt
hepar
ti
es
di
rect
ly concer
ned and t
he at
ti
tudes adopt
ed by t
hir
d st
ates and i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
sat
ions.
Thi
sissuehasar
isenr
ecent
lywi
thr
egar
dtoev
ent
sconcer
ningt
heSov
ietUni
onand
Yugosl
avi
a.I
nthef
ormercase,upont
hedemi
seoft
heUSSR,t
heRussi
anFeder
ati
on
t
ook t
he posi
ti
on t
hati
twas t
he cont
inuat
ion oft
hatst
ate.Thi
s was asser
ted
par
ti
cul
arl
ywi
thr
egar
dto member
shi
p oft
heUN. Ofgr
eati
mpor
tancewast
he
Deci
sionoft
heCounci
lofHeadsofSt
ateoft
heCommonweal
thofI
ndependentSt
ates
on21December1991suppor
ti
ngRussi
a’
scont
inuanceoft
hemember
shi
poft
heUSSR
i
nthe UN,i
ncl
udi
ng per
manentmember
shi
p oft
he Secur
it
y Counci
l
,and ot
her
i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
sat
ions.Al
though notal
loft
he i
nst
rument
s pr
oduced by t
he
Commonweal
thofI
ndependentSt
atesatt
heendof1991wer
est
ri
ctl
yconsi
stentwi
th
t
hecont
inui
typr
inci
ple,
iti
scl
eart
hatRussi
a’
scl
aimt
obet
hecont
inuat
ionoft
heUSSR
(
albei
twi
thi
ndi
ff
erentbor
der
sofcour
se)wassuppor
tedbyt
heot
herf
ormerRepubl
i
cs
andwasaccept
edbyi
nter
nat
ional
pract
ice.Ar
atherspeci
alsi
tuat
ionar
osewi
thr
espect

1
t
otheBal
ti
cst
ates(
Est
oni
a,Lat
viaandLi
thuani
a),
whi
chbecamei
ndependentaf
tert
he
Fi
rstWor
ldWar
,
butwer
eannexedbyt
heSov
ietUni
oni
n1940.Thi
sannexat
ionhadbeenr
efused
r
ecogni
ti
onbysomest
at eddef
esandaccept act
obutnotdej
urebysomeot
her
s.The
Page|
57
Bal
ti
cst
atesdecl
aredt
hei
rindependencei
nAugust1991.
TheEur
opeanCommuni
tyadopt
edaDecl
arat
ionon27August1991wel
comi
ng‘
the
r
est
orat
ionoft
hesov
erei
gnt
yandi
ndependenceoft
heBal
ti
cst
ateswhi
cht
heyl
osti
n
1941’
.Thei
mpl
i
cat
ionoft
hisi
nter
nat
ional
l
yaccept
edr
est
orat
ionofi
ndependence
woul
dappeart
obet
hatt
hesest
atesdonotconst
it
utesuccessorst
atest
othef
ormer
USSR and woul
dther
efor
e be f
ree ofsuch r
ight
s and obl
i
gat
ions as woul
d be
consequent
ial
uponsuchsuccessi
on.
I
ncont
rastt
othi
ssi
tuat
ion,t
hei
ssueofYugosl
avi
ahasbeenmor
ecompl
i
cat
edand
t
ragi
c.Thecol
l
apseoft
heSoci
ali
stFeder
alRepubl
i
cofYugosl
avi
a(t
heSFRY)t
ook
pl
ace ov
er sev
eral mont
hs as t
he v
ari
ous const
it
uent r
epubl
i
cs pr
ocl
aimed
i
ndependence.Thepr
ocesswasr
egar
dedashav
ingbeencompl
etedi
nthev
iewoft
he
Ar
bit
rat
ionCommi
ssi
ononYugosl
avi
abyt
het
imeofi
tsOpi
nionNo.8i
ssuedon4Jul
y
1992.The Commi
ssi
on not
ed t
hata r
efer
endum had been hel
din Bosni
a and
Her
zegov
inai
nFebr
uar
yandMar
ch1992pr
oduci
ngamaj
ori
tyi
nfav
our
ofi
ndependence,whi
l
eSer
biaandMont
enegr
ohadaest
abl
i
shed‘
anew st
ate,t
he
“
Feder
alRepubl
i
cofYugosl
avi
a”’
on27Apr
il1992.
TheCommi
ssi
onnot
edt
hatt
hecommonf
eder
albodi
esoft
heSFRYhadceasedt
o
f
unct
ion,
whi
l
eSl
oveni
a,Cr
oat
iaandBosni
ahadbeenr
ecogni
sedbyt
hememberst
ates
oft
heEur
opeanCommuni
tyandot
herst
atesandhadbeenadmi
tt
edt
omember
shi
pof
t
heUN.Theconcl
usi
onwast
hatt
hef
ormerSFRY hadceasedt
oexi
st.Thi
swas
par
ti
cul
arl
yreaf
fi
rmedi
nOpi
nionNo.Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
heFeder
alRepubl
i
cofYugosl
avi
a
(
Ser
biaandMont
enegr
o)cont
inuedt
omai
ntai
nthati
tconst
it
utednotanewst
ate,but
t
hecont
inuat
ionoft
hef
ormerSFRY.Thi
scl
aim wasopposedbyt
heot
herf
ormer

1
r
epubl
i
csoft
heSFRYandbyt
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.
TheSecur
it
yCounci
l
,forexampl
e,i
nresol
uti
on777(
1992)decl
aredt
hat‘
thest
ate
f
ormer
lyknownast
heSoci
ali
stFeder
alRepubl
i
cofYugosl
avi
ahasceasedt
oexi
st’
and
t
hat‘
theFeder
alRepubl
i
cofYugosl
avi
a(Ser
biaandMont
enegr
o)cannotcont
inue
Page|
58
aut
omat
ical
l
ythemember
shi
poft
hef
ormerSoci
ali
stFeder
alRepubl
i
cofYugosl
avi
ain
t
heUni
tedNat
ions’
.Howev
er,t
heYugosl
avposi
ti
onchangedi
n2000andi
trequest
ed
admi
ssi
on t
othe UN asa new member
.The quest
ion ast
othe l
egalst
atusof
Yugosl
avi
aasbet
ween1992and2000r
emai
nedasour
ceofsomecont
rov
ersy
,si
nce
i
tsadmi
ssi
ont
otheUNi
n2000coul
dnotoper
ater
etr
oact
ivel
y.
TheI
nter
nat
ionalCour
tin2003descr
ibedt
hissi
tuat
ionassuigener
isandf
raughtwi
th
l
egaldi
ff
icul
ti
es,
40buti
nit
sjudgmenti
ntheser
iesofcasesbr
oughtbyYugosl
avi
a
agai
nstNATOmember
sfol
l
owi
ngt
heKosov
oconf
li
cti
n1999,
theCour
tconcl
udedt
hat
Yugosl
avi
ahadbeenaamemberoft
heUN(
andt
husapar
tyt
otheSt
atut
eoft
heCour
t)
f
rom 1Nov
ember2000andt hesuigener
hatt isst
atusoft
hatst
atecoul
dnothav
e
amount
edt
omember
shi
poft
heUN.Accor
dingl
y,whi
l
ein1996t
heCour
tdeci
dedt
hat
Yugosl
avi
acoul
dappearbef
orei
ti heGenoci
nt deConv
ent
ion(
Bosni
av.Ser
bia)case,
it
hel
din2003t
hatt
hesi
tuat
ionast
oYugosl
avi
a’
sst
atuswassuigener
isandnotwi
thout
l
egaldi
ff
icul
tybutf
inal
l
ydeci
dedi
n2004t
hatYugosl
avi
acoul
dnotbr
inganact
ion
agai
nstNATOst
atesasi
thadnotbeenamemberoft
heUNandt
husapar
tyt
othe
St
atut
ein1999.
I
nit
sdeci
sionont
hemer
it
si heGenoci
nt deConv
ent
ioncasei
n2007,t
heCour
tnot
ed
t
hati
tsdeci
sionof1996const
it
utedr
esj
udi
cat
aandcoul
dnotber
e-openedi
nthel
i
ght
ofi
tssubsequentr
uli
ngs.St
atesuccessi
onal
socov
erst
hesi
tuat
ionofuni
fi
cat
ion.One
met
hodofuni
fi
cat
ioni
sbyt
hecr
eat
ionofat
otal
l
ynewst
ate,
suchast
hemer
geroft
he
YemenAr
abRepubl
i
candt
hePeopl
e’
sDemocr
ati
cRepubl
i
coft
oexi
st:seeP.R.
Wi
l
li
ams,‘
Stat
eSuccessi
onandt
heI
nter
nat
ionalFi
nanci
alI
nst
it
uti
ons’
,Yemen.Under
t
heagr
eementbet
weent
het
wost
atesof22Apr
il1990t
heest
abl
i
shmentoft
he
Republ
i
cofYemenwasaccompl
i
shedbywayofamer
geroft
het
woexi
sti
ngst
atesi
nto

1
anew ent
it
ywi
thanew name Uni
fi
cat
ionmayal
sobeachi
evedbyt
heabsor
pti
onof
onest
atebyanot
heri
nci
rcumst
anceswher
ethef
ormersi
mpl
ydi
sappear
sandt
he
l
att
ercont
inues,al
bei
twi
thi
ncr
easedt
err
it
oryandpopul
ati
on.Suchwast
hecasewi
th
Ger
many
.Fol
l
owi
ngt
heconcl
usi
onoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
,Ger
manywasdi
vi
ded
Page|
59
i
ntot
heUS,USSR,
UKandFr
enchzonesofoccupat
ionandaspeci
alBer
li
nar
eanot
f
ormi
ngpar
tofanyzone.Supr
emeaut
hor
it
ywasexer
cisedi
nit
ial
l
ybyt
heCommander
s-
i
n-Chi
efoft
heAr
medFor
cesoft
heFourAl
l
iedPower
s46andsubsequent
lybyt
het
hree
Al
l
iedHi
ghCommi
ssi
oner
sinBonn,wi
thpar
all
eldev
elopment
soccur
ri
ngi
ntheSov
iet
zone.TheConv
ent
iononRel
ati
onsbet
weent
heThr
eePower
sandt
heFeder
alRepubl
i
c
ofGer
many(
FRG)
,whi
chcamei
ntof
orcei
n1955,t
ermi
nat
edt
heoccupat
ionr
egi
me
andabol
i
shedt
heAl
l
iedHi
ghCommi
ssi
on.TheThr
eeAl
l
iedPower
sret
ained,howev
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Page|
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Page|
61
communi
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Page|
62
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and]St
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Page|
63
t
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Page|
64
Wher
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ntend t
o accede t
o i
nter
nat
ional
or
gani
sat
ionsorot
hermul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
iesofwhi
cht
heGDR,butnott
heFRG,wasa
member
,agr
eementwast
ober
eachedwi
tht
her
espect
ivecont
ract
ingpar
ti
esandt
he

1
Eur
opeanCommuni
ti
es,
wher
ethecompet
enceoft
hel
att
erwasaf
fect
ed.Thesi
tuat
ion
t
husdi
ff
ersf
rom t
hescenar
ioenv
isagedi
nar
ti
cle31oft
he1978t
reat
y.
I
nthecaseofmer
ger
stof
orm anewt
hir
dst
ate,t
hef
ormul
ati
oni
nar
ti
cle31i
smor
e
Page|
65
r
elev
antandaccept
abl
e.Pr
act
iceappear
stosuppor
tthatappr
oach.Forexampl
e,i
nthe
casesofbot
htheEgy
pt–Sy
riamer
gert
ofor
mtheUni
tedAr
abRepubl
i
cin1958andt
he
uni
onofTangany
ikaandZanzi
bart
ofor
m Tanzani
ain1964,
thecont
inuat
ionoft
reat
ies
i
nthet
err
it
ori
est
owhi
cht
heyhadappl
i
edbef
oret
her
espect
ivemer
ger
swasst
ipul
ated.
Cessi
onoft
err
it
oryf
rom onest
atet
oanot
her
Whenpar
toft
het
err
it
oryofonest
atebecomespar
toft
het
err
it
oryofanot
herst
ate,
the
gener
alr
ulei
sthatt
het
reat
iesoft
hef
ormerceaset
oappl
ytot
het
err
it
orywhi
l
ethe
t
reat
iesoft
hel
att
erext
endt
othet
err
it
ory
.Ar
ti
cle15oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionon
Successi
onofSt
atest
oTr
eat
ies,
deal
i
ngwi
tht
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mov
ing-
fr
ont
ier
s’r
ule,
99pr
ovi
desf
or
t
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ovi
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hatwher
eitappear
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om t
het
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nedori
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wise
est
abl
i
shedt
hatt
heappl
i
cat
ionoft
het
reat
ytot
het
err
it
orywoul
dbei
ncompat
ibl
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th
t
heobj
ectandpur
poseoft
het
reat
yorwoul
dradi
cal
l
y
changet
hecondi
ti
on f
ori
tsoper
ati
on,t
hisext
ensi
on shoul
d nothappen.Thi
sis
basi
cal
l
yconsi
stentwi
thst
atepr
act
ice.When,f
orexampl
e,t
heUSannexedHawai
iin
1898,i
tst
reat
ieswer
eext
endedt
othei
slandsand I
tshoul
dal
sobenot
edt
hatt
he
Thi
rdUSRest
atementofFor
eignRel
ati
onsLaw,
Washi
ngt
on,
1987,
p.108,
prov
idest
hat
‘
when a st
atei
s absor
bed byanot
herst
ate,t
he i
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
s oft
he
absor
bedst
atear
eter
minat
edandt
hei
nter
nat
ionalagr
eement
soft
habsor
bingst
ate
becomeappl
i
cabl
etot
het
err
it
oryoft
heabsor
bedst
ate’
.int
ernat
ionall
i
fewi
th‘
acl
ean
sl
ate’andt
hesameappr
oachwasadopt
edwi
thr
egar
dtot
hesecessi
onofCubaf
rom
Spai
nin1898andt
hatofPanamaf
rom Col
ombi
ain1903.Si
mil
arl
y,whenFi
nland
secededf
rom t
heRussi
anEmpi
reaf
tert
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
,thev
iew t
akenbyt
heUK
andt
heUSwast
hatFi
nlandwasnotboundbyt
heexi
sti
ngRussi
ant
reat
iesdeal
i
ngwi
th
t
het
err
it
ory
.

1
Whi
l
eessent
ial
l
ythi
sist
heposi
ti
ont
akenbyt
heVi
ennaConv
ent
iononSuccessi
ont
o
Tr
eat
ieswi
thr
egar
dtodecol
oni
sedt
err
it
ori
es(
discussedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngsubsect
ion)
,
ar
ti
cle34pr
ovi
dest
hat‘
anyt
reat
yinf
orceatt
hedat
eoft
hesuccessi
onofst
atesi
n
r
espectoft
heent
ir
eter
ri
tor
yof
Page|
66
t
hepr
edecessorst
atecont
inuesi
nfor
cei
nrespectofeachsuccessorst
atesof
ormed’
.
Anyt
reat
ywhi
chappl
i
edonl
ytopar
toft
het
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it
oryoft
hepr
edecessorst
atewhi
chhas
becomeasuccessorst
atewi
l
lcont
inuei
nfor
cei
nrespectoft
hel
att
eronl
y.These
pr
ovi
si
onswi
l
lnotappl
yift
hest
atesconcer
nedot
her
wiseagr
eeori
fitappear
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om
t
het
reat
yori
sot
her
wiseest
abl
i
shedt
hatt
heappl
i
cat
ionoft
het
reat
yinr
espectoft
he
successorst
atewoul
dbei
ncompat
ibl
ewi
tht
heobj
ectandpur
poseoft
het
reat
yor
woul
dradi
cal
l
ychanget
hecondi
ti
onsf
ori
tsoper
ati
on.
108
Asf
arast
he pr
edecessorst
atei
sconcer
ned i
n such a si
tuat
ion (
assumi
ng t
he
pr
edecessorst
ater
emai
nsi
n exi
stence)
,ar
ti
cle 35 pr
ovi
des t
hatexi
sti
ng t
reat
ies
r
emai
ninf
orceaf
tert
hesuccessi
oni
nrespectoft
her
emai
ningt
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it
ory
,unl
esst
he
par
ti
esot
her
wiseagr
eeori
tisest
abl
i
shedt
hatt
het
reat
yrel
atedonl
ytot
het
err
it
ory
whi
chhassepar
atedf
rom t
hepr
edecessorst
ateori
tappear
sfr
om t
het
reat
yori
s
ot
her
wiseest
abl
i
shedt
hatt
heappl
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cat
ionoft
het
reat
yinr
espectoft
hepr
edecessor
st
atewoul
dbei
ncompat
ibl
ewi
tht
heobj
ectandpur
poseoft
het
reat
yorwoul
dradi
cal
l
y
changet
hecondi
ti
onsf
ori
tsoper
ati
on.
Theappr
oachi
ntheVi
ennaConv
ent
ionwasadopt
edont
hebasi
soft
heI
nter
nat
ional
Law Commi
ssi
ondr
aftwhi
chhadt
akent
heposi
ti
ont
hat‘
i
nmoder
nint
ernat
ionall
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hav
ingr
egar
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ort
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ntenanceoft
hesy
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ti
lat
eralt
reat
iesand
oft
hest
abi
l
ityoft
reat
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elat
ionshi
ps,
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alr
ulet
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inci
pleofdej
urecont
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tyshoul
dappl
y’
.Thi
smay
hav
ebeenanat
temptt
odi
sti
ngui
shdecol
oni
sedt
err
it
ori
es(
ter
med‘
newl
yindependent
st
ates’i
ntheConv
ent
ion)f
rom ot
herhadagr
eedgener
all
ytobeboundbyi
nter
nat
ional
obl
i
gat
ionsder
ivi
ngf
rom t
reat
iessi
gnedbyt
heUSSR.TheUSandUkr
aineagr
eedbyan
exchangeofnot
eson10May1995t
hati
nsof
arasbi
l
ater
alt
reat
iesbet
weent
hem wer
e
concer
ned,
art
icl
e34oft
heConv
ent
ionwoul
dbet
akenas‘
apoi
ntofdepar
tur
e’.At
reat
y

1
-
by-
tr
eat
yrev
iewbyt
het
wost
ateswasconduct
ed,asar
esul
tofwhi
chi
twasdeci
ded
t
hatsomet
reat
ieshadbecomeobsol
ete,ot
her
swoul
dnotbeappl
i
edandot
her
s,
speci
fi
cal
l
yli
stedi
ntheAnnext
othenot
e,wer
etober
egar
dedasst
il
li
nfor
ce.
Page|
67
Whet
heri
nvi
ewoft
hegr
eat
lyi
ncr
easednet
wor
kofmul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
iesandt
hev
ast
ly
enhancedi
nter
dependenceofst
atesf
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eement
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i
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blet
osayt
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nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyi
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ingt
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eal
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icul
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tai
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ent
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iveef
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eat
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snow t
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Newl
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ates
Thepost
-SecondWor
ldWarper
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smant
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ngoft
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erseasEur
opean
empi
res.Basedi
nint
ernat
ionall
egalt
ermsupont
hepr
inci
pleofsel
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det
ermi
nat
ion,
whi
chwasf
oundeduponadi
sti
nct
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weensucht
err
it
ori
esandt
hemet
ropol
i
tan
aut
hor
it
y,decol
oni
sat
ion pr
oduced a numberofchangesi
nthei
nter
nat
ionall
egal
sy
stem.TheVi
ennaConv
ent
iononSuccessi
ont
oTr
eat
iessoughtt
oest
abl
i
shaspeci
al
cat
egor
yrel
ati
ngt
odecol
oni
sedt
err
it
ori
es.Thesewer
eter
med‘
newl
yindependent
st
ates’and def
ined i
n ar
ti
cle 2(
1)fas successorst
ates ‘
the t
err
it
ory ofwhi
ch
i
mmedi
atel
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oret
hedat
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ateswasadependent
t
err
it
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ort
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nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ionsofwhi
cht
hepr
edecessorst
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ble’
.
Ar
ti
cle16l
aiddownt
hegener
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ulet
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orceort
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cer
egar
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t
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it
oryi
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ionatt
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oachwasdeemedt
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l
dupon
t
het
radi
ti
onal‘
cl
eansl
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inci
pleappl
yi
ngt
onewst
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tyst
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ti
cle
17 oft
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ennaConv
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ovi
dest
hata‘
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ate’maybya
not
if
icat
ionofsuccessi
onest
abl
i
shi
tsst
atusasapar
tyt
oamul
ti
lat
eralt
reat
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t
hedat
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nfor
cei
nrespectoft
het
err
it
oryt
owhi
cht
hesuccessi
on

1
r
elat
es,
unl
essi
tappear
sfr
om t
het
reat
yori
sot
her
wiseest
abl
i
shedt
hatt
heappl
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oft
het
reat
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espectoft
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obj
ectandpur
poseoft
het
reat
yorwoul
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cal
l
ychange
t
hecondi
ti
onsofi
tsoper
ati
on.I
naddi
ti
on,wher
eitappear
sfr
om t
henat
ureoft
he
Page|
68
t
reat
yit
sel
fthatt
hepar
ti
cipat
ionofanyot
herst
atewoul
drequi
ret
heconsentofal
lthe
par
ti
es,
suchconsentmustbef
ort
hcomi
ngf
ort
henewst
atet
opar
ti
cipat
e.
The‘
cl
eansl
ate’pr
inci
plehasal
soi
npr
act
icebeenmi
ti
gat
edbyt
het
ermsoft
he
pr
ocessbywhi
chmanycol
oni
esachi
evedi
ndependence.Anumberofcol
oni
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s,
par
ti
cul
arl
ythe Uni
ted Ki
ngdom,adopt
ed t
he pr
act
ice ofconcl
udi
ng dev
olut
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agr
eement
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ch cer
tai
ntr
eat
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gned on behal
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it
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ate.Whi
l
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s
woul
dbeconsi edr
der esi
nteral
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oswi
thr
egar
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dst
ates,t
heywer
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aluei
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est
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shi
ngt
heappr
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iat
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amewor
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elat
ionsbet
weent
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ormercol
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andt
henewst
ate.Ot
hernewl
yindependentst
atesadopt
ed
t
hepr
act
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nguni
l
ater
aldecl
arat
ionsbywhi
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rvi
ewsas
t
otr
eat
ysuccessi
on.Suchuni
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tent
ookt
hef
orm ofspeci
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t
reat
ieswoul
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cef
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im per
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ingwhi
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imet
heywoul
dbe
r
evi
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ates.Dev
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oachmi
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ot
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wisehav
ehad.
Di
ssol
uti
onofst
ates
Wher
eanex
ist
ingst
atecomest
oanendasani
nter
nat
ionalper
sonandi
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acedby
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woormor
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herst
ates,i
tisaccept
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hatpol
i
ticalt
reat
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l
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inuebutt
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t
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it
ori
all
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oundedt
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oat
tachi
nfor
ceasbet
weent
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successorst
ates.Thequest
ionofYugosl
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ormerSoci
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al

1
Republ
i
cofYugosl
avi
a,whi
l
etheot
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i
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ntai
nedt
hatt
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ormer
SFRYhadcomet
oanendt
ober
epl
acedbyaser
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ates.
Thei
ssueofar
ti
cle34andaut
omat
icsuccessi
onar
osei
nthe Appl
i
cat
ionoft
he
Page|
69
Genoci
de Conv
ent
ion (
Bosni
a and Her
zegov
ina v
.Yugosl
avi
a)case,wher
e Bosni
a
ar
guedt
hatt
her
uleappl
i
edwi
thr
egar
dtot
heGenoci
deConv
ent
ionandYugosl
avi
a
deni
edt
his.TheCour
t,howev
er,di
dnotmakeadet
ermi
nat
ionont
hispoi
nt.Thei
ssue
ar
oseagai
ni heGabˇ
nt c´ı
kov
o–Nagy
mar
osPr
ojectcase,wher
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ti
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owhet
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icsuccessi
onappl
i
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.TheCour
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mil
arl
ydecl
i
ned
t
omakeadet
ermi
nat
ionandf
ocusedi
nst
eadont
hesi
gni
fi
canceofar
ti
cle12.
I
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
str
eat
ies
At
err
it
ori
alt
reat
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ndssuccessorst
atesbyv
irt
ueofat
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ngt
othet
err
it
oryi
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est
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i
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egi
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reat
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i
nter
nat
ionalhumanr
ight
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eat
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att
ach’t
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tant
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nedwi
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it
oryoft
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edecessorst
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o bi
nd
successorst
ates?Ther
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ight
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eat
iesconst
it
utear
ather
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ccat
egor
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reat
ies.Theyest
abl
i
sh t
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i
gat
ionsar
e owed di
rect
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i
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de f
or di
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or i
ndi
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dual
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nter
nat
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nter
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ionalhumanr
ight
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eat
iesv
ari
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rom t
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ti
onali
nter
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ionalagr
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nter
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Reser
vat
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deConv
ent
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nsuchaConv
ent
ion
t
hecont
ract
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atesdonothav
eanyi
nter
est
soft
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rown.
Successi
onwi
thr
espectt
omat
ter
sot
hert
hant
reat
ies
Member
shi
pofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
sat
ions
Successi
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omember
shi
pofi
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
sat
ionswi
l
lpr
oceed(
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ngupon
t
het
ermsoft
heor
gani
sat
ion’
sconst
it
uti
on)accor
dingt
owhet
heranewst
atei
sfor
med
oranol
dst
atecont
inuesi
nasl
i
ght
lydi
ff
erentf
orm.I
nthecaseoft
hepar
ti
ti
onof
Br
it
ishI
ndi
ain1947,
Indi
a

1
wasconsi
der
edbyt
heUNGener
alAssembl
yasacont
inuat
ionoft
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evi
ousent
it
y,
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l
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o
t
heor
gani
sat
ion.Upont
hemer
gerofEgy
ptandSy
riai
n1958t
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mtheUni
tedAr
ab
Republ
i
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att
erwast
reat
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ememberoft
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tedNat
ions,whi
l
eupon
Page|
70
t
hedi
ssol
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onoft
hemer
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Syr
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tssepar
atemember
shi
pof
t
heor
gani
sat
ion.I
nthecaseoft
hemer
gerofNor
thandSout
hYemeni
n1990,
thenew
st
atesi
mpl
yrepl
acedt
hepr
edecessorst
atesasamemberoft
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elev
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nter
nat
ional
or
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sat
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atesar
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eat
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ateswi
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ions.For
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e,t
henew st
atesoft
heCzechRepubl
i
candSl
ovaki
awer
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tt
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member
soft
heUNon19Januar
y1993.
TheSi
xth(
Legal
)Commi
tt
eeoft
heGener
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tuat
ionofnew
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atesbei
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ateandt
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oducedt
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inci
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obl
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1
Gov
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ctasksi
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Page|
71
l
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erofapr
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eoft
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I
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earandbasi
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ldepend upon t
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nthecaseoft
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ormerCzechandSl
ovakFeder
alRepubl
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het
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vi
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192Opi
nionNo.13,i
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,p.728.TheYugosl
avAgr
eementonSuccessi
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ssues,2001
pr
ovi
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t
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si
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lyunequal
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of
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ate pr
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ty,t
hen t
he mat
termay be r
aised wi
tht
he Joi
ntCommi
tt
ee
est
abl
i
shed
underar
ti
cle 5 oft
he Annex
.Unl
ess t
hey wer
e ear
mar
ked on 1 Oct
ober1989
pr
edomi
nant
lyf
oradmi
nist
rat
ivet
askswhi
chundert
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etobe
di
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chcaset
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uet
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it
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onofpubl
i
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ion.
Admi
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iveasset
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edomi
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ort
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hef
ormerMi
nist
ryofSt
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cef
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it
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etoaccr
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t
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ustAgencyest
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hePr
ivat
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sat
ionof
Publ
i
clyOwnedAsset
s(Tr
ustLaw)of17June1990f
ort
hepur
poseofpr
ivat
isi
ng
f
ormer
publ
i
clyoneedcompani
es. Thesewer
eter
med‘
fi
nanci
alasset
s’anddel
i
ber
atel
y
excl
udesoci
ali
nsur
anceasset
sandl
i
abi
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iti
esoft
hepr
edecessorst
ate195i
nther
ati
o
oft
wot
oone(
the
appr
oxi
mat
epopul
ati
onr
ati
ooft
het
wonewst
ates)
.Int
hecaseoft
hef
ormerSov
iet
Uni
on,Russi
a and t
he successorst
ates si
gned agr
eement
sin 1991 and 1992
appor
ti
oni
ngasset
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i
abi
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iti
esoft
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atewi
tht
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eofRussi
a

1
bei
ng61.
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heUkr
ainebei
ng16.
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.Int
hecaseoft
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ormer
Yugosl
avi
a,t
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ssuesof2001,i
naddi
ti
ont
othepr
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r
efer
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e, pr
ovi
dedf
ort
hedi
str
ibut
ionofasset
sont
hebasi
sofagr
eed
pr
opor
ti
ons.Fi
nanci
alasset
sint
heI
nter
nat
ional
Monet
aryFund(
IMF)
Page|
72
5. I
NTERNATI
ONALLAW ANDTHEUSEOFFORCEDEVELOPMENTOFTHELAW ON
THEUSEOFFORCEI
NINTERNATI
ONALLAW
Ear
lyAt
tempt
stoRegul
atet
heUseofFor
ce
I
nrel
ati
vet
erms,t
hepr
ohi
bit
ionont
heuseoff
orceasav
iabl
etoolofi
nter
nat
ional
r
elat
ionsi
sav
erymoder
nconcept
.Whi
l
stt
her
ehav
ebeennumer
ousat
tempt
sto
r
egul
atet
heuseoff
orce,t
henot
ionofagl
obalappr
oacht
opr
ohi
bit
ingunpr
ovoked
mi
l
itar
yaggr
essi
oni
suni
quet
othe
t
went
iet
hcent
ury
.Anci
entci
vi
li
zat
ionswer
eof
tenpr
epar
edt
oresor
ttowaragai
nstr
ival
gr
oupsorsoci
eti
est
o set
tl
edi
sput
esort
o pur
suest
rat
egi
cint
erest
s.Thi
sof
ten
i
ncl
udedaccesst
oresour
cesort
heconquestoft
err
it
oryundert
hecont
rolofanot
her
gr
oup.Theconsequencesofwar
far
ebet
weensoci
eti
eswer
eof
tenbr
utal
;sur
viv
orson
t
hel
osi
ngsi
dewoul
dof
tenbeensl
avedaspar
toft
hev
ict
or’
sat
tempt
stodest
royt
he
v
anqui
shedsoci
ety
.
TheRomanshadsev
eralr
equi
rement
sthatneededt
obesat
isf
iedbef
oret
heywoul
d
commi
ttowar
far
e.Bef
oreengagi
ngi
nami
l
itar
ycampai
gn,
Romanl
eader
swoul
dof
ten
seekt
heappr
ovaloft
hecol
l
egeoff
eti
ales.Thi
srel
i
giousbodywoul
dthenassess
whet
hert
hepr
oposedwarwasi
n
accor
dancewi
tht
hei
mpl
i
edcommandsoft
hegods.TheRomanschol
ar,
Cicer
o,wr
ote
t
hat
,unt
ilaf
ormal
decl
arat
ionofwarhadbeenmade,
nowarcoul
dbeconsi
der
edj
ust
.
Ear
lyRel
i
giousDoct
ri
nes
The ear
ly Chr
ist
ian Chur
ch i
nit
ial
l
yref
used t
o accept t
hat war coul
d,i
n any
ci
rcumst
ances,
bemor
all
ysanct
ioned.Becauseoft
hisbel
i
ef,
Chr
ist
ianswer
efor
bidden
f
rom j
oini
ng any ar
my unt
il170 AD. The Chr
ist
ian schol
ar,StAugust
ine,was

1
v
ehement
lyopposedt
owar
sofconquest
,anddef
inedt
heconceptofj
ustwari
nthe
f
oll
owi
ngv
aguet
erms:Justwar
sar
eusual
l
ydef
inedast
hosewhi
chav
engei
njur
ies,
whent
henat
ionorci
tyagai
nstwhi
chwar
li
keact
ioni
stobedi
rect
edhasnegl
ect
ed
ei
thert
opuni
shwr
ongscommi
tt
edbyi
tsownci
ti
zensort
orest
orewhathasbeen
Page|
73
unj
ust
lyt
akenbyi
t.Fur
thert
hatki
ndofwari
sundoubt
edl
yjustwhi
chGodhi
msel
f
or
dai
ns.Ofcour
se,
what‘
Godhi
msel
for
dai
ns’
wasandi
sinv
ari
abl
yamat
ter
ofhuman cont
ri
vanceand t
hepr
escr
ipt
ion ofaj
ustwart
heor
ycl
ear
lyopened a
f
loodgat
eofaggr
essi
vewar
swagedbychur
chesandt
hei
rleader
s.10Such‘
j
ustwar
’
not
ionswoul
dcomet
opl
aguemor
alandl
egal
debat
eaboutt
her
ightt
ousef
orceandi
n
whatci
rcumst
ances–ev
idenced
byi
tsv
aguecont
entbei
nghi
j
ackedbyal
lsi
desi
ntheso-
cal
l
ed‘
waront
err
or’
andev
en
i
ncur
rent
lydev
elopi
ngconcept
ionsofar
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
opr
otect
.Ear
lyschol
arsofI
slam
al
sowr
oteofr
eli
giousdoct
ri
neswhi
chcont
ainedgui
danceonaccept
abl
ereasonst
o
r
esor
ttowar
.Theser
easonsi
ncl
udedpuni
shmentf
orapost
asy
,def
enceofl
andorsel
f,
andaut
hor
izedwar
far
eagai
nstsoci
eti
esnotoft
heI
slami
cfai
th.
Ear
lyTwent
iet
hCent
ury
Numer
ousendeav
our
swer
emadet
oregul
atet
heuseoff
orcebef
oret
heout
breakof
t
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
.Begi
nni
ngwi
tht
heHagueConv
ent
ionsof1899and1907,st
ates
at
tempt
ed t
o dev
elop l
aws t
o gov
ernt
he r
esol
uti
on ofdi
sput
es and t
o pr
ohi
bit
aggr
essi
venat
ionsf
rom r
esor
ti
ngt
ofor
ceasani
ntegr
alaspectofdi
plomat
icr
elat
ions.
Despi
tet
hev
aguewor
ding
oft
heConv
ent
ions,t
het
reat
iesr
epr
esent
edanext
raor
dinar
ymul
ti
lat
eralappr
oacht
o
t
her
egul
ati
onofar
medf
orce.
TheLeagueofNat
ions
I
ntheaf
ter
mat
hoft
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
,thenewl
yest
abl
i
shedLeagueofNat
ionsmadea
concer
tedat
temptt
orest
ri
ctt
heuseoff
orcei
nint
ernat
ionalr
elat
ions.TheCov
enantof
t
heLeagueofNat
ions(
1919)i
mposedpr
ocedur
alconst
rai
ntsonst
atesi
nor
dert
o
r
educet
hepossi
bil
i
tyofr
esor
ti
ngt
owar
.Whi
l
stt
heCov
enantsoughtt
oreducet
he

1
l
i
kel
i
hood ofwar
far
e,t
he use off
orce r
emai
ned per
missi
blei
fcer
tai
n pr
escr
ibed
condi
ti
onswer
eexhaust
ed.Thecl
eari
ntent
ionoft
hedr
aft
erswast
oreducet
he
r
eli
anceofst
atesonf
orceasamet
hodofdi
sput
eresol
uti
on.AsAr
ti
cleXdi
ctat
es,
st
ateshadanobl
i
gat
iont
orespectt
het
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yandpol
i
ticali
ndependenceof
Page|
74
ot
herst
ates.Mosti
mpor
tant
ly,howev
er,i
sAr
ti
cleXVI
,whi
chspeci
fi
est
hatast
atewi
l
l
hav
ecommi
tt
edanactofwari
fitr
esor
tst
ofor
cewi
thoutsat
isf
yingt
hepr
econdi
ti
ons
cont
ainedi
ntheCov
enant
.
Despi
tet
hecl
earat
temptt
oreducet
her
eli
anceonar
medf
orce,t
heCov
enantf
ellf
ar
shor
tofpr
ohi
bit
ingst
atesf
rom r
esor
ti
ngt
owari
nal
lci
rcumst
ances.Toaddr
esst
his
i
ssue,t
heSi
xthAssembl
yoft
heLeagueofNat
ionson25Sept
ember1925passeda
r
esol
uti
onst
ati
ngt
hatawarofaggr
essi
onconst
it
utes‘
ani
nter
nat
ional
cri
me’
.Whi
l
ethe
pr
ovi
si
onsoft
heCov
enantoft
heLeagueofNat
ionsr
epr
esent
edani
mpor
tantt
heuse
off
orcebyst
ates,amor
esi
gni
fi
cantr
egi
meconcer
ningt
heuseoff
orceemer
gedi
n
t
hisper
iod.TheGener
alTr
eat
yfort
heRenunci
ati
onofWar(
1928)(
commonl
yref
err
ed
t
oast
heKel
l
ogg-
Bri
andPact
)isamul
ti
lat
eral
treat
ythatr
emai
nsi
nfor
cet
othepr
esent
day
.Wheni
tfi
rstent
eredi
ntooper
ati
oni
n1928,
thePactappl
i
edal
mostuni
ver
sal
l
y,as
onl
yfourst
ateshadnotr
ati
fi
edorassent
edt
oitbef
oret
heout
breakoft
heSecond
Wor
ldWar
.
THEUNI
TEDNATI
ONSANDTHEPOST-
WARSYSTEM OFCOLLECTI
VESECURI
TY
Thepr
ohi
bit
ion on t
heuseoff
orceunder
pinst
heUni
ted Nat
ionssy
stem.I
nthe
af
ter
mat
hoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
,thedr
aft
ersoft
heUNChar
tersoughtt
orest
ri
ctt
he
useoff
orcet
over
yli
mit
edci
rcumst
ances,andexcl
udeanyr
ightt
otakeunpr
ovoked
andaggr
essi
veact
ionagai
nstaf
orei
gnst
ate.Br
ownl
i
edescr
ibest
her
ati
onal
efort
he
pr
ohi
bit
ionont
heuseoff
orceundert
heUNsy
stem:Thesecur
it
yschemebasedupon
t
hepr
imar
yrol
eoft
heSecur
it
yCounci
lisnotanabst
ractschemebutr
efl
ect
sthe
i
nter
nat
ionalconsensust
hati
ndi
vi
dualSt
ates,oragr
oupofSt
ates,cannotr
esor
tto
f
orce(
forpur
posesot
hert
hansel
fdef
ence)ex
ceptwi
tht
heexpr
essaut
hor
izat
ionof
t
heUni
tedNat
ions.

1
TheMeani
ngof‘
For
ce’
and‘
Thr
eatofFor
ce’
TheUNChar
terr
efer
stot
heconceptof‘
for
ce’
,asopposedt
o‘war
’.Thi
sissi
gni
fi
cant
because f
orce encompasses a much br
oaderr
ange ofconduct
,and t
her
eis no
Page|
75
r
equi
rementf
orast
atet
omakeaf
ormaldecl
arat
ionofwarf
ori
ttobei
nbr
eachoft
he
pr
ohi
bit
ionsont
heuseoff
orce.
Ar
ti
cle2(
4)oft
heUNChar
terpr
ohi
bit
stheuseandt
hreatoff
orce,
excepti
nspeci
fi
cal
l
y
desi
gnat
edci
rcumst
ances,andemphasi
zest
her
equi
rementf
orst
atest
oset
tl
ethei
r
di
ff
erencesbypeacef
ulmeans:
3.Al
lMember
sshal
lset
tl
ethei
rint
ernat
ionaldi
sput
esbypeacef
ulmeansi
nsucha
mannert
hati
nter
nat
ional
peaceandsecur
it
y,andj
ust
ice,
arenotendanger
ed.
4.Al
lMember
sshal
lref
rai
nint
hei
rint
ernat
ionalr
elat
ionsf
rom t
het
hreatoruseof
f
orceagai
nstt
het
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yorpol
i
ticali
ndependenceofanyst
ate,ori
nany
ot
hermanneri
nconsi
stentwi
tht
hePur
posesoft
heUni
tedNat
ions.
Themostbl
atantuseoff
orcei
sani
nvasi
onorat
tackbyt
hear
medf
orcesofast
ate
upont
het
err
it
oryofanot
herst
ate.Thi
sincl
udesanymi
l
itar
yoccupat
ion,howev
er
t
empor
ary
,andanyat
temptt
ofor
cibl
yannext
het
err
it
ory
.St
atesar
epr
ohi
bit
edf
rom
bombar
dingt
het
err
it
oryofot
herst
ateswi
thanyf
orm ofweaponr
yandt
hisext
endst
o
t
arget
ingasset
sofaf
orei
gnst
ate,suchasshi
psorai
rcr
aftout
sidet
err
it
ori
albor
der
s.
Theconceptoff
orceappl
i
est
othepr
act
iceofbl
ocki
ngaccesst
opor
tsorat
tempt
ing
t
opr
ohi
bitpassaget
oandf
rom ai
rf
iel
ds,
andi
ncor
por
ates
conductsuchaspr
event
ingsuppl
i
es,
suchasf
oodandmedi
calsuppl
i
es,
from r
eachi
ng
anot
herst
ate,
whet
herbyl
and,
seaorai
r.
TheMeani
ngof‘
Agai
nstt
heTer
ri
tor
ial
Int
egr
it
yorPol
i
tical
I
ndependence’
Att
imesi
thasbeenar
guedt
hatapar
ti
cul
aruseoff
orcebyast
atehasnotv
iol
atedt
he
t
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yorpol
i
ticali
ndependenceofanot
herst
ate,andt
her
efor
ewasnoti
n
br
eachofAr
ti
cl
e2(
4)oft
heUN Char
ter
.Anof
tenci
tedexampl
eoft
hiswasI
srael
’
s

1
ar
medi
ncur
sionont
het
err
it
oryofUgandaf
ort
hepur
poseofr
escui
ngi
tsnat
ional
s
f
rom anAi
rFr
ancepl
anet
hathadbeenhi
j
ackedbyt
woPal
est
ini
anandt
woGer
man
nat
ional
sandr
erout
edt
oEnt
ebbe.Ugandar
eact
edangr
il
y,f
orwar
dingal
ett
ert
othe
Pr
esi
dentoft
he Secur
it
y Counci
lseeki
ng I
srael
’
s condemnat
ion f
ori
ts actof
Page|
76
aggr
essi
on.Al
thought
hemat
terwasdebat
edv
igor
ousl
ybef
ore
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
,noagr
eementcoul
dber
eachedandnor
esol
uti
onpassed.Ther
e
wasconsi
der
abl
esuppor
t,i
ncl
udi
ngf
rom t
heUSandUK,f
ort
hepr
oposi
ti
ont
hat
,in
ci
rcumst
anceswher
ethenat
ional
sofast
atear
eatr
isk,
ast
atemayi
nter
venemi
l
itar
il
y
t
orescuet
hem andt
hatsuchani
ncur
sionwoul
dnotbeav
iol
ati
onoft
het
err
it
ori
al
i
ntegr
it
yorpol
i
ticali
ndependenceoft
hatst
ate.Thi
swasr
eject
edbyanumberofot
her
st
atesi
ndebat
esbef
oret
heSecur
it
yCounci
lwhov
iewedt
heact
ionsofI
srael
,what
ever
j
ust
if
icat
ioni
tmi
ghthav
e,asacl
earv
iol
ati
onofAr
ti
cle2(
4).AsThomasM.Fr
anckhas
not
ed:
Theopposi
ti
onofsomanyst
ates,i
nthi
sinst
ance,t
husi
l
lust
rat
est
hedept
hoff
earof
openi
ng t
he door
,howev
ernar
rowl
y,t
o uni
l
ater
aluse off
orce,ev
en wher
ethe
j
ust
if
icat
ionf
ori
nter
vent
ioni
sst
rong.Butt
heconsi
der
abl
esuppor
tIsr
aelar
ousedal
so
demonst
rat
est
heper
suasi
vepowerofawel
l
-pr
esent
edanddemonst
rat
edcase.
I
NVI
TATI
ONANDI
NTERVENTI
ON
Non-
int
ernat
ional
ArmedConf
li
cts
TheUNChar
tercl
ear
lycont
empl
atesani
nter
nat
ional
syst
em t
hati
spr
imar
il
yconcer
ned
wi
thdi
plomat
icr
elat
ionsbet
weenst
ates.
50St
atescanbehel
daccount
abl
efort
hei
r
act
ionsandsubj
ect
edt
opuni
ti
vemeasur
esi
ftheydonotcompl
ywi
tht
her
ulesof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Exampl
esi
ncl
udecondemnat
ionr
esol
uti
ons,
economi
csanct
ionsand
t
heuseoff
orceasal
astr
esor
ttoal
l
evi
ateat
hreatt
oint
ernat
ionalpeaceandsecur
it
y.
Howev
er,t
heUN Char
terdoesnotcont
ainanexpl
i
citpr
ocedur
efort
her
esol
uti
onof
conf
li
ctst
hatar
ewhol
l
ycont
ainedwi
thi
nasi
ngl
est
ate,f
ort
hesi
mpl
ereasont
hat
(
tradi
ti
onal
l
y,atanyr
ate)whatoccur
swi
thi
nast
ate’
sbor
der
sar
eit
sint
ernalconcer
ns
andnotamat
terofi
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Unl
essasi
tuat
ioni
nvol
vest
woormor
est
ates,

1
Ar
ti
cle2(
7)oft
heChar
terappear
stopr
eventt
heUN,out
sideofSecur
it
yCounci
l
enf
orcementact
ionunderChapt
erVI
I,
from t
aki
nganycoer
civ
eact
ion:
Not
hingcont
ainedi
nthepr
esentChar
tershal
laut
hor
izet
heUni
tedNat
ionst
oint
erv
ene
Page|
77
i
nmat
ter
swhi
char
eessent
ial
l
ywi
thi
nthedomest
icj
uri
sdi
cti
onofanyst
ate...butt
his
pr
inci
pleshal
lnotpr
ejudi
cet
heappl
i
cat
ionofenf
orcementmeasur
esunderChapt
erVI
I.
Forexampl
e,t
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tycannotf
orci
blyi
nter
venet
omi
ti
gat
ethe
ef
fect
sofawi
despr
eadf
ami
neorchol
eraepi
demi
cift
hecr
isi
sisconf
inedt
oasi
ngl
e
st
ate.Whi
l
stther
emaybeamor
ali
mper
ati
vet
oint
erv
ene,t
heconceptofst
ate
sov
erei
gnt
ypr
event
scol
l
ect
iveact
ionwi
thoutt
heconsentoft
heaf
fect
edst
ate.
Thi
spr
ohi
bit
iononi
nter
nat
ionalact
ionwhenacr
isi
sorconf
li
cti
scont
ainedwi
thi
na
si
ngl
est
atecancausewi
despr
eadf
rust
rat
ion.Thef
ail
ureoft
heUN t
oint
erv
enet
o
pr
eventt
he Rwanda genoci
de st
ands as t
he moder e parexcel
n exampl l
ence.To
ov
ercome t
his pr
ohi
bit
ion wi
thoutexpr
essl
yencr
oachi
ng on a st
ate’
s sov
erei
gnt
y,
st
ateshav
eatt
imes–andsel
ect
ivel
ydev
elopedl
egalj
ust
if
icat
ionst
oint
erv
enei
n,and
t
o mi
ti
gat
ethe i
mpactof
,humani
tar
ian cr
ises.Exampl
es i
ncl
ude t
he doct
ri
ne of
humani
tar
iani
nter
vent
ion(
andpossi
bly
,mor
erecent
ly,
thedoct
ri
neoft
her
esponsi
bil
i
ty
t
opr
otect
),del
i
ver
yofhumani
tar
ianai
dandt
her
oleofr
egi
onal
organi
zat
ions.
Del
i
ver
yofHumani
tar
ianAi
d
Thepr
ovi
si
onofhumani
tar
ianai
disani
ntegr
alf
unct
ionper
for
medbyv
ari
ousact
orsi
n
t
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty.Tr
adi
ti
onal
l
ythedomai
nofpower
fulst
ates,t
het
askof
pr
ovi
ding v
italai
dto war
-t
orn and dev
ast
ated ci
vi
li
an popul
ati
ons i
s now shar
ed
bet
weenanumberofbodi
es,
i
ncl
udi
ngt
heUN,i
ndi
vi
dualst
atesandnon-
gov
ernmentor
gani
zat
ions.Thei
mpor
tance
ofdel
i
ver
inghumani
tar
ianai
disenshr
inedi
nAr
ti
cl a,Humani
e52JohnKabi tar
ian
I
nter
vent
ion and Conf
li
ctResol
uti
on i
n WestAf
ri
ca (
Far
nham,UK;Bur
li
ngt
on,VT:
Ashgat
ePubl
i
shi
ng,
2009)
.

1
Theobj
ect
ivesofhumani
tar
ianact
ionar
etosav
eli
ves,
all
evi
atesuf
fer
ingandmai
ntai
n
humandi
gni
tydur
ingandi
ntheaf
ter
mat
hofman-
madecr
isesandnat
uraldi
sast
ersas
wel
last
opr
eventandst
rengt
henpr
epar
ednessf
ort
heoccur
renceofsuchsi
tuat
ions.
Humani
tar
ianai
dcani
ncl
udeawi
dev
ari
etyofmeasur
esf
ort
hepur
poseofpr
ovi
ding
Page|
78
assi
stancet
oanaf
fect
edpopul
ati
on.I
naddi
ti
ont
othepr
ovi
sionofemer
gencyf
ood
andwat
ersuppl
i
es,humani
tar
ianai
dcani
ncl
udemedi
calsuppl
i
es,t
empor
aryshel
ter
s
andsani
tat
ionequi
pment
.Thest
atedai
m ofhumani
tar
ianassi
stancei
stoensur
ea
r
etur
nto sust
ainabl
eli
vel
i
hoods and t
o st
rengt
hen t
he capaci
ty of af
fect
ed
communi
ti
est
opr
eventandmi
ti
gat
efut
urecr
ises.
Regi
onal
Peacekeepi
ngandEnf
orcementAct
ions
The UN Char
terexpl
i
cit
lyal
l
ows f
ort
he oper
ati
on ofr
egi
onalpeacekeepi
ng and
enf
orcementor
gani
zat
ions.Rat
hert
hansi
mpl
yrel
yi
ngont
heChapt
erVI
Iaut
hor
it
yof
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
l
,regi
onalor
gani
zat
ionscanbegr
ant
edaspeci
fi
cmandat
eto
r
espondt
oanemer
gingt
hreatt
oint
ernat
ional
peaceandsecur
it
y.
Exampl
esoft
heser
egi
onalor
gani
zat
ionsar
etheNor
thAt
lant
icTr
eat
yOr
gani
zat
ion
(
NATO) and t
he ANZUS Al
l
iance (
Aust
ral
i
a,New Zeal
and and USA)
. These
or
gani
zat
ionsr
equi
ret
hei
rmember
stocommi
ttot
akev
ary
ingdegr
eesofcol
l
ect
ive
act
ionshoul
daf
ell
ow memberbesubj
ect
edt
oanar
medat
tack. Aspar
toft
his
commi
tmentMemberSt
ates of
ten shar
eint
ell
i
gence r
esour
ces and i
nfor
mat
ion,
par
ti
cipat
einj
ointmi
l
itar
yexer
cisesand col
l
abor
atet
o est
abl
i
shr
egi
onalsecur
it
y
obj
ect
ives.
Ar
ti
cle52oft
heUNChar
teral
l
owsr
egi
onalagenci
est
odealwi
th‘
mat
ter
srel
ati
ngt
o
t
hemai
ntenanceofi
nter
nat
ionalpeaceandsecur
it
yasar
eappr
opr
iat
eforr
egi
onal
act
ion’
,oncondi
ti
ont
hatt
heyacti
naccor
dancewi
thUNpur
posesandpr
inci
plesand
‘
makeev
eryef
for
tto
achi
evepaci
fi
cset
tl
ementofl
ocaldi
sput
es’(
wit
htheencour
agementoft
heSecur
it
y
Counci
l
)bef
orer
efer
ri
ngt
hem t
otheSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Ar
ti
cle53oft
heUN Char
ter

1
enabl
esr
egi
onalagenci
es,
wher
eappr
opr
iat
eandwi
tht
heaut
hor
izat
ionoft
heSecur
it
y
Counci
l
,to under
take enf
orcementact
ion on behal
foft
he UN.I
n al
lact
ivi
ti
es
under
takenorcont
empl
atedbyr
egi
onalagenci
esf
ort
hemai
ntenanceofi
nter
nat
ional
peaceandsecur
it
y,t
heSecur
it
yCounci
lmustbeatal
lti
meskeptf
ull
yinf
ormed.
Page|
79
HUMANI
TARI
ANI
NTERVENTI
ON
Foran i
ncr
easi
ngl
yint
erv
ent
ioni
stcommuni
tyofst
ates,di
ff
icul
ti
es ar
ise wher
ea
conf
li
ctoremer
ging cr
isi
siscont
ained wi
thi
nthebor
der
sofasi
ngl
est
ate.The
pr
ohi
bit
ioncont
ainedi
nAr
ti
cle2(
4)oft
heUNChar
terf
ocusesont
het
hreatoruseof
f
orceagai
nstt
het
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yofaf
orei
gnst
ate.Thewor
dingcl
ear
lycont
empl
ates
asi
tuat
ion ofconf
li
ctasand bet
ween st
ates.Thi
sisbecauset
hef
ramewor
kof
col
l
ect
ivesecur
it
yenv
isi
onedundert
heUNChar
termai
ntai
nsacl
eardef
erencef
ort
he
sov
erei
gnt
yofal
lst
ates.Nomat
terhowbi
gorsmal
l
,super
powerorr
oguer
egi
me,
each
st
ate’
ssov
erei
gn‘
pri
vacy
’is,atl
easti
npr
inci
ple,t
obepr
otect
ed.Howev
er,t
her
ehas
dev
elopedi
nrecenty
ear
ssomet
hingofanor
mat
iveshi
ftt
owar
dsi
nter
vent
ionbya
power
ful
par
toft
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
tyi
nthei
nter
nal
aff
air
sofast
ate,
par
ti
cul
arl
y
wher
ethatst
atei
sengagedi
norsubj
ect
edt
oani
nter
nalupheav
alt
hatgi
vesr
iset
oa
massi
ve
humani
tar
iancr
isi
s.
Sov
erei
gnt
yandHumani
tar
ianI
nter
vent
ion
Humani
tar
ian i
nter
vent
ion concer
ns t
he f
orci
blei
nter
vent
ion wi
thi
nthe sov
erei
gn
t
err
it
oryofast
atet
opr
eventormi
ti
gat
ethei
mpactofaconf
li
ctormassi
vehuman
r
ight
svi
olat
ions.Thi
s cour
se ofact
ion i
s most
ly consi
der
ed wher
e a domest
ic
gov
ernmenti
sanact
ivepar
ti
cipant(
incl
udi
ngmassar
bit
rar
yki
l
li
ngs,
for
cedexpul
sions
andt
hedel
i
ber
atet
arget
ingofet
hni
c
gr
oups,butcanal
soar
isewher
east
atei
ssi
mpl
yunabl
etopr
otecti
tsownci
ti
zens
f
rom gr
ossv
iol
ati
onsofhumanr
ight
s.

1
Aper
missi
vedef
ini
ti
onoft
hepr
act
iceofhumani
tar
iani
nter
vent
ioni
s:Thej
ust
if
iabl
e
useoff
orcef
ort
hepur
poseofpr
otect
ing t
hei
nhabi
tant
sofanot
herst
atef
rom
t
reat
mentso ar
bit
rar
yand per
sist
ent
lyabusi
veast
o exceed t
hel
i
mit
swhi
ch t
he
sov
erei
gni
spr
esumedt
oactwi
thr
easonandj
ust
ice.Theconceptofhumani
tar
ian
Page|
80
i
nter
vent
ioni
nresponset
ogr
ossandsy
stemat
icbr
eachesofhumanr
ight
sisf
raught
wi
thl
egal
andmor
alcompl
exi
ty.
EXCEPTI
ONTOTHERULE:
SELF-
DEFENCEANDCOLLECTI
VESELF-
DEFENCE
Themostsi
gni
fi
cantexcept
iont
othepr
ohi
bit
ionont
heuseoff
orcei
sther
ightt
osel
f-
def
ence.I
thasl
ongbeenr
ecogni
zedunderi
nter
nat
ionall
aw t
hati
fanar
medat
tack
occur
sagai
nstast
ate,
iti
sthei
nher
entr
ightoft
hatst
atet
ousef
orcet
odef
endi
tsel
f.
Dev
elopmentofSel
f-
def
ence
Theconceptofsel
f-
def
encewasf
ir
staddr
essedi
ntheCar
oli
nedi
sput
eof1837.I
nthi
s
l
andmar
kcase,Br
it
ishf
orcesat
tackedashi
pmoor
edont
heNi
agar
aRi
ver
,whi
chwas
suspect
edofsuppor
ti
nganar
medr
ebel
l
ionagai
nstt
heBr
it
ish.Wi
thoutwar
ning,
Bri
ti
sh
f
orcesboar
dedt
heshi
pandat
tacked33Amer
icanoccupant
s.TheBr
it
ishf
orcessent
heCar
t oli
neadr
if
tov
ert
heNi
agar
aFal
l
s,ki
l
li
ngt
wel
veAmer
icans.TheBr
it
ishf
orces
cl
aimedt
hatt
heyact
edi
nsel
f-
def
ence,ast
heywer
erespondi
ngt
othei
mpendi
ng
t
hreatofanar
medr
ebel
l
ion.
103I
nadi
plomat
icexchange,
USSecr
etar
yofSt
ate,
Dani
el
Webst
er,
out
li
nedhi
sint
erpr
etat
ionoft
he
r
equi
rement
sforav
ali
dactofsel
f-
def
ence:I
twi
l
lbef
ort
hatGov
ernmentt
oshow a
necessi
tyofsel
f-
def
ence,i
nst
ant
,ov
erwhel
ming,l
eav
ingnochoi
ceofmeans,andno
momentf
ordel
i
ber
ati
onThepr
inci
plesexpr
essedbyWebst
erhav
ebeenr
ecogni
zedas
t
hebasi
cfoundat
ionoft
hepr
inci
pleofsel
f-
def
encei
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.Thi
sst
atement
i
ntr
oducedt
het
winr
equi
rement
sofnecessi
tyandpr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty,whi
chst
il
loper
ate
undert
heUNsy
stem t
oday
.106Jur
ispr
udence
f
oll
owi heCar
ngt oli
nedi
sput
eregar
dedt
hepr
act
iceofsel
f-
def
enceasanactofsel
f-
pr
eser
vat
ion,whi
chcoul
donl
ybeper
mit
tedi
ndi
reci
rcumst
ances.Ther
ightt
osel
f-
def
encewasexpr
essl
yrecogni
zedi
ntheKel
l
ogg-
Bri
andPact
,108and,
inr
eser
vat
ionst
o

1
t
het
reat
y,si
gnat
oryst
atesmaker
efer
encet
o‘t
her
eser
vat
ionoft
her
ightofsel
f-
def
enceandal
soofcol
l
ect
ivesel
fdef
ence.
Sel
f-
def
enceundert
heUNChar
ter
Page|
81
Ar
ti
cle51oft
heUN Char
terr
eser
vest
her
ightofst
atest
oengagei
nindi
vi
dualor
col
l
ect
ive sel
f-
def
ence.Ar
ti
cle 51 r
epr
esent
sthe onl
y expl
i
citexcept
ion t
othe
pr
ohi
bit
ionont
heuseoff
orcet
hati
sav
ail
abl
etost
ates,
andi
sout
li
nedasf
oll
ows:
Not
hingi
nthepr
esentChar
tershal
limpai
rthei
nher
entr
ightofi
ndi
vi
dualorcol
l
ect
ive
sel
f-
def
encei
fanar
medat
tackoccur
sagai
nstaMemberoft
heUni
tedNat
ions,unt
il
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
lhast
akenmeasur
esnecessar
ytomai
ntai
nint
ernat
ionalpeaceand
secur
it
y.Measur
est
akenbyMember
sint
heexer
ciseoft
hisr
ightofsel
f-
def
enceshal
l
bei
mmedi
atel
yrepor
tedt
otheSecur
it
yCounci
landshal
lnoti
nanywayaf
fectt
he
aut
hor
it
yandr
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
heSecur
it
yCounci
lundert
hepr
esentChar
tert
otakeat
anyt
imesuchact
ionasi
tdeemsnecessar
yinor
dert
omai
ntai
norr
est
orei
nter
nat
ional
peaceandsecur
it
y.Ther
ear
esev
erali
mpor
tanti
ssuesofi
nter
pret
ati
ont
hatar
isef
rom
t
hewor
dingofAr
ti
cle51.Theuseoft
het
erm‘
i
nher
entr
ightofi
ndi
vi
dualorcol
l
ect
ive
sel
f-
def
ence’i
ndi
cat
est
hatAr
ti
cle51i
snott
heonl
ysour
ceoft
hepr
inci
ple.Theuseof
t
hisl
anguagei
mpl
i
est
hatcust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
aw andpr
evi
ousst
atepr
act
iceon
t
he i
ssue ofsel
f-
def
ence ar
erel
evantconsi
der
ati
ons,a v
iew suppor
ted by t
he
I
nter
nat
ional
Cour
tofJust
icei
ntheNi
car
aguacase:
Thi
sdef
ini
ti
oni
ssuppl
ement
edbyt
heI
CJi
ntheOi
lPl
atf
ormscase,i
nwhi
cht
heCour
t
hel
dthatt
her
ightofsel
f-
def
encecanonl
ybei
nvokedi
nresponset
o‘t
hemostgr
ave
f
ormsoft
heuseoff
orce’
.
115Howev
er,
anar
medat
tackmayal
soconsi
stofaser
iesof
at
tackswhi
ch,when consi
der
ed i
ndi
vi
dual
l
y,woul
d notj
ust
if
ya r
esponse i
n sel
f-
def
ence.I
fanar
medat
tackhasoccur
redagai
nstast
ate,t
hatst
ate’
sresponsei
nsel
f-
def
encei
sli
mit
edt
oact
ionst
hatar
enecessar
yandpr
opor
ti
onat
e,r
equi
rement
sthat
wer
esubsequent
lysuppor
tedbyt
heI
CJi
ntheOi
l
Pl
atf
ormscaseandt
heLegal
i
tyoft
heThr
eatorUseofNucl
earWeapons(
Adv
isor
y
Opi
nion)
.

1
Ani
mpor
tantr
equi
rementofAr
ti
cle51i
sthatanymeasur
etakeni
nsel
f-
def
encemust
be‘
i
mmedi
atel
yrepor
ted’t
otheSecur
it
yCounci
l
.Thi
srequi
rementexi
stssot
hatt
he
i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tycan assess whet
heran ar
med at
tack has occur
red,and
Page|
82
whet
her act
ions t
aken by t
he v
ict
im st
atei
n sel
f-
def
ence ar
e necessar
y and
pr
opor
ti
onat
etot
he or
igi
nalaggr
essi
on.Thi
sis a cl
earbr
eak f
rom cust
omar
y
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw,whi
ch cont
ained no such r
epor
ti
ng r
equi
rementt
o a mul
ti
lat
eral
aut
hor
it
y.Asexpl
ainedbyt
heI
CJi
ntheNi
car
aguacase,t
hisr
equi
rementt
orepor
tto
t
he Secur
it
y Counci
lisv
italt
o assess obj
ect
ivel
y whet
hert
he v
ict
im st
ate can
l
egi
ti
mat
elycl
aimt
hati
thasact
edi
nsel
f-
def
ence.
Col
l
ect
iveSel
f-
def
ence
Ani
mpor
tantaspectofAr
ti
cle51i
stheexpl
i
citr
efer
encet
o‘col
l
ect
ivesel
f-
def
ence’
.It
i
scl
earf
rom t
hisr
efer
encet
hatav
ict
im st
atecanseekassi
stancef
rom ot
herst
atest
o
r
epelan‘
armedat
tack’
.Howev
er,ani
ssuecanar
iseast
owhenot
herst
atescan
l
egi
ti
mat
elyassi
stav
ict
im st
ateunderAr
ti
cle51.Anassi
sti
ngst
ateorcoal
i
tionof
st
atescannotuni
l
ater
all
ydeci
det
oint
erv
eneandr
epelaper
cei
vedar
medat
tack.I
nthe
Ni
car
agua case,t
heI
CJemphasi
zest
hispr
inci
ple:‘
Ther
eisnor
uleper
mit
ti
ngt
he
exer
ciseofcol
l
ect
ivesel
f-
def
encei
ntheabsenceofar
equestbyt
heSt
atewhi
ch
r
egar
dsi
tsel
fast
hev
ict
im ofanar
medat
tack.
’Toper
mitot
herst
atest
oassi
sti
na
col
l
ect
ivesel
f-
def
enceact
ion,t
hest
atef
orwhosebenef
itt
heact
ioni
stakenmust
consi
deri
tsel
ftobet
hev
ict
im ofanar
medat
tack.
Ni
car
agua appl
i
ed t
othe I
CJ,al
l
egi
ng t
hatt
he Uni
ted St
ates had l
aid mi
nes i
n
Ni
car
aguanwat
ersandengagedi
nunpr
ovokedat
tacksonpor
ts.Ni
car
aguaal
soal
l
eged
t
hatt
heUSt
rai
ned,f
undedandsuppor
tedagr
oupofant
i-
gov
ernmentr
ebel
sint
hei
r
st
ruggl
eagai
nstt
hei
ncumbentr
uli
ngr
egi
meofNi
car
agua.I
twasar
guedt
hatt
heUS
had v
iol
ated t
he sov
erei
gnt
yofNi
car
agua,t
her
ebyv
iol
ati
ng t
he pr
inci
ple ofnon-
i
nter
vent
ioncont
ainedi
nAr
ti
cle2(
7)oft
heUNChar
ter
,andengagedi
nanunl
awf
uluse
off
orce.TheUSar
guedt
hati
tact
edi
ncol
l
ect
ivesel
f-
def
encef
ort
hebenef
itofEl

1
Sal
vadorbecauseofNi
car
agua’
spr
act
iceofhar
bour
ingCommuni
stopponent
soft
he
gov
ernmentofEl
Sal
vador
.
TheCour
tst
atedt
hatt
her
eis‘
aspeci
fi
crul
ewher
ebysel
f-
def
encewoul
dwar
rantonl
y
Page|
83
measur
eswhi
char
epr
opor
ti
onalt
othear
medat
tackandnecessar
ytor
espondt
oit
,a
r
ulewel
lest
abl
i
shedi
ncust
omar
yint
ernat
ionall
aw’
.Ithel
dthatNi
car
agua’
sconducti
n
r
elat
iont
oElSal
vadordi
dnotconst
it
uteanar
medat
tack.Whi
l
stanar
medat
tackcoul
d
i
ncl
ude‘
assi
stancet
orebel
sint
hef
orm oft
hepr
ovi
sionofweaponsorl
ogi
sti
calor
ot
hersuppor
t’
,ther
ewasi
nsuf
fi
cientev
idencet
oconcl
udet
hatNi
car
aguahadbeen
engagedi
nanar
medat
tackagai
nstElSal
vador
.A st
atecannotengagei
nact
sof
col
l
ect
ivesel
f-
def
enceunt
ilt
het
argetofanar
medat
tackr
equest
sassi
stance.I
fthi
s
assi
stance i
srequest
ed,t
he i
nter
veni
ng st
ate mustnot
if
ythe Secur
it
yCounci
lin
accor
dancewi
thAr
ti
cle51oft
heUN Char
ter
.Int
hiscase,t
her
ewasnoev
idencet
o
suppor
ta
f
indi
ngt
hatElSal
vadorhadr
equest
edassi
stance,andt
heUSAhadnotnot
if
iedt
he
Secur
it
yCounci
lofi
tsact
ions.Ther
efor
e,ev
eni
fElSal
vadorhadbeent
hev
ict
im ofan
ar
medat
tack,t
heUSAcoul
dnotengagei
nact
sofcol
l
ect
ivesel
f-
def
enceagai
nstt
he
t
err
it
oryofNi
car
agua,because such assi
stance had notbeen r
equest
ed and t
he
Secur
it
yCounci
lwasnotnot
if
ied.
St
atusofAnt
ici
pat
orySel
f-
def
ence
Themostcont
rov
ersi
alaspectofAr
ti
cle51concer
nswhet
herast
ate’
sri
ghtt
osel
f-
def
enceagai
nstanar
medat
tacki
ncl
udest
her
ightt
oant
ici
pat
orysel
f-
def
ence.Thi
s
conceptar
iseswhenast
atebel
i
evest
hatanar
medat
tacki
simmi
nent
,butt
her
ehas
noty
etbeenanactofaggr
essi
on.
Adv
ocat
esofant
ici
pat
orysel
f-
def
encear
guet
hatast
ateshoul
dhav
ether
ightt
ouse
necessar
yandpr
opor
ti
onat
efor
cet
opr
eventanar
medat
tackoni
tst
err
it
ory
,wi
thout
hav
ingt
owai
tforsuchanat
tackt
obei
mmi
nentori
nev
itabl
e.
Ar
ti
cle51oft
heUNChar
terexpl
ainst
hatast
atehast
her
ightt
oacti
nsel
f-
def
ence‘
i
f

1
anar
medat
tackoccur
s’.Al
i
ter
ali
nter
pret
ati
onoft
hewor
dingofAr
ti
cle51suggest
s
t
hatanar
medat
tackmustal
readybei
npr
ogr
essbef
oreast
atecanl
egi
ti
mat
elyacti
n
sel
f-
def
ence.Thi
sappear
sto
excl
udeanyr
ightt
oengagei
nact
sofant
ici
pat
orysel
f-
def
ence.Dur
ingt
hedr
aft
ing
Page|
84
di
scussi
onsatt
heSanFr
anci
scoConf
erence,nor
ecor
deddi
scussi
onexi
stsaboutt
he
i
ntendedmeani
ngoft
het
erm‘
i
fanar
medat
tackoccur
s’.Ti
mot
hyMcCor
mackar
gues
t
hatt
hisl
ackofdi
scussi
onmeanst
hatt
hewor
dswer
eincl
udedwi
thoutal
i
mit
ati
onas
t
othei
rmeani
ng,
whi
chi
ssi
gni
fi
cantwhencompar
edt
otheext
ensi
vedi
scussi
onoft
he
l
anguaget
obeusedi
not
herpr
ovi
sions.Onepossi
blei
nter
pret
ati
oni
sthatt
hedr
aft
ers
oft
heUNChar
terdi
dnoti
ntendt
opr
ohi
bit
act
sofant
ici
pat
orysel
f-
def
enceunderAr
ti
cle51.
135Becauseoft
hewor
dingofAr
ti
cle
51,suppor
ter
sofant
ici
pat
orysel
fdef
encear
efor
cedt
oci
tecust
omar
yint
ernat
ional
l
aw t
osuppor
tthei
rposi
ti
on.Adv
ocat
esr
efert
otheopi
nionofUSSecr
etar
yofSt
ate
Webst
eri
ntheCar
oli
necase,namel
ythatast
atecant
akeant
ici
pat
oryst
epsi
nsel
f-
def
ence,pr
ovi
dedt
hatt
heneedf
ort
headopt
edmeasur
es,ov
erwhel
mingandt
her
eis
nomomentf
ordel
i
ber
ati
on
Theconceptofant
ici
pat
orysel
f-
def
encewassuppor
tedbyt
heUNHi
gh-
Lev
elPanelon
Thr
eat
s,Chal
l
engesandChange.I
nit
sDecember2004r
epor
t,t
hePanelout
li
nedt
he
f
oll
owi
ngposi
ti
on:
[
A]t
hreat
enedst
ate,accor
dingt
olongest
abl
i
shedi
nter
nat
ionall
aw,cant
akemi
l
itar
y
act
ionasl
ongast
heat
t si
acki mmi
nent
,noot
hermeanswoul
ddef
lecti
tandt
heact
ion
i
spr
opor
ti
onat
e.Thepr
obl
em ar
iseswher
ethet
hreati
nquest
ioni
snoti
mmi
nentbut
st
il
lcl
aimedt
ober
eal
;forexampl
etheacqui
sit
ion,wi
thal
l
egedl
yhost
il
eint
ent
,of
nucl
earweaponsmaki
ngcapabi
l
ity
.139
Thi
srepor
tappear
stogi
vesuppor
ttot
heposi
ti
ont
hatast
atecanusef
orcet
opr
event
ani
mmi
nentat
tackoni
tsownt
err
it
ory
.Forexampl
e,i
fast
atei
samassi
ngt
roops,
posi
ti
oni
ngweaponsandpubl
i
clydecl
aresi
tsi
ntentt
oinv
ade,t
hev
ict
im st
atemaybe
per
mit
tedt
ouseanecessar
yandpr
opor
ti
onat
eamountoff
orcet
onul
l
ifyt
hei
mmi
nent
t
hreat
.

1
I
n1981,
Isr
aelbombedanI
raqinucl
earr
eact
ort
hatwasunderconst
ruct
ioni
nOsi
rakon
t
hebasi
sofant
ici
pat
orysel
f-
def
ence.I
sraelar
guedt
hatt
heconst
ruct
ionofanucl
ear
r
eact
ori
n a host
il
e st
ate posed a di
rectt
hreatt
oit
s sov
erei
gnt
y and pol
i
tical
i
ndependence.Not
wit
hst
andi
nganyf
utur
ehost
il
it
ythatmayensue,
Isr
ael
wasnotunder
Page|
85
ani
mmi
nentt
hreatofnucl
earorot
herar
medat
tackf
rom I
raq.Theact
ionsofI
srael
wer
eunani
mousl
ycondemnedi
nSecur
it
yCounci
lResol
uti
on487asa‘
cl
earv
iol
ati
onof
t
heChar
teroft
heUni
tedNat
ions’
,ast
her
ewasnoi
mmi
nentt
hreatofar
medat
tack
posedbyI
raq.
Sel
f-
def
enceandPr
e-empt
ion
Thenot
ionofpr
e-empt
ional
l
owsast
atet
her
ightt
ousemi
l
itar
yfor
cet
onul
l
ifya
per
cei
ved t
hreat t
oit
s sov
erei
gnt
y or t
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
y.Pr
e-empt
ion can be
di
sti
ngui
shedf
rom ant
ici
pat
orysel
f-
def
ence,becauseanat
tackdoesnothav
etobe
i
mmi
nentt
oinv
oket
hej
ust
if
icat
ionofapr
e-empt
ivest
ri
ke.
Tot
hisext
ent
,thest
ateact
ingi
npr
e-empt
iondoesnothav
etobeexpect
inganar
med
at
tack,andcansi
mpl
yber
espondi
ngt
oaper
cei
vedmi
l
itar
ythr
eat
.Thi
scanl
eadt
oa
mi
l
itar
yst
ri
keagai
nstast
atebef
oret
her
eisanyev
idencet
hatanat
tackhasbeen
pl
annedorev
encont
empl
ated.
Pr
e-empt
ionwasi
ncl
udedi
nthev
erycont
rov
ersi
al2002Nat
ionalSecur
it
ySt
rat
egyof
t
heUni
tedSt
atesofAmer
ica,commonl
yknownast
he‘
BushDoct
ri
ne’
.Inr
esponset
o
t
heat
tacksof11Sept
ember2001,
Presi
dentBushar
guedt
hatt
heUni
tedSt
ateshast
he
r
ightt
o el
i
minat
ethe t
hreatposed bya ‘
rogue st
ate and t
hei
rter
ror
istcl
i
ent
s’.
Si
gni
fi
cant
ly,t
hispol
i
cyt
arget
ednon-
stat
eact
orsaswel
lasst
ates,andext
endedf
ar
bey
ondt
heconceptofant
ici
pat
orysel
f-
def
ence.TheBushDoct
ri
nei
sanaggr
essi
ve
pol
i
cyt
hatov
ert
lyt
hreat
enst
hesov
erei
gnt
yofadv
ersar
iesoft
heUS.Theconceptof
pr
e-empt
ionoper
atesf
arbey
ondt
hescopeofAr
ti
cle51oft
heUN Char
ter
,asa
per
cei
vedt
hreatdoesnothav
etobei
mmi
nentorev
enpl
annedt
obeusedast
he
j
ust
if
icat
ionf
orr
etal
i
ati
on.Byi
tsv
erynat
ure,
apr
e-empt
ivest
ri
kecannotbeadef
ensi
ve

1
act
ion,
ast
her
eisnocur
rentt
hreatt
owhi
chat
argetst
atei
srespondi
ng.Thi
sindi
cat
es
t
hatt
hedoct
ri
neofpr
e-empt
ioni
snotanactofsel
f-
def
ence,butr
atherapol
i
cyof
t
hreatandaggr
essi
on.
Page|
86
EXCEPTI
ONTOTHERULE:
CHAPTERVI
IAUTHORI
TYOFTHESECURI
TYCOUNCI
L
Thepr
ohi
bit
ionont
heuseoff
orcei
ssubj
ectt
otheuni
queaut
hor
it
yoft
heSecur
it
y
Counci
l
.Chapt
erVI
Ioft
heUNChar
terbest
owsont
heSecur
it
yCounci
lar
esponsi
bil
i
ty
t
oident
if
yandi
nvest
igat
eanyemer
gingt
hreat
.
6. TERRI
TORYANDI
TSACQI
SITI
ONI
NINTERNATI
OALLAW:
Thi
sdocumentwi
l
lfocusont
het
radi
ti
onalmet
hodsofacqui
sit
ionoft
err
it
orybyst
ates
i
nint
ernat
ionall
aw(
Discov
ery
,Occupat
ion,Conquest
,Cessi
on,Accr
eti
on/
Avul
sion,
Pr
escr
ipt
ion,Cont
igui
ty)
.Not
ionoft
err
anul
l
isandi
tsr
eject
ioni
nmoder
nint
ernat
ional
l
aw.Rel
evanceofconcept
sofi
nter
-t
empor
aldoct
ri
neandcr
it
icaldat
e.I
mpl
i
cat
ionsof
pr
inci
plesofmoder
nint
ernat
ionall
awont
radi
ti
onalmodes(
sel
fdet
ermi
nat
ion,
non-
use
off
orce)
,ofconcept
soft
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yandut
ipossi
det
is,
andl
ossoft
err
it
ory
.
1.
INTRODUCTI
ON:
1.
1.DEFI
NITI
ON:
Ter
ri
tor
yref
erst
oagener
alwor
dmeani
ngageogr
aphi
calar
ea,especi
all
ylandt
hati
s
admi
nist
eredbyacount
ry,butnotaper
manentpar
toft
hatcount
ryorcompl
etel
y
2
i
ntegr
atedi
ntoi
tsgov
ernment
alwor
kings. Accor
dingt
o Bl
ack'
sLaw Di
cti
onar
y,i
t
r
efer
stoageogr
aphi
calar
eai
ncl
udedwi
thi
napar
ti
cul
argov
ernment
sjur
isdi
cti
on,t
he
3
por
ti
onoft
heear
th'
ssur
facet
hati
sinast
atesexcl
usi
vepossessi
onandcont
rol
. That
meanst
err
it
orycanbedet
ermi
nedbyt
heexer
ciseofj
uri
sdi
cti
onnotmer
epossessi
on.
Theconceptoft
err
it
orycannotbeov
err
e-st
atedasi
tsexpl
i
citt
hatast
atemust
4
possesst
err
it
ory t
o qual
i
fyasast
ate, and t
hist
err
it
ori
alsov
erei
gnt
ymustbe
r
espect
edbyal
ldi
ff
erentst
ates.I
nUganda,
iti
spr
ovi
dedunderObj
ect
iveI
VofNat
ional
2
Oran'
sDict
ionar
yofLawby,MarkTosti
,J.
D.Contr
ibuti
ngAuthor,
page484
3
Bl
ack'sLawDicti
onar
y9t
hEditi
on,Br
yanA.Garner,Edi
tori
nChief,page1611
4
Ar
ticl
e1ofthe1933Montev
ideoConventi
on

1
Obj
ect
ivesand Di
rect
ivePr
inci
plesofSt
atePol
i
cyundert
he1995 Const
it
uti
onof
Uganda t
hat
,the St
ate and ci
ti
zens ofUganda shal
latal
lti
mes def
end t
he
i
ndependence,sov
erei
gnt
y and t
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
y ofUganda.Thi
s al
lshows t
he
i
mpor
tanceoft
err
it
oryunderi
nter
nat
ional
andt
hus,
itsdi
scussi
oni
simper
ati
ve.
Page|
87
2.PRI
NCI
PLESUNDERTERRI
TORY:
2.
1.Ter
ri
tor
ial
Sov
erei
gnt
y:
Ter
ri
tor
ialsov
erei
gnt
yisbestunder
stoodasal
egalnexus,andhasbeendef
ined
v
ari
abl
yast
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hest
ateandt
hephy
sicalar
eai
tencompasses,
andt
hef
ramewor
kwi
thi
nwhi
cht
hepubl
i
cpoweri
sexer
cised.I
ncl
assi
cali
nter
nat
ional
5
l
awt
err
it
ori
alsov
erei
gnt
yist
houghtt
ocompr
isebot
hri
ght
sanddut
ies. The I
slandof
Pal
masCasedef
inesi
ttomeanexcl
usi
ver
ightt
odi
spl
ayt
heact
ivi
ti
esofast
ate.
6
JudgeHubernot
edi
ntheI
slandPal
mascase, t
hatsov
erei
gnt
yinr
elat
iont
oapor
ti
on
oft
hesur
faceoft
hegl
obei
sthel
egalcondi
ti
onnecessar
yfort
hei
ncl
usi
onofsuch
por
ti
oni
nthet
err
it
oryofanypar
ti
cul
arst
ate.Ter
ri
tor
ialsov
erei
gnt
yhasaposi
ti
veanda
negat
iveaspect
.Thef
ormerr
elat
est
otheexcl
usi
vi
tyoft
hecompet
enceoft
hest
ate
r
egar
dingi
tsownt
err
it
ory
,whi
l
ethel
att
err
efer
stot
heobl
i
gat
iont
opr
otectt
her
ightof
7
ot
herst
ates.Thei
nter
nat
ional
cour
tnot
edi
ntheBur
kinaFaso/
Mal
icase,thewor
dti
tl
e
compr
ehendsbot
hanyev
idencewhi
chmayest
abl
i
sht
heexi
stenceofar
ightandt
he
act
ual
sour
ceoft
hatr
ight
.
2.
2.Not
ionofTer
raNul
l
isandCommuni
s:
Ter
raNul
l
is,r
efer
stot
err
it
oryt
hatmaybeacqui
redbyst
atesbuthasnoty
etbeen
5
GidoenBoasPubl
icInt
ernational
Law,2012,page181
6
Isl
andofPalmascase(
Net herl
andsvsUS)( 1928)2RIAA829
7
Fronti
erDi
sput
eCase(BukinaFasovsMal i)(1986)I
CJ554

1
8
pl
acedundert
err
it
ori
alsov
erei
gnt
yinWest
ernSahar
acase, i
twasdet
ermi
nedt
hat
t
err
it
oryi
nhabi
tedbyapeopl
ewi
thapol
i
ticalorsoci
alst
ruct
ur snott
ei err
anul
l
iusand
t
huscannotbeoccupi
ed.
ResCommuni
s ont
heot
herhand,
isat
err
it
orynotcapabl
eofbei
ngpl
acedunderst
ate
Page|
88
9
sov
erei
gnt
y,suchast
hehi
ghseas,
theexcl
usi
veeconomi
czonesandout
erspace.
2.
3.I
nter
-Tempor
alDoct
ri
neandCr
it
ical
Dat
e:
JudgeHuber
,i heI
nt slandofPal
mascase(
Supr
a),st
atedt
hatt
hepr
inci
pleofi
nter
-
t
empor
all
awr
equi
rest
hataj
uri
dical
(connect
edwi
tht
hel
aw)f
actmustbeappr
eci
ated
i
nthel
i
ghtoft
hel
awcont
empor
arywi
thi
t,andnotoft
hel
awi
nfor
ceatt
het
imesucha
di
sput
einr
egar
dofi
tar
isesorf
all
stobeset
tl
ed.I
tisar
elat
ivel
ywel
lest
abl
i
shed
pr
inci
pleofl
aw,andi
sti
edt
oconcept
sofst
abi
l
ityandcer
tai
nty
.Howev
er,i
nmany
casest
her
ewi
l
lbeasocal
l
edcr
it
icaldat
e:t
heper
iodwhen‘
themat
eri
alf
act
sofa
di
sput
ear
esai
dtohav
eoccur
redandaf
terwhi
cht
heact
ionsoft
hepar
ti
est
oadi
sput
e
cannol
ongeraf
fectt
hei
ssue.Forexampl
e,i
fthet
err
it
ori
aldi
sput
ecent
resuponan
al
l
egedcessi
onbyt
reat
y,t
hedat
eoft
het
reat
ymaybet
hecr
it
icaldat
efort
hati
sthe
momentatwhi
cht
her
ight
soft
hest
ateshav
ecr
yst
all
i
zed.Cr
it
icaldat
esar
epar
ti
cul
arl
y
i
mpor
tanti
nt extofut
hecont ipossi
det
iswher
ebyanewst
atewi
l
linher
itt
heboundar
ies
ofi
tspr
edecessor
.Insuchasi
tuat
iont
hemomentofi
ndependencei
snor
mal
l
ythe
cr
it
icaldat
e,t
hought
hisdoesnotpr
ecl
udet
hepossi
bil
i
tyt
hatsomesi
tuat
ionoracthad
cr
yst
all
i
zedst
ater
ight
sear
li
er.Ofcour
se,somecasesmayhav
emul
ti
pledat
esof
i
mpor
tance,andi
nsomecasest
her
emaybenocr
it
icaldat
eatal
l
.Thei
mpor
tanceof
t
heconceptofacr
it
icaldat
edependsont
heci
rcumst
ances,
andi
tisopent
oat
ri
bunal
10
t
orel
egat
eli
tt
lewei
ghtt
oit
,aswasdonei
ntheAr
gent
ine-
Chi
l
eFr
ont
iercase, Cour
t
st
atedt
hat
;"i
tisagr
eedbybot
hpar
ti
est
hatt
henot
ionoft
hecr
it
icaldat
eisnotar
ight
oneandt
hatagooddeali
slef
ttot
heappr
eci
ati
onoft
heCour
t,andmor
eov
ert
hatt
he
cr
it
icaldat
eisnotnecessar
il
ythesamef
oral
lpur
poses.
..
fort
heser
easons,t
heCour
t
8
(1975)I
CJRep.6
9
GidoenBoasPubl
icInt
ernati
onalLaw,2012,
181
10
Ar
gent
ine-
Chi
leFront
iercase(Argent
inavChi
l
e)(
1969)38I
LR20.

1
hasconsi
der
edt
hatnot
ionoft
hecr
it
ical
dat
etobeofl
i
ttl
eval
uei
nthepr
esentl
i
tigat
ion
andhasexami
nedal
ltheev
idencesubmi
tt
edt
oit
,ir
respect
iveoft
hedat
eoft
heact
sto
whi
chsuchev
idencer
elat
es.
"
Page|
89 2.
4.TheConceptofTer
ri
tor
ial
Int
egr
it
yandUt
iPossi
det
is:
Thei
nfl
uenceoft
hepr
inci
pleoft
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
ymaybeseeni
ntheLat
inAmer
ica
i
deaofut
ipossi
det
is,wher
ebyt
headmi
nist
rat
ivedi
vi
sionsoft
heSpani
shempi
rei
n
Sout
hAmer
icawer
edeemedt
oconst
it
utet
heboundar
iesf
ort
henewl
yindependent
successorst
atest
hus,t
heor
eti
cal
l
yexcl
udi
nganygapsi
nsov
erei
gnt
ywhi
chmi
ght
pr
eci
pit
atehost
il
it
iesandencour
agef
orei
gni
nter
vent
ion.Thequest
ionofut
ipossi
det
is
wasdi
scussedi
nthecaseofBur
kinaFasoVR.ofMal
i
(Supr
a)wher
ethecompr
omi
sor
speci
alagr
eementbywhi
cht
hepar
ti
essubmi
tt
edt
hecaset
othecour
tspeci
fi
edt
hat
t
heset
tl
ementoft
hedi
sput
eshoul
dbebaseduponr
espectf
ort
hepr
inci
pleoft
he
i
ntangi
bil
i
tyoff
ront
ier
sinher
it
edf
rom col
oni
zat
ion.I
twasnot
edhowev
er,t
hatt
he
pr
inci
plehadi
nfactdev
elopedi
ntoagener
alconceptofcont
empor
aryi
nter
nat
ionall
aw
andwasunaf
fect
edbyt
heemer
gencyoft
her
ightofpeopl
etosel
fdet
ermi
nat
ion.I
t
wasdef
inedi
nthatcaset
omean;t
heessenceoft
hepr
inci
plel
i
esi
nit
spr
imar
yai
m of
secur
ingr
espectf
ort
het
err
it
ori
alboundar
iesatt
hemomentwheni
ndependencei
s
achi
eved.Sucht
err
it
ori
alboundar
iesmi
ghtbenomor
ethandel
i
mit
ati
onsbet
ween
di
ff
erentadmi
nist
rat
ivedi
vi
sionorcol
oni
esal
lsubj
ectt
othesamesov
erei
gn.
Fur
ther
mor
e,t
he concer
ns f
ort
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
y and peace and st
abi
l
ity hav
e
cont
inual
l
ybeenemphasi
zedbyt
heUN.Forexampl
e,i
nthecaseofGi
bral
tar
,theUN
Gener
alAssembl
ycl
ear
lyappl
i
edt
hepr
inci
pleoft
err
it
ori
alsov
erei
gnt
yini
tsadopt
ionof
Resol
uti
on 2353 (
XXI
I)
,det
ermi
ning t
hata col
oni
alsi
tuat
ion whi
ch ev
en par
ti
all
y
br
eachest
hepr
inci
plesofnat
ionaluni
tyandt
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yisi
ncompat
ibl
ewi
tht
he
pur
poses and pr
inci
ples oft
he UN Char
ter
.Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
he pr
inci
ple ofsel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ionandt
heappl
i
cat
ionofut
ipossi
det
ishav
eev
olv
edi
nrecentpr
act
ice,
such

1
11
hatut
t ipossi
det
ismaynol
ongeroper
ateast
heconst
rai
nti
toncewas.
3.THEACQUI
SITI
ONOFTERRI
TORI
ALSOVEREI
GNTY
3.
1.Accr
eti
on/
Avul
sion:
Page|
90
Accr
eti
onr
efer
stot
hei
ncr
easeofl
andt
hroughnewf
ormat
ions.Accr
eti
onasaf
orm of
acqui
sit
ionoft
err
it
orywasder
ivedf
rom t
heRomanl
aw pr
inci
plet
hatst
atest
hat
any
thi
ngaddedf
oll
owst
hest
atusoft
hepr
inci
palt
hing.Acqui
sit
ionbyaccr
eti
ont
akes
pl
acewher
eanew t
err
it
oryi
saddedmai
nlyt
hroughnat
uralcausest
othet
err
it
ory
al
readyundert
hesov
erei
gnt
yofa st
ate.Forexampl
e,an i
sland mayr
isewi
thi
n
t
err
it
ori
alseaofaSt
ate.I
nsuchcases,
Stat
esbyt
hisf
acti
tsel
facqui
resov
erei
gnt
yov
er
t
henew f
ormat
ions.Thus,accr
eti
onbasi
cal
l
yref
erst
othephy
sicalexpansi
onofan
exi
sti
ngt
err
it
oryt
hroughgeogr
aphi
cal
process.
Accr
eti
oni
stheat
tai
nmentofsov
erei
gnt
yov
ernew l
andduet
osl
ow mov
ementof
nat
ural
for
ces;
forexampl
ethegr
adual
mov
ementofar
iver
bed.Ont
heot
herhandi
fthe
nat
uralf
orceshappensuddenl
y,l
i
kecr
eat
ionofani
slandi
nter
ri
tor
ialwat
ersduet
o
v
olcani
cer
upt
ion,i
tisr
efer
redt
oasAv
ulsi
on.I
not
herwor
dsav
ulsi
oni
sasudden
changei
nthecour
seofl
andorwat
erbr
oughtaboutbyv
iol
entact
ivi
ti
esofnat
ure;
such
asf
loods,
stor
msorv
olcani
cer
upt
ions.
12
TheChami
zalcasei
n1911, bet
weent
heUni
tedSt
atesandMexi
codeci
dedt
hest
atus
oft
err
it
orycr
eat
edbyar
iversubj
ect
edt
obot
haccr
eti
onandav
ulsi
onf
orcesov
era
pr
olongedper
iod.TheChami
zalDi
sput
ebet
weenMexi
coandt
heUni
tedSt
ateswas
concer
ningl
andboundar
ychangesmadebyt
hechangi
ngcour
seoft
heRi
oGr
ande
bet
weent
heUSAandMexi
co.TheUSAcl
aimedt
hatt
hepr
ocessofsl
ow er
osi
onand
accr
eti
onhadf
ormedt
henew t
ract
.Mexi
cocont
endedt
hati
thadbeenf
ormedby
av
ulsi
on.ByaConv
ent
ionof1910t
hecont
rov
ersywassubmi
tt
edt
oar
bit
rat
ionandt
he
Commi
ssi
onhel
dthatpar
toft
het
ractwasduet
o“sl
owandgr
adual
erosi
on”(
accr
eti
on)
11
Gi
doenBoasPubl
i
cInt
ernat
ional
Law,
2012,
page200
12
TheChami
zal
Arbi
tr
atonCase(
i Mexi
cov
.Uni
tedSt
ates)(
1911)11R.
I.
A.A.316.

1
whi
chwast
obeawar
dedt
otheUni
tedSt
atesandt
her
emai
nderpar
toft
het
ractwas
duet
othecut
-of
fsi
nthef
loods(
avul
sion)wast
obeawar
dedt
oMexi
co.
3.
2.Cessi
on:
Page|
91 Cessi
onoccur
swhenanownerst
atet
ransf
erssov
erei
gnt
yov
ert
err
it
oryt
oanot
her
st
ate.Ast
atemaycedeanypar
tofi
tsl
andt
err
it
ory
,andbycedi
ngal
lit
ster
ri
tor
yitwi
l
l
compl
etel
ymer
gewi
tht
heot
herst
ate.Ri
ver
sandt
hemar
it
imebel
tmaynotbeceded
ont
hei
rown,ast
heyar
eani
nal
i
enabl
eappur
tenanceoft
hel
and.I
nor
dert
oef
fecta
cessi
onoft
err
it
ory
,itmustbei
ntendedt
hatt
heownerst
atet
ransf
erssov
erei
gnt
y,and
13
notmer
elygov
ernment
alpower
sshor
tofsov
erei
gnt
y.
I
ntheI
slandPal
masCase(
Supr
a),t
het
it
ledal
l
egedbyt
heUni
tedSt
atesofAmer
icaas
const
it
uti
ngt
hei
mmedi
atef
oundat
ionofi
tscl
aimi
sthatofcessi
onbr
oughtaboutby
t
heTr
eat
yofPar
is,
whi
chcessi
ont
ransf
err
edal
lri
ght
sofsov
erei
gnt
ywhi
chSpai
nmay
hav
epossessedi
nther
egi
oni
ndi
cat
edi
nAr
ti
cleI
IIoft
heTr
eat
yandt
her
efor
eal
so
concer
ningt
heI
slandofPal
mas.I
tisev
identSpai
ncoul
dnott
ransf
ermor
eri
ght
sthan
sheher
sel
fpossessed.Thus,
consi
der
ingt
hatcase,
onecannott
ransf
ert
err
it
orywhi
ch
i
tdoesnotpossess.Cour
trul
edi
nfav
oroft
heNet
her
landssi
mpl
ybecauseUSAcl
aim
t
hatSpai
nhadt
ransf
err
edt
err
it
oryt
ohi
m wasnotl
egal
.Cessi
onoft
err
it
oryar
eusual
l
y
ef
fect
edbyat
reat
y.Exampl
escanbef
oundi
nthecessi
onofHongKongandKowl
oon
byChi
nat
otheUni
tedKi
ngdom f
oll
owi
ngt
heOpi
um War
s,andt
heUni
tedSt
ates’
14
pur
chaseofAl
askaf
rom Russi
ain1867.
3.
3.Occupat
ion:
I
tisdef
inedi
ntheWest
ernSahar
acase(
Supr
a)asanor
igi
nalmeansofpeacef
ull
y
acqui
ri
ngsov
erei
gnt
yov
erat
err
it
oryot
hert
hancessi
onorsucessi
on.I
tisameansof
est
abl
i
shi
ngt
it
let
oat
err
it
orywhi
chi
snott
err
anul
l
is(
ownedbynoone)
.Itgi
vesast
ate
or
igi
nalt
it
let
oter
ri
tor
y.I
tmustbebyast
ateandnotapr
ivat
eindi
vi
dualandsuchst
ate
mustshowi
ntent
iont
oacqui
resov
erei
gnt
yov
ert
hear
ea.Occupat
ionbasi
cal
l
yrel
ates
13
Gi
doenBoasPubl
i
cInt
ernat
ional
Law,
2012,
page186
14
I
bidf
ootnot
e11

1
t
ouni
nhabi
tedt
err
it
ori
esandi
slandsaswel
lasi
nhabi
tedl
ands.Occupat
ionasamode
ofacqui
sit
ionoft
err
it
oryhi
stor
ical
l
yonl
yoccur
redwhenast
atei
ntent
ional
l
yacqui
red
sov
erei
gnt
yov
ert
err
it
oryt
hatwasnotsubj
ectt
othesov
erei
gnt
yofanot
herst
ate.I
n
ot
herwor
ds,t
het
err
it
oryi
nquest
ionatt
het
imemusthav
ebeenuni
nhabi
ted,or
Page|
92
i
nhabi
tedbyper
sonswhosecommuni
tywasnotconsi
der
edt
obeast
ate.Thi
swast
he
cr he West
uxoft ernSahar
a case(
Supr
a),i
nwhi
chi
twasdet
ermi
nedt
hatt
err
it
ory
i
nhabi
tedbyapeopl
ewi
thapol
i
ticalorsoci
alst
ruct
ur snott
ei err
anul
l
iusandt
hus
cannotbeoccupi
ed.
Foroccupat
iont
ohav
esuccessf
ull
yfoundedt
it
let
oter
ri
tor
y,t
heacqui
ri
ngst
atef
ir
st
hadt
otakepossessi
onoft
het
err
it
ory
.Thi
srequi
redbot
hphy
sicalpossessi
onandt
he
r
equi
sit
eint
entt
o acqui
re sov
erei
gnt
y.Secondl
y,an admi
nist
rat
ion had t
o be
est
abl
i
shedov
ert
het
err
it
oryi
n
t
he name oft
he acqui
ri
ng st
ate.I
fthe acqui
ri
ng st
atef
ail
ed t
o est
abl
i
sh some
r
esponsi
bleaut
hor
it
ywhi
chexer
cisedgov
erni
ngf
unct
ionswi
thi
nar
easonabl
eti
me
af
tert
aki
ngpossessi
on,t
hent
her
ewasnoef
fect
iveoccupat
ionasnosov
erei
gnt
yhad
beenexer
cised.Last
ly,
ther
ehadt
o
besomei
ntentt
oactassov
erei anani
gn, muspossi
dendi
i
.Itwasal
sor
equi
redt
hatt
he
act
ivi
ti
esoft
hest
ateber
efer
abl
etoi
tandnotunaut
hor
izednat
ural
per
sons.
Today
,iti
sconcei
vabl
ethatt
heacqui
sit
ionofnewt
err
it
oryt
hroughoccupat
ioni
snot
e
i
mpossi
blegi
vent
hatl
i
ttl
etonot
err
anul
l
iusl
andr
emai
nsont
hispl
anet
.Howev
er,
that
i
snott
osayt
hatoccupat
ioni
sir
rel
evantt
omoder
nint
ernat
ionall
aw.Forexampl
e,f
or
t
hepur
posesof
r
esol
vi
ngacur
rentt
err
it
ori
aldi
sput
e,i
tmaybenecessar
ytol
ookbacki
nti
met
osee
whet
hert
it
lewas,
inf
act
,val
i
dlyacqui
redt
hroughef
fect
iveoccupat
ioni
nthef
ir
stpl
ace,
15
f
ort easonofnemodatquodnonhabetnonemaypassbet
her tert
it
let
hant
heyhav
e.
3.
4.Pr
escr
ipt
ion:
15
I
bidnot
e12,page186and187

1
I
tist
heacqui
si
ti
onoft
it
lebyapubl
i
c,peacef
ulandcont
inuouscont
roloft
err
it
ory
.Iti
s
amodeofest
abl
i
shi
ngt
it
let
oat
err
it
orywhi
chi
snott
err
anul
l
isandwhi
chhasbeen
obt
ainedei
therunl
awf
ull
yori
nci
rcumst
anceswher
eint
hel
egal
i
tyoft
heacqui
sat
ion
cannotbedemonst
rat
ed. Al
thought
her
ehasal
way
sbeenaschooloft
houghtt
hat
Page|
93
quest
ionedwhet
heracqui
sit
ivepr
escr
ipt
ionev
enconst
it
utesamodeofacqui
sit
ion,i
t
hadgener
all
ybeenaccept
edt
hatt
err
it
orycoul
dbeacqui
redt
hroughpr
escr
ipt
ionasa
mat
terofpr
act
ice.Acqui
sit
ivepr
escr
ipt
ion i
nvol
ved t
het
ransf
eroft
err
it
oryt
o an
acqui
ri
ng st
atet
hrough open possessi
on bycont
inuous and undi
stur
bed act
s of
sov
erei
gnt
yov
erapr
olongedper
iodoft
ime,adv
erset
otheor
igi
nalst
ate.Noconcr
ete
r
ulesexi
stedt
hatsetoutami
nimum l
engt
hoft
imeorr
equi
sit
eact
sofsov
erei
gnt
yin
or
dert
ohav
esuccessf
ull
yacqui
redt
it
lebypr
escr
ipt
ion.Suchmat
ter
swer
edi
ctat
edby
t
hei
ndi
vi
dualci
rcumst
ancesofeachcase.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethatsuchdef
ini
ti
ons
ofacqui
si
ti
vepr
escr
ipt
ion,aswi
thoccupat
ion,whi
chemphasi
zest
hepassageoft
ime,
ar
enowout
dat
ed.Whati
smor
eimpor
tanti
stheest
abl
i
shmentofef
fect
ivecont
rol
.The
bestexampl
eoft
it
lef
oundedbypr
escr
ipt
ioncanbef
oundi
ntheI
slandofPal
mas
case(
Supr
a).I
nthi
scase,JudgeHuberf
oundt
hatev
eni
fitwer
eaccept
edt
hat
,ast
he
Uni
tedSt
atescl
aimed,
Spai
nhadt
it
let
othei
slandbydi
scov
ery
,sucht
it
ledi
dnotpr
evai
l
i
nthef
aceofa‘
cont
inuousandpeacef
uldi
spl
ayofsov
erei
gnt
y,I
nthi
scasei
twas
r
equi
redt
hatt
her
eexi
stact
sat
tri
but
abl
eonl
ytosov
erei
gnt
y,andt
hewi
l
ltoactas
sov
erei
gnand,
fur
ther
mor
e,acqui
escenceont
hepar
toft
heor
igi
nal
sov
erei
gn.
Thedi
ff
erencebet
weenoccupat
ionandpr
escr
ipt
ion.
1.Occupat
ionappl
i
est
ovi
rgi
nlandwhi
l
epr
escr
ipt
ioncanwor
ktoest
abl
i
shat
it
leov
er
anyt
err
it
ory
.
3.
4.Subj
udi
cat
ion/
UseofFor
ce:
Last
ly,subj
ugat
ion was t
he acqui
sit
ion oft
err
it
orybymi
l
itar
yfor
ce,f
oll
owed by
16
annexat
ion. Whi
l
ethi
smodeofacqui
sit
ionwast
radi
ti
onal
l
ya pr
edomi
nantf
eat
ureof
16
Gi
doenBoasPubl
i
cInt
ernat
ional
Law,
2012atpage189

1
t
heacqui
sit
ionoft
err
it
orybyst
atesandempi
res,t
heuseoff
orcef
ort
hepur
poseof
acqui
sit
ionhas,f
orsomet
ime,beenunl
awf
uli
nint
ernat
ionall
aw Ar
ti
cle2(
4)oft
he
Char
terofUni
tedNat
ions.Accor
dingl
y,t
hepur
por
tedAnnexat
ionofKuwai
tbyI
raqi
n
1990wasi
nval
i
d,asi
twasacqui
redbyunl
awf
ulf
orce.Thepr
inci
pleofi
nter
-t
empor
al
Page|
94
l
awsubj
ugat
ionmayst
il
lber
elev
ant
,howev
er,i
ndet
ermi
ningt
it
lei
nthecont
extoft
he
l
awasi
tst
oodatt
het
imeoft
her
elev
antact
s.Ofcour
se,
useoff
orcei
snotunl
awf
uli
f
17
exer
cisedi
nsel
f-
def
ence.
4.THEROLEOFSUBSEQUENTCONDUCT,
RECOGI
TION,
AQUI
ESCENCEANDESTOPPEL:
4.
1.SubsequentConduct
:
Ar
ti
cle31,par
agr
aph3(
a)oft
heVi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLawofTr
eat
iesel
abor
ates
on“
subsequentagr
eement
”asanagr
eementbet
weent
hepar
ti
es,r
eachedaf
tert
he
concl
usi
onofat
reat
y,r
egar
dingt
hei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
het
reat
yort
heappl
i
cat
ionofi
ts
pr
ovi
si
ons.A “
subsequentpr
act
ice”asanaut
hent
icmeansofi
nter
pret
ati
onunder
ar
ti
cle31,par
agr
aph3(
b),consi
stsofconducti
ntheappl
i
cat
ionofat
reat
y,af
teri
ts
concl
usi
on,whi
chest
abl
i
shest
heagr
eementoft
hepar
ti
esr
egar
dingt
hei
nter
pret
ati
on
oft
het
reat
y.Ot
her“
subsequentpr
act
ice”asasuppl
ement
arymeansofi
nter
pret
ati
on
underAr
ti
cle32consi
stsofconductbyoneormor
epar
ti
esi
ntheappl
i
cat
ionoft
he
t
reat
y,af
teri
tsconcl
usi
on.
Subsequentconductmayber
elev
anti
nanumberofway
sunderi
nter
nat
ionall
awand
amongot
her
sincl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng;
Fi
rst
,asamet
hodofdet
ermi
ningt
het
ruei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
her
elev
antboundar
y
i
nst
rumenti
nthesenseoft
hei
ntent
ionoft
hepar
ti
esconcer
ned.Ar
ti
cle31(
3)(
b)oft
he
Vi
ennaConv
ent
ionont
heLawofTr
eat
ies1969pr
ovdes,i
i nteral
i
a,t
hatt
her
eshal
lbe
t
akeni
ntoaccount
,toget
herwi
tht
hecont
ext
,(a)anysubsequentagr
eementbet
ween
t
hepar
ti
esr
egar
dingt
hei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
het
reat
yort
heappl
i
cat
ionofi
tspr
ovi
sions;
17
I
bidpage188

1
and(
b)anysubsequentpr
act
icei
ntheappl
i
cat
ionoft
het
reat
ywhi
chest
abl
i
shest
he
18
agr
eementoft
hepar
ti
esr
egar
dingi
tsi
nter
pret
ati
on.TheAr
gent
ina/
Chi
l
e,
Secondl
y,asamet
hodofr
esol
vi
nganuncer
tai
ndi
sposi
ti
onorsi
tuat
ionf
orexampl
e
Page|
95 whet
herapar
ti
cul
arar
eadi
dordi
dnotf
allwi
thi
nthecol
oni
alt
err
it
oryi
nquest
ionf
or
pur
posesofdet
ermi
ningt
heUt
ipossi
det
isl
i
ne.Ut
ipossi
det
isdoct
ri
nei
sapr
inci
pleof
i
nter
nat
ionall
aw whi
chpr
ovi
dest
hatnewl
yfor
medsov
erei
gnst
atesshoul
dhav
ethe
samebor
der
sthatt
hei
rpr
ecedi
ngdependentar
eahadbef
oret
hei
rindependenceas
wasseeni
ntheEl
Sal
vadorCase
Thi
rdl
y,asamet
hodofmodi
fyi
ngsuchani
nst
rumentorpr
e-exi
sti
ngar
rangement
.The
Er
it
rea/
Ethi
opi
aboundar
ycommi
ssi
onexpl
ainedt
hegener
alpr
inci
plest
hatt
heef
fectof
subsequentconductmaybesocl
eari
nrel
ati
ont
omat
ter
sthatappeart
obet
hesubj
ect
ofagi
vent
reat
ythatt
heappl
i
cat
ionofanot
her
wiseper
ti
nentt
reat
ypr
ovi
sionmaybe
v
ari
edormaybeev
enceasedt
ocont
rol
thesi
tuat
ion,
regar
dlessofi
tsor
igi
nal
meani
ng.
Thev
ari
ousmani
fest
ati
onsoft
hesubsequentconductofr
elev
antpar
ti
eshav
ea
commonf
oundat
ioni
nthatt
heyal
lrestuponast
rongerorweakerext
entupont
he
not
ionofconsentandconsenther
eofcour
sei
st sofcessi
hebasi on.
4.
2.Recogni
ti
on:
Recogni
ti
oni
saposi
ti
veactbyast
ateaccept
ingapar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ionand,
event
hough
i
tmaybei
mpl
i
edf
rom al
lther
elev
antci
rcumst
ances,i
tisnev
ert
hel
essanaf
fi
rmat
ion
oft
heexi
stenceofaspeci
fi
cfact
ualst
ateofaf
fai
rs,ev
eni
fthataccept
edsi
tuat
ioni
s
i
nconsi
stentwi
tht
het
ermi
nat
reat
y.Acqui
escence,ont
heot
herhand,occur
sin
ci
rcumst
anceswher
eapr
otesti
scal
l
edf
oranddoesnothappen,
ordoesnothappeni
n
t
imei
ntheci
rcumst
ances.I
not
herwor
ds,asi
tuat
ionar
iseswhi
chwoul
dseem t
o
r
equi
rear
esponsedenot
ingdi
sagr
eementand,si
ncet
hisdoesnott
ranspi
re,t
hest
ate
maki
ngnoobj
ect
ioni
sunder
stoodt
ohav
eaccept
edt
henew si
tuat
ion.Thei
deaof
est
oppeli
n gener
ali
sthata par
tywhi
ch hasmadeorconsent
ed t
o a par
ti
cul
ar
st
atementuponwhi
chanot
herpar
tyr
eli
esi
nsubsequentact
ivi
tyt
oit
sdet
ri
mentort
he
18
38I
LR,
PP10

1
ot
her
’sbenef
itcannott
her
euponchangei
tsposi
ti
onThi
srest
sal
soupont
henot
ionof
pr
ecl
usi
on.Whi
l
e,ofcour
se,t
heconsentofacedi
ngst
atet
othecessi
oni
sessent
ial
,
19
t
heat
ti
tudeado enhanced.I
nthe East
ernGr
eenl
and case, t
heCour
tnot
ed t
hat
Denmar
kwasent
it
ledt
orel
yupont
reat
iesmadewi
thot
herst
ates(
apar
tfr
om Nor
way
)
Page|
96
i
nsof
arast
hesewer
eev
idenceofr
ecogni
ti
onofDani
sh
sov
erei
gnt
yov
eral
lofGr
eenl
and.pt
edbyot
herst
atesi
spur
elyper
ipher
alandwi
l
lnot
20
af
fectt
hel
egal
i
tyoft
het
ransact
ion.
4.
3.Est
oppel
:
Thei
deaofest
oppeli
ngener
ali
sthatapar
tywhi
chhasmadeorconsent
edt
oa
par
ti
cul
arst
atementupon whi
ch anot
herpar
tyr
eli
esi
n subsequentact
ivi
tyt
oit
s
det
ri
mentort
heot
her
sbenef
itcannott
her
euponchangei
tsposi
ti
on. Est
oppeli
sa
l
egalt
echni
quewher
ebyst
atesdeemedt
ohav
econsent
edt
oast
ateofaf
fai
rscannot
af
ter
war
dsal
tert
hei
rposi
ti
on,
est
oppelmayar
iseei
therbymeansofapr
iorr
ecogni
ti
on
oracqui
escence,
butt
henat
ureoft
heconsent
ingst
ate’
sint
eresti
svi
tal
.
Wher
eforexampl
etwost
atesputf
orwar
dconf
li
cti
ngcl
aimst
oter
ri
tor
yanyaccept
ance
byoneoft
heot
her
’sposi
ti
onwi
l
lser
veasabart
oar
enewal
ofcont
radi
cti
ngasser
ti
ons.
Thi
swasi
l
lust
rat
edi
ntheEast
ernGr
eenl
andcase(
Supr
a)wher
ecour
tregar
dedt
he
Nor
wegi
anaccept
anceoft
reat
ieswi
thDenmar
k,whi
chi
ncor
por
atedDani
shcl
aimst
o
al
lofGr
eenl
and,aspr
event
ingNor
wayf
rom cont
est
ingDani
shsov
erei
gnt
yov
ert
he
ar
ea.
21
Thel
eadi
ngcaseonest
oppeli
stheTempl
eofPr
eachVi
hearcase, whi
chconcer
neda
br
oaderdi
sput
ebet
weenCambodi
aandThai
l
and.Thef
ront
ierwast
hesubj
ectoft
he
t
reat
yin1904bet
weenThai
l
andandFr
ance(
assov
erei
gnov
erFr
enchi
ndo-
chi
nawhi
ch
i
ncl
udedCambodi
a)whi
chpr
ovi
dedf
oradel
i
mit
ati
oncommi
ssi
on. Thebor
derwas
dul
ysur
vey
edbutwasambi
guousast
othesi
tt
ingoft
hepr
eachv
iheart
empl
ear
ea.
19
Easter
nGreenl
andCase(Denmar kv.Norway)(1933)PCIJSer
.A/BNo.53
20
Malcom Shaw,Publ
icInt
ernat
ionalLaw,6t
hEdi t
ionatpage517
21
TempleofPreahVihear(
Cambodi av.Thai
land)(1962)I
CJRep.6

1
Thai
l
andcal
l
edf
oramapf
rom t
heFr
enchaut
hor
it
iesandt
hispl
acedt
hear
eawi
thi
n
Cambodi
a.TheThai
l
andgov
ernmentaccept
edt
hemapandaskedf
orf
urt
hercopi
es.
I
not
herwor
ds,Thai
l
andwasest
oppedbyi
tsconductf
rom cl
aimi
ngt
hati
tconsent
ed
Page|
97 t
hef
ront
ieri
nthet
empl
ear
ea.Howev
eri
tist
obenot
edt
hatest
oppeli
nthatcasewas
oneel
ementi
nacompl
exi
tyofr
elev
antpr
inci
pleswhi
chi
ncl
udedpr
escr
ipt
ionand
t
reat
yint
erpr
etat
ion.Thecaseal
soseemedt
oshow t
hati
nsi
tuat
ionsofuncer
tai
nty
andambi
gui
ty,t
hedoct
ri
nesofacqui
escenceandest
oppelcomei
ntot
hei
rown,buti
t
woul
dnotappearcor
rectt
oref
ert
oest
oppelassubst
ant
ivel
aw.Theext
entt
owhi
ch
si
l
enceassuchmaycr
eat
eanest
oppeli
suncl
earandmuchwi
l
ldependupont
he
sur
roundi
ngci
rcumst
ances,i
npar
ti
cul
art
henot
ori
etyoft
hesi
tuat
ion,t
hel
engt
hof
si
l
encemai
ntai
nedi
nthel
i
ghtoft
hatnot
ori
etyandt
het
ypeofconductt
hatwoul
dbe
seenasr
easonabl
eint
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
tyi
nor
dert
osaf
eguar
dal
egal
int
erest
.
4.
4.Acqui
escence:
Acqui
escencei
sa wor
d used t
o descr
ibet
her
eluct
antaccept
anceofsomet
hing
wi
thoutpr
otest
.Ini
nter
nat
ional
law,
acqui
escencei
saf
orm ofsubsequentconductt
hat
r
epr
esent
ster
ri
tor
ialacqui
sit
ion.Conduct
scomesasamet
hodofdet
ermi
ningt
het
rue
i
nter
pret
ati
onoft
her
elev
antboundar
yinst
rumenti
nthesenseoft
hei
ntent
ionoft
he
par
ti
es.Acqui
escenceoccur
sinci
rcumst
anceswher
eapr
otesti
scal
l
edf
oranddoes
nothav
en.I
not
herwor
ds,asi
tuat
ionar
iseswhi
chwoul
dseem t
orequi
rear
esponse
denot
ingdi
sagr
eementandsi
ncet
hisdoesnott
ranspi
re,
thest
atemaki
ngnoobj
ect
ion
22
i
sunder
stoodt
ohav
eaccept
edt
henew si
tuat
ion.I
ntheGul
fofMai
necase, i
twas
hel
dthatt
he essence oft
he pr
inci
ple ofacqui
escence i
sthatone gov
ernment
s
knowl
edge,
act
ualorconst
ruct
ive,
oft
heconductorasser
ti
onofr
ight
soft
heot
herar
ty
t
oadi
sput
e,andt
hef
ail
uret
opr
otesti
nthef
aceoft
hatconductorasser
ti
onofr
ight
s,
i
nvol
vesat
aci
taccept
anceofal
egalposi
ti
onr
epr
esent
edbyt
heot
herar
tyconductor
asser
ti
onofr
ight
s.Ati
tsmostbasi
c,t
hen,
acqui
escencei
ssi
l
ence,
inact
ionorf
ail
ureof
pr
otestt
hatmayi
nappr
opr
iat
eci
rcumst
ancesgi
ver
iset
oar
ebut
tabl
epr
esumpt
ionof
22
Gul
fofMai
neCaseI
CJRepor
ts,
1984,
pp.246,
305;
71I
LR,

1
accept
anceorr
ecogni
ti
onofal
egalr
ightorposi
ti
oncl
aimedbyanot
herst
ate.I
nor
der
f
oracqui
escence t
o be af
fi
rmed,t
her
e musthav
e been act
ualorconst
ruct
ive
knowl
edge of a not
ori
ous cl
aim,suf
fi
cient dur
ati
on of t
he acqui
escence,and
ci
rcumst
ancesr
ender
ingt
heal
l
egedacqui
escencel
egal
l
ysi
gni
fi
cantandt
hesaf
eguar
d
Page|
98
mostnecessar
ytoar
eal
i
sti
candaccept
abl
eal
l
ocat
ionoft
hedoct
ri
neofacqui
escence
l
i
esi
nthedemandt
hati
tmustbei
nter
pret
edst
ri
ctl
y.
Acqui
escencei
simpor
tanti
nacqui
sit
ionofcont
rolcont
rar
ytot
hewi
l
loft
hef
ormer
sov
erei
gn.Wher
ethet
err
it
oryi
saccompani
edbyemphat
icpr
otest
soft
hef
ormer
sov
erei
gn,no t
it
le bypr
escr
ipt
ion can ar
ise,f
orsuch a t
it
lei
sfounded on t
he
acqui
escenceoft
hedi
spossessedst
ateandi
nsuchci
rcumst
ances,consentbyt
hir
d
st
atesi
sofl
i
ttl
econsequence.
Acqui
escence i
srel
evantwher
ethe pr
escr
ipt
ivet
it
lei
s based on whati
s cal
l
ed
i
mmemor
ialpossessi
on.Thi
sisr
efer
redt
oast
heor
igi
noft
hepar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ionbei
ng
shr
oudedi
ndoubtandmayhav
ebeenl
awf
ulrunl
awf
ulbuti
sdeemedt
obel
awf
uli
n
t
hel
i
ghtoft
hegener
alacqui
escencebyt
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.
I
nconcl
usi
on,acqui
escencemayconst
it
uteev
idencer
einf
orci
ngat
it
lebasedupon
ef
fect
ivepossessi
onandcont
rol
render
ingi
tdef
ini
ti
ve.
5.LOSSOFTERRI
TORY:
Sov
erei
gnt
err
it
orymaynotonl
ybeacqui
red,
itmayal
sobel
osti
nway
sthatessent
ial
l
y
mi
rr
ort
hemodesofacqui
sit
ion.Ter
ri
tor
ymaybel
ostbyexpr
essdecl
arat
ionorconduct
suchasat
reat
yofcessi
onoraccept
anceofsecessi
on;
byl
ossoft
err
it
orybyer
osi
onor
nat
uralgeogr
aphi
cact
ivi
tyorbyacqui
escencet
hroughpr
escr
ipt
ion.Fur
ther
,ter
ri
tor
y
may be abandoned,buti
n or
derf
ort
hist
o oper
ate bot
hthe phy
sicalactof
23
abandonmentandt
hei
ntent
iont
osur
rendert
it
lear
erequi
red.
6.CONCLUSI
ON:
Theconceptoft
err
it
oryunderi
nter
nat
ionall
awi
sav
eryi
mpor
tantaspect
,iti
spr
ovi
ded
23
Mal
com Shaw,
Publ
i
cInt
ernat
ional
Law,
6thEdi
ti
onatpage521

1
undert
heMont
evi
deoConv
ent
iont
hatast
atecannotbecomeast
atewi
thoutat
err
it
ory
.
Thus,t
hedi
scussi
onoft
err
it
oryi
sver
yimper
ati
vesi
nceast
atecannotexi
stwi
thouta
t
err
it
ory
.
Page|
99

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