Chapter 24

Earth and the Solar System

In this chapter you will:

• describe the orbital motions of the Earth and Moon and relate these to
our measures of time
• describe the eight planets in our Solar System in terms of their
formation, movement and satellites
• calculate the time light takes to travel from the Sun to the planets
• explain the movement of bodies in the Solar System in terms of
gravitational attraction

describe and calculate orbital speed

interpret data about orbits and physical properties of planets.
GETTING STARTED
Each of these pictures relates to our Solar System and our exploration of it.
In groups, identify what each picture shows and write down a fact related to
it.
Share your facts with the class. Award yourself a point for a correct fact
and two points for a correct fact which no other groups have mentioned.
Figure 24.1: These pictures all relate to our Solar System and our
exploration of it.

HOW MANY PLANETS?

Figure 24.2: This artist’s impression shows the Sun and the eight planets
we now know orbit the Sun.

Humans have known about the first five planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars and Jupiter, for a long time as we can see them with the naked eye. In
1610, the newly invented telescope allowed Galileo Galilei to discover
Saturn. Uranus was added by William Herschel in 1781. Careful
observations of the orbit of Uranus showed it did not follow a smooth
orbital path as the other planets did. Astronomers predicted this was due to
the effect of the gravitational pull of another planet. They calculated where
this should be and found Neptune in 1846. Tiny, distant Pluto was
discovered in 1930 bringing the total to nine planets. And so it remained
until 2006.
In the 1990s, several objects with similar mass to Pluto were discovered.
This created a problem. Should these be named as planets, and if not, could
Pluto still be classed as a planet? The International Astronomical Union
decided a new definition for the title planet was needed. It came up with
three rules. To be a planet, a body must:
• orbit the star (our Sun)
• have enough mass that its gravity pulls it into a spherical shape
• have a large enough gravitational pull to clear away any other objects
of a similar size near its orbit around the Sun.
Pluto failed the third rule due to the discovery of an object named Eris,
about the size of Pluto, orbiting close to Pluto. Pluto and Eris were both
reclassified as a dwarf planets, leaving a total of eight planets.
Discussion questions
1 Why is it important to have international agreement about the
definition of a planet? Are there any other areas where scientists have
agreed standard definitions?
2 A lot of people felt that Pluto should have kept its status as a planet.
What consequences would this have had?
24.1 Earth, Sun and Moon
Day and night
The most obvious sign of movement in the Solar System is the cyclical daily
change from light to dark. It is not surprising that our ancestors thought the Sun
travelled round the Earth. Each day we see the apparent movement of the Sun
from rising in the east to setting in the west. We now know that this effect is
caused by the Earth spinning on its axis (the imaginary line between the poles).
The side of the Earth facing the Sun experiences daylight whilst the other side is
in darkness. At sunrise at a particular spot on Earth, the Sun is just visible on the
eastern horizon. As the Earth turns, the spot moves into the full glare of the Sun
so the Sun appears directly overhead at midday. As the Earth continues to turn,
the spot moves out of the direct sunlight until, at sunset, the Sun appears to slip
below the western horizon.

Figure 24.3: As light travels in straight lines, only half the Earth receives
sunlight at any one time.

Years
As well as the daily changes, early civilisations were aware of periodic changes
which happened over a longer time – the difference between seasons. The Earth
orbits the Sun. It takes just over 365 days to complete one orbit. The seasons
occur because of the tilt of the Earth’s axis. Figure 24.4 shows how the seasons
change as the Earth orbits the Sun.

Figure 24.4: The Earth orbits the Sun every 365.25 days. The tilt of the Earth
causes seasons.

Consider a country in the northern hemisphere (the half of the Earth north of the
Equator). In Figure 24.4a, due to the tilt of the Earth, it is tipped away from the
Sun and the energy from the Sun’s rays is more spread out, making it colder.
This means that area receives fewer hours of sunlight. These countries are
experiencing winter. In Figure 24.4c, the northern hemisphere is tipped towards
the Sun, so it receives longer hours of more direct sunlight. These countries are
experiencing summer.
Countries at the Equator do not experience seasons because the Sun’s rays
always hit them at the same angle. The seasonal differences are more apparent
the further from the Equator you are. In the far north or south, seasons are so
extreme that, in winter, the Sun is hardly seen and, in summer, it can be sunny at
midnight. Figure 24.5 shows how, in Alaska, the Sun dips lower in the sky
towards midnight but then starts to rise again.

Figure 24.5:This multiple exposure photograph shows the position of the Sun in
the hours before and after midnight in Alaska in midsummer.

Months
The most obvious object in our sky after the Sun is the Moon. The Moon
features in many folk tales. It has often been seen as a mystical object due to its
fainter light and its changing shape. With the benefit of telescopes and space
travel, we know the Moon is a rocky sphere which we only see when it reflects
light from the Sun. The Moon orbits Earth every 27.5 days. Its position relative
to Earth changes the way it appears to us as different parts of it are illuminated
by the Sun. This causes the changes called the phases of the Moon. The phases
of the Moon are shown in Figure 24.6.
Figure 24.6: The phases of the Moon. As the Moon orbits the Earth, the half of
the Moon that faces the Sun will be lit up by the Sun. As the Moon moves, the
shape of the light part, which can be seen from the Earth, changes. The outer
circle of Moon diagrams shows how the Moon looks to an observer on Earth.

ACTIVITY 24.1
Modelling day, night and seasons
Use a lamp to represent the Sun and a ball with a rod through it to represent
the Earth. Mark your position on the Earth using a pen or a piece of
modelling clay. In a darkened area, hold the ‘Earth’ near to the ‘Sun’, and
turn the Earth on its axis to model day and night.
Tilt the Earth on its axis and investigate the seasons by moving the Earth
around the Sun. Investigate the difference in seasons between the southern
and northern hemispheres.
 Figure 24.7: Model of the Earth and Sun.

Questions
1 Copy and complete the following sentences.
A day is the time taken for the _____________.
A month is the time taken for the _____________.
A year is the time taken for the _____________.
The Earth is tilted on its axis and this causes ______ which do not occur at
the Equator.
2 Explain why it is summer in the northern hemisphere when it is winter in
the southern hemisphere. Include a drawing in your answer.
3 Look at the photograph of the Moon (Figure 24.8).
Figure 24.8:The Moon.

a Which phase of the Moon is this?

b How many days are there from one full Moon to the next?
24.2 The Solar System

Figure 24.9: An artist’s impression of the Solar System with a visiting comet.
The picture is not to scale.

The Solar System consists of the Sun which is our star, and all the objects which
orbit it. It includes the following:
• There are eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.
• There are minor planets, such as Pluto and Eris. In 2014, the International
Astronomical Union recognised five dwarf planets but it is believed there
are more than 200 in all.
• Moons that orbit planets and dwarf planets.
• Millions of asteroids and meteoroids: these are rocky objects which are
smaller than planets. Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
• Comets, which are often described as giant snowballs, orbit the Sun in very
irregular orbits. When they are furthest from the Sun, they are frozen balls
of gas, rock and dust. As they get nearer to the Sun they heat up and leave a
trail of dust and gases behind them. (Note: this trail of dust is not the tail of
 the comet; the tail always points away from the Sun, so could actually be at
90° to the motion of the comet.)

Figure 24.10a: Asteroids and meteoroids sometimes enter the Earth’s

atmosphere. Smaller meteoroids burn up in the Earth’s atmosphere and are seen
as shooting stars. b: It is believed that the dinosaurs became extinct due to a
large asteroid hitting the Earth creating a huge crater and throwing up so much
dust that the Sun’s rays could not reach Earth for more than a year. c: Comet
Hale-Bopp was visible to the naked eye in the summer of 1995. It is not
expected to be visible again soon as it takes 2533 years to orbit the Sun!

The Sun’s gravitational pull

The orbits of the planets are almost circular. To move in a circle an object needs
a force pulling it towards the centre of the circle. Imagine spinning a ball on the
end of a piece of string. The ball will spin in a circle as long as you hold on.
Once you let go, the ball will fly outwards. The force needed to keep the planets
orbiting the Sun comes from the gravitational attraction of the Sun.

The formation of the planets

Evidence collected by astronomers suggests that the planets were formed at the
same time as the Sun. The Solar System began as a nebula, which is a huge
swirling ball of dust and gas. Most of this gas was hydrogen, but there were also
other elements formed by fusion in other stars, which had exploded at the end of
their life cycle, sending their contents out into the clouds of interstellar gas.
As gravity pulled this mass together, the centre formed a star. You will learn
more detail about this in Chapter 25. The planets formed from the materials of
the nebula which were not pulled into the Sun. The spinning motion of the dust
and gas formed a flat, spinning ring disc known as an accretion disc. Gravity
pulled dust and gas together so they joined to make rocks which then join to
make larger rocks. The process of the dust and gas being pulled together by
gravity is called accretion and it led to the formation of the inner, rocky planets.
The intense heat forced some of the lighter materials further away and these
formed the outer planets – the gas giants.
The four inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are small and rocky.
After Mars there is the asteroid belt. This is made up of left-over pieces of rock.
The outer four planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, are huge balls of
gases. These planets are much bigger than the inner planets.

Figure 24.11: This artist’s impression shows a star forming. The uneven,
swirling mass of rock and gas around it is flattened by its rapid rotation into an
accretion disc where the planets eventually form.

Distances and times in the Solar System

Distances in the Solar System are almost unimaginably big. The Earth is
approximately 150 million kilometres from the Sun. This is similar to circling
the Earth 4000 times. Distances are often expressed in terms of how long it takes
light to travel; one light-year is the distance travelled by light in a year. The next
nearest star after the Sun is Proxima Centauri, which is 4.2 light-years from
Earth. You will learn more about light-years in Chapter 25.

WORKED EXAMPLE 24.1

Calculate the time for light from the Sun to travel the 150 000 000 km to
Earth. Give your answer in minutes.
Step 1: Write down what you know:
speed of light = 300 000 000 m/s
distance travelled = 150 000 000 km
Step 2: Convert distance to metres, so units are consistent.
150 000 000 km = 150 000 000 000 m
Step 3: Write the equation down and calculate the time taken:
distance travelled
time taken = speed
150 000 000 000 m
=
300 000 000 m/s
= 500 seconds
Step 4: Convert to minutes
500 ÷ 60 = 8.3 minutes
Answer
8.3 minutes

Questions
4 The Moon is approximately 390 000 km from Earth. Calculate the time it
takes for light to travel from the Moon to the Earth.
5 How long will it take for light from the Sun to reach:
a Mercury, which is approximately 60 000 000 km from the Sun.
 b Neptune, which is approximately 4 500 000 000 km from the Sun.
6 It takes sunlight 43 minutes to reach Jupiter. Calculate the distance from
Jupiter to the Sun.
7 Calculate how many kilometres a light-year is equivalent to.

More about the planets

Table 24.1 gives data about the planets in the Solar System. It shows how the
planets differ from each other, for example looking up from the surface of
Jupiter you might see 16 moons.
Average
Gravitational
orbital
Orbital Surface field strength at
distance Density Number
Planet duration 3 temperature / the surface of
/ / kg/m of Moons
/ years °C the planet /
million
N/kg
km
Mercury 58 0.2 5500 −18 to 460 4 0
Venus 108 0.6 5200 470 9 0
Earth 150 1 5500 −8 to 58 10 1
Mars 228 1.9 4000 −8 to −5 4 2
Jupiter 778 12 1300 15 to 20 26 16
Saturn 1427 30 700 −140 11 20
Uranus 2870 84 1300 −200 11 15
Neptune 4497 165 1700 −220 12 8
Table 24.1

Forces
The Sun is at the centre of the Solar System. It is by far the most massive object
in the Solar System and makes up about 99.8% of the mass of the Solar System.
As gravitational attraction depends on mass, the gravitational field strength of
the Sun is far larger than the field of any other object in the Solar System.
The planets, minor planets, asteroids and meteoroids and comets all orbit the
Sun. They are held in orbit by the gravitational attraction of the Sun.
Like other non-contact forces such as magnetism and static electricity,
gravitational attraction decreases with distance. This means that the outer planets
experience less gravitational force from the Sun than the inner planets do.
Although the planets are small compared to the Sun, they are very massive
objects. Jupiter has a mass of 1.9 × 1027 kg. The more massive the planet, the
greater the gravitational force experienced by objects at its surface. On Earth we
experience a force of 10 N/kg. On Earth a 60 kg student has a weight of 600 N.
On Mercury, where gravity is 4 N/kg, the same student would weigh 240 N. The
gravitational pull of planets is enough to cause moons to orbit them.

Orbits and energy

The orbits of the planets are not completely circular. Their shape is that of a
slightly squashed circle, called an ellipse. The orbits are described as elliptical.
The amount the orbit is squashed is called its eccentricity. Comets have very
eccentric orbits. Comets travel far from the Sun and then return close to it.

Figure 24.12: The orbit of Halley’s comet is much more eccentric than those of
the planets and minor planets.

Why are orbits elliptical? To explain this, we need to think about the early
swirling mass of the Solar System. Imagine an object moving past the Sun at
high speed, carried along by its own momentum from the explosive start of the
universe. As it passes near the Sun the gravitational force of the Sun starts to act
on the object and to pull it towards the Sun. This force also causes it to
accelerate. This means the mass speeds up and its kinetic energy carries it
slightly further out to the furthest point of the orbit. The object slows down and
is pulled in again towards the Sun.
The Sun is not quite at the centre of a planet’s elliptical orbit. There is a point
close to the centre of an ellipse called the focus. The Sun is at the focus of the
elliptical path of each of the planets. The planet moves closer to, and further
away, from the Sun during each orbit. The Sun’s gravity pulls the object in,
speeds it up and then the speed carries it on to the furthest part of the orbit.
The object’s orbital speed is therefore greatest when it is nearest to the Sun and
slowest when it is furthest from the Sun.
Comets, which have the most elliptical orbits of any body in the Solar System
accelerate greatly as they approach the Sun and are slung back at high speed to
the far reaches of their orbits.
A planet orbiting in space does not experience any friction or air resistance, so
its energy remains the same throughout its orbit. It has two types of energy:
• kinetic energy
• gravitational potential energy.
When it is nearest the Sun, a planet has its minimum gravitational potential
energy and is moving at its fastest so has its maximum kinetic energy. When it is
at its furthest from the Sun, it has maximum gravitational potential and
minimum kinetic energy.

Figure 24.13: Mercury has the most elliptical orbit of any of the planets in the
Solar System. At point A, it is 46 million km from the Sun, travelling at its
fastest speed but with least potential energy. At point B, it is 70 million km from
the Sun, travelling at its slowest speed but with most potential energy.

Speeds
The speed of a planet in orbit round a star is called its orbital speed (v). As the
planets’ orbits are almost circular, the distance they travel can be calculated if
we know the average orbital radius, which is the average distance of the planet
from the Sun, or the average radius of the orbit.

Figure 24.14: To calculate the orbital speed, we assume that the orbits are
circular.

The distance travelled by the planet is the circumference of its orbit. The
circumference of a circle is equal to 2πr.
If we also know the time for the planet to orbit the Sun – known as its orbital
period (T ) – we can calculate the speed:
speed = distance
time
So, the average orbital speed v, can be calculated from its orbital period, T, and
its average orbital radius r, using the equation:
2 Πr
v= T
 KEY EQUATION
2 × π × orbital radius
average orbital speed = orbital period
2πr
v = T

WORKED EXAMPLE 24.2

Calculate the orbital speed of Earth.

Step 1: Write down what you know:
r = 150 000 000 km
T = 1 year
Step 2: Convert T to seconds.
1 year = 1 × 365 = 365 days
365 days = 365 × 24 = 8760 hours
8760 hours = 8760 × 60 × 60 = 31 536 000 seconds
Step 3: Substitute values for T and r into the equation and calculate v.
2πr
v = T
2π × 150 000 000 km
= 3 1 536 000 s
= 30 km/s
Answer
30 km/s

Planetary patterns
Much of what astronomers have discovered has been through observing the
skies, gathering huge amounts of data and then looking for patterns in the data.
Ancient astronomers knew the planets were different from the stars because of
the way their positions in the sky changed. Mercury was named by ancient
Greeks after the messenger of the gods, which is a fitting name for the planet
which orbits the Sun faster than any other. Sometimes we can learn as much
from observations that are exceptions to a pattern as from those that fit our
predictions.
The data in Table 24.1 can be used to investigate patterns in the properties and
behaviours of planets. Plotting data on a scatter graph can give a clear
indication of whether there is a correlation between two sets of data. For
example, a graph of density against distance from the Sun (Figure 24.15) shows
that there is not a clear correlation between the two. However, it is clear that the
four inner rocky planets are more dense than the outer gas giants.

Figure 24.15: There is a pattern in this data but not a direct correlation.

Questions
8 a Name the force which causes planets to orbit the Sun.
b What shape are planetary orbits?
c How is the orbit of a comet different to the orbit of a planet?
d Describe the energy changes in a comet as it orbits the Sun.
9 Calculate the weight of a 30 kg sheep on:
a Earth
b Mars
c Jupiter.
10 Use information from Table 24.1 to calculate the orbital speeds in m/s of:
a Venus
b Saturn.
11 Using Table 24.1, draw and comment on scatter graphs to investigate the
relationship between:
a orbital distance and average temperature
b gravitational field strength and the number of moons.

PROJECT
Solar System quiz
Some great ways of learning are:
• finding information from a variety of sources
• summarising the information
• writing questions and answers on the information you have gathered
• answering questions written by your peers.
Figure 24.16:

This task asks you to bring all these together to help you become an expert
on our Solar System.
Make up a quiz about the Solar System. The quiz can be on paper, the
computer, or on a mobile device such as phone or tablet (there are lots of
good quiz making apps available). It should be aimed at students who have
studied this chapter, and who have a good general knowledge. Spend some
time revising and researching to find interesting facts to include. You may
want to rate questions as ‘easy ’, ‘medium’ or ‘hard’ and give more points
for harder questions. You can include mathematical questions and
questions which require data interpretation. You should include at least 20
questions. Think about how you will group your questions. You could
include:
• A picture round: use pictures from the Internet or draw your own.
• Definitions: you could give a definition, such as, ‘this is the time it
takes for the Earth to orbit the Sun’ or, ‘this has the most elliptical
orbit of any object in the Solar System’, and ask what is being defined.
• Facts about the planets: this could involve some questions for which
the answers can be worked out from a data chart you supply.
• History of astronomical discoveries: use the Internet and this book to
 help you.
When you have written your questions, test them out on another group. Are
your questions clear enough? If there are two possible answers you need to
adapt the question to make it more clear.

PEER ASSESSMENT
When you exchange quizzes with another group, give them feedback on
their questions. Rate questions ‘green’, ‘amber’ or ‘red’:
• green: great question
• amber: good idea but needs to be clearer
• red: do not use this question as it is misleading or contains wrong
information.
For questions rated amber or red, you should also give written feedback.
After feedback and improvement work following the feedback, try your
quiz out on some other students.

REFLECTION
Think about what you found most useful in this project. Was it researching
and summarising? Maybe you enjoyed writing the questions, or the
challenge of answering questions set by others. What does this tell you
about how you like to learn? How will you apply this in your future
revision?
SUMMARY

The Earth spins on its axis every 24 hours causing day and night.
The Earth is tilted on its axis. This causes the seasons as the Earth orbits
the Sun every 365 days.
The Moon orbits the Earth every 27.5 days, causing the phases of the
Moon.
The Sun is orbited by four rocky inner planets, four gaseous outer planets
and minor planets, moons and comets.
All objects orbiting the Sun are kept in orbit by its gravitational attraction.
Light from the Sun takes approximately eight minutes to reach the Earth.
The distances for sunlight to reach other planets can be calculated using
the equation speed = distance/time.
The speed of an object in orbit can be calculated using the equation
v = 2Tπr where r is the radius of the orbit and T is the orbital duration.
The orbits of the planets are slightly elliptical. The Sun is not at the centre
of the ellipse. Comets have highly elliptical orbits.
The Sun contains almost all of the mass of the Solar System and so has a
very strong gravitational field.
As distance from the Sun increases, its gravitational field strength
decreases and the orbital speed of any orbiting object decreases.
When an orbiting object is at its closest to the Sun, it has its maximum
kinetic energy and minimum gravitational potential energy.
Planetary data about orbital distance, orbital duration, density, surface
temperature and gravitational field strength can be analysed to show
patterns in the properties and behaviour of the planets.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

1 Which of the following objects is a planet? [1]

A the Moon
B Hale-Bopp
C Pluto
D Uranus

2 Which statement about the orbits of the Earth and Moon is

correct?
[1]
A The Moon rotates on its axis in 24 hours and orbits the Earth in
27.5 days.
B The Earth rotates on its axis in 24 hours and orbits the Sun in 365
days.
C The Moon orbits the Sun in 27.5 days.
D The Earth rotates on its axis in 24 hours and orbits the Moon in
27.5 days.

3 What force keeps the planets in orbit round the Sun?

[1]
A momentum
B air resistance
C tension
D gravity
4 The diagram shows how people 1000 years ago thought the Solar
System looked.
 a State one way in which this model is diff erent from what
we now know about the Solar System. [1]
b State one way in which this model is similar to what we
now know about the Solar System. [1]
c State one way in which the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars are similar. [1]
d State one way in which Jupiter and Saturn are diff erent to
the planets in part c. [1]
e Mars is 228 million km from the Sun. Calculate the time
it takes for light to travel from the Sun to Mars. The speed
of light is 3 × 108 m/s. [3]
[Total: 7]
5 Laurie is standing at point X on the Earth’s surface.
 a How can you tell it is night time at point X? [1]
b Redraw the diagram to show where point X will be after
12 hours. [1]
c The Moon does not emit light. Explain how Laurie is
able to see the Moon. [1]
d Name the force which keeps the Moon in orbit around the
Earth. [1]
e Describe the movement of the Moon. [2]
f A ball dropped on Earth will fall faster than an identical
ball dropped on the Moon. What does this tell you about
the Moon’s gravity? [1]
[Total: 7]

6 The table shows some data about the objects orbiting the Sun.

Distance
Surface
from Sun Average surface Density Time of orbit
Object 3 gravity
/ million temperature / °C / kg/m / N/kg / years
km
Venus 108 470 5200 9 0.6
Earth 150 15 5500 10 1.0
Mars 228 −30 4000 5 1.9
Jupiter 778 −150 1300 26 12
Saturn 1427 −180 700 11 30
Pluto 5900 −230 500 4 248

Use the information in the table to answer the following questions.

a Name the object that is not a planet. [1]

b Which planet takes the least time to go round the Sun? [1]
c A student writes, ‘the further away from the Sun a planet
is, the lower its density’. To what extent do you agree with
this statement? [2]
d What data from the table suggests that Pluto and Mars are
the two least massive objects? [2]
e Calculate the average orbital speed of Jupiter. Give your
answer in km/s to two significant figures. [3]
[Total: 9]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the
different topics. This will help you to see any gaps in your knowledge and
help you to learn more effectively.
Needs Confident
Almost
I can See Topic... more to move
there
work on
Explain how the Earth’s rotation on its
axis causes day and night and the
24.1
apparent change in position of the
Sun.
Explain how the Earth’s tilted axis and
its rotation around the Sun cause 24.1
seasons.
Explain how the Moon orbiting the
Earth leads to the different phases of 24.1
the Moon.
State how long it takes for the Earth to
rotate, for the Earth to orbit the Sun 24.1
and for the Moon to orbit the Earth.
Name the different objects which orbit
24.2
the Sun.
Explain the difference between the
24.2
inner and outer planets.
Calculate the time it takes for light to
24.2
travel from the Sun to a given planet.
Name the force which keeps the
24.2
planets in orbit.
Describe the shape of planetary orbits
and state the position of the Sun 24.2
within this shape.

Calculate orbital speed using the 24.2

2 πr
 2 πr
equation v = T
Describe how gravitational potential
energy and kinetic energy vary as an 24.2
object moves in an elliptical orbit.
Explain why the Sun has the largest
gravitational field of any object in the 24.2
Solar System.
Interpret planetary data and describe
24.2
patterns in this data.