Chapter 10

VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER CYCLES

Lecture 1
Vapor power cycles
Vapor power cycles

3
 CARNOT CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified
temperature limits.

It can represented by four processes as follows:

1-2 Isothermal heat addition
2-3 Isentropic expansion
3-4 Isothermal heat rejection
4-1 Isentropic compression

Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the

average temperature at which heat is supplied to the
system or with a decrease in the average temperature at
which heat is rejected from the system. P-v and T-s diagrams of Carnot Cycle
THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits
the maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (374°C for water)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of
the impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to extremely
high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures. Critical pressure of
water equals 22.09 MPa
1-2 isothermal heat addition in a
boiler
2-3 isentropic expansion in a
turbine
3-4 isothermal heat rejection in
a condenser
4-1 isentropic compression in a
compressor

5
T-s diagram of two Carnot vapor cycles.
RANKINE CYCLE: The ideal cycle for vapor power cycles
Most of Carnot cycle problems can be eliminated by superheating the steam in the
boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser.
This cycle is Rankine cycle.
The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities.

6
 Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

The area a-1-2-3-4-b-a represents the

heat added through boiler ( ).
The area a-1-4-b-a represents the
rejected heat through the condenser
( ).
Area a-1-4-b-a
The thermal efficiency =1-
Area a-1-2-3-4-b-a 7
 Example 1

Compute the thermal efficiency of an ideal Rankine cycle

for which steam leaves the boiler as superheated vapor at
6 MPa, 350oC, and is condensed at 10 kPa.

Solution
As shown on T-s diagram P2 = P3 = 6 MPa = 6000 kPa
T3 = 350oC P1 = P4 = 10 kPa

1-pump
Using the steam tables
 kJ
 h1 = h f = 191.81
P1 = 10 kPa   kg

Sat. liquid   m3
v = v f = 0.00101
 1 kg
w pump = v1 ( P2 − P1 )
m3 kJ
= 0.00101 (6000 − 10) kPa 3
kg m kPa
kJ
= 6.05
kg
 Now, h2 is found from
h2 = wpump + h1
kJ kJ
= 6.05 + 191.81
kg kg
kJ
= 197.86
kg
Boiler  kJ
h = 3043.9
From the superheated tables as P3 = 6000 kPa  

3
kg

T3 = 350 C  
o
kJ
s3 = 6.3357
 kg  K

The heat transfer per unit mass is

Qin
qin = = h3 − h2
m
kJ
= (3043.9 − 197.86)
kg
kJ
= 2845.1
kg
Turbine
s4 = s3 = 6.3357 kJ/kg-K

s4 = s f + x4 s fg
s4 − s f 6.3357 − 0.6492
x4 = = = 0.758
s fg 7.4996
h4 = h f + x4 h fg
kJ kJ
= 191.81 + 0.758(2392.1)
kg kg
kJ
= 2005.0
kg
The turbine work per unit mass is
wturb = h3 − h4
kJ
= (3043.9 − 2005.0)
kg
kJ
= 1038.9
kg
The net work done by the cycle is
wnet = wturb − wpump
kJ
= (1038.9 − 6.05)
kg
kJ
= 1032.8
kg
The thermal efficiency is
kJ
1032.8
w kg
th = net =
qin 2845.1 kJ
kg
= 0.363 or 36.3%
Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized Cycles

The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a result of
irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two common sources of
irreversibilities.

Isentropic efficiencies

(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
12
Increasing the Thermal Efficiency of Rankine Cycle
How can we do that?
1- Increase the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in
the boiler (which is corresponding to TH in Crnot cycle).
2- decrease the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid
in the condenser (which is corresponding to TH in Crnot cycle) .

Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

Condenser pressure is usually below atmospheric

pressure for increasing the thermal efficiency

Side effect: Lowering the condenser

pressure increases the moisture content
of the steam at the final stages of the
turbine.

The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on

13
the ideal Rankine cycle.
 Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases
Thigh,avg)
Thermal efficiency increases as the
average temperature at which heat is
added increases.
Moisture content of the steam at the
turbine exit decreases, which is desirable.

The temperature is limited by

metallurgical considerations. Presently
the highest steam temperature allowed at
the turbine inlet is about 620°C.

The effect of superheating the steam

to higher temperatures on the ideal
Rankine cycle.
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
Today many modern steam power
plants operate at supercritical
pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and have
thermal efficiencies of about 40% for
fossil-fuel plants and 34% for nuclear
plants.

The effect of increasing the boiler pressure

on the ideal Rankine cycle.
For a fixed turbine inlet temperature,
the cycle shifts to the left.
Side effect: the moisture content
of steam at the turbine exit
A supercritical Rankine cycle.
increases. 15
The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures without
facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine?
1. Superheat the steam to very high temperatures. It is limited metallurgically.
2. Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between (reheat)

The ideal reheat Rankine cycle. The thermal efficiency is given by

wnet
 th =
qin
(h - h4 ) + (h5 - h6 ) - (h2 - h1 )
= 3
(h3 - h2 ) + (h5 - h4 )
h6 − h1
= 1−
(h3 - h2 ) + (h5 - h4 ) 16
The single reheat improves the cycle efficiency by
4 to 5% by increasing the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the steam.

The average temperature can be increased

by increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages.
As the number of stages is increased, the
expansion and reheat processes approach an
isothermal process at the maximum
temperature.
The use of more than two reheat stages is
not practical as the theoretical improvement
in efficiency from the second reheat is about
half of that which results from a single
reheat. The average temperature at which
heat is transferred during reheating
The reheat temperatures are very close or increases as the number of reheat
equal to the turbine inlet temperature. stages is increased.

The optimum reheat pressure is about one-

fourth of the maximum cycle pressure.
Example:
A steam power plant operates on Ideal reheat rankine cycle. Steam enters the high
pressure turbine at 8 MPa and 500 C and leaves at 3 MPa. Steam is then reheated at
constant pressure to 500 C before it expands to 20 kPa in the low pressure turbine.
Determine the turbine work output in kJ/kg and the thermal efficiency of the cycle
Solution

From superheated steam table

 Actual reheat rankine cycle
Example
A steam power plant operates on the reheat Rankine cycle. Steam enters the high-
pressure turbine at 12.5 MPa and 550°C at a rate of 7.7 kg/s and leaves at 2 MPa.
Steam is then reheated at constant pressure to 450°C before it expands in the low-
pressure turbine. The isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and the pump are 85
percent and 90 percent, respectively. Steam leaves the condenser as a saturated
liquid. If the moisture content of the steam at the exit of the turbine is not to exceed 5
percent, determine (a) the condenser pressure, (b) the net power output, and (c) the
thermal efficiency.
The Ideal Regenerative Cycle

Heat is transferred to the working fluid during

process 2-2 at a relatively low temperature.
This lowers the average heat-addition
temperature and thus the cycle efficiency.

Steam is extracted from the turbine at various

points. This steam, is used to heat the
feedwater . The device where the feedwater is
heated by regeneration is called a
regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FWH).

A feedwater heater is basically a heat

exchanger where heat is transferred from the
The first part of the heat-addition steam to the feedwater either by mixing the
process in the boiler takes place at two fluid streams (open feedwater heaters)
relatively low temperatures. or without mixing them (closed feedwater
heaters).

23
Regenerative Cycle with Open Feedwater Heater
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where the steam
extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture
leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.

m=1
y
m=1-y

The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.

Regenerative
cycle analysis

p6 
h2 = h1 + w pumpI   h6
s6 = s5 
p3 = p6 and h3 = h f at p3
Applying first low of thermodynamics:-

y h6 + (1 − y )h2 = h3
Then y = (h3 − h2 ) (h6 − h2 ) 25
Regenerative Cycle with Closed Feedwater Heater

Closed feedwater heater is a heat exchanger in which heat is transferred from the extracted
steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two streams now can be at
different pressures, since they do not mix.

The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.

26
Regenerative
cycle analysis

y = m7 / m6
w pump in = (1 − y )w pump I in + y w pump II in
wturb out = (h6 − h7 ) + (1 − y )(h7 − h8 )
qin = (h6 − h5 )
qout = (1 − y )(h8 − h1 )

w pump I in = v1 ( p2 − p1 )

w pump II in = v3 ( p4 − p3 ) 27
Closed Feedwater Heater Analysis Mixing Chamber Analysis

h2 = h1 + w pumpI
p7 
  h7 Applying first low of thermodynamics:-
s7 = s6 

p3 = p7 and h3 = h f at p3 h4 = h3 + wpump II
h9  h3 h5 = y h4 + (1 − y )h9
Applying first low of thermodynamics:-

y (h7 − h3 ) = (1 − y )(h9 − h2 )

Then y=
(h9 − h2 )
(h7 − h3 ) + (h9 − h2 )
The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing network,
and thus they are more expensive. Less effective heat transfer since the two streams are
not allowed to be in direct contact. However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a
separate pump for each heater since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at
different pressures.

Open feedwater
A ctual steam power plant with heaters are simple
one open and three closed and inexpensive and
feedwater heaters. have good heat
transfer
characteristics. For
each heater,
however, a pump is
required to handle
the feedwater.

Most steam power

plants use a
combination of open
and closed feedwater
heaters.
Example
Consider an ideal steam regenerative Rankine cycle with two feedwater heaters, one closed and
one open. Steam enters the turbine at 12.5 MPa and 550°C and exhausts to the condenser at 10
kPa. Steam is extracted from the turbine at 0.8 MPa for the closed feedwater heater and at 0.3
MPa for the open one. The feedwater is heated to the condensation temperature of the extracted
steam in the closed feedwater heater. The extracted steam leaves the closed feedwater heater as a
saturated liquid, which is subsequently throttled to the open feedwater heater. Show the cycle on a
T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the mass flow rate of steam through
the boiler for a net power output of 250 MW and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Solution
From steam tables
Applying first law of thermodynamics on the closed FWH

y is the fraction of extracted steam ( ) 9 m=y

m=1
m=1

m=y

Applying first law of thermodynamics on the open FWH

Z is the fraction of extracted steam ( ) m=z

m=1

m=1-y-z

m=y
 Cycle Analysis
wturb = (h8 − h9 ) + (1 − y )(h9 − h10 ) + (1 − y − z )(h10 − h11 )

wturb = (3476.5 − 2755) + (1 − 0.0753)(2755 − 2578.5) + (1 − 0.0753 − 0.1381)(2578.5 − 2100)

wturb = 1261.1 kJ / kg

w pump = (1 − y − z )w pump I + w pump II

w pump = (1 − 0.0753 − 0.1381 ) * 0.29 + 13 .09 = 13 .318 kJ / kg

wnet = wturb − w pump = 1261 .1 − 13 .318 = 1247 .78 kJ / kg

•
• Wnet 250000
m= = = 200.35 kg / s
wnet 1247.78

wnet
th = = 45.38%
qin
Reheat Regenerative Cycle
Consider a steam power plant that operates on an ideal reheat–regenerative Rankine cycle with
one open feedwater heater, one closed feedwater heater, and one reheater. Steam enters the
turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Some
steam is extracted from the turbine at 4 MPa for the closed feedwater heater, and the remaining
steam is reheated at the same pressure to 600°C. The extracted steam is completely condensed in
the heater and is pumped to 15 MPa before it mixes with the feedwater at the same pressure.
Steam for the open feedwater heater is extracted from the low-pressure turbine at a pressure of 0.5
MPa. Determine the fractions of steam extracted from the turbine as well as the thermal efficiency
of the cycle.
 h9 = 3582.3 kJ / kg

w pump I = v1 ( p2 − p1 ) = 0.00101 * (500 − 10 ) = 0.4949 kJ / kg

h2 = h1 + w pump I = 191 .81 + 0.4949 = 192 .3 kJ / kg

w pump II = v3 ( p4 − p3 ) = 0.00101 * (15000 − 500 ) = 14 .645 kJ / kg

h4 = h3 + w pump II = 640 .09 + 14 .654 = 654 .74 kJ / kg

w pump III = v6 ( p7 − p6 ) = 0.00101 * (15000 − 4000 ) = 11 .11 kJ / kg

h7 = h6 + w pump III = 1087 .4 + 11 .11 = 1098 .51 kJ / kg
Applying first law of thermodynamics on the closed FWH
m=y m=z m=1-y-z
10
yh10 + (1 − y )h4 = (1 − y )h5 + yh6
12

Then y=
(h5 − h4 )
(h10 − h6 ) + (h5 − h4 )
yh10 + (1 − y )h4 = (1 − y )h5 + yh6

y=
(1087.4 − 654.74) = 0.173
(3155 − 1087.4) + (1087.4 − 654.74)
Applying first law of thermodynamics on the open FWH

zh12 + (1 − y − z )h2 = (1 − y )h3

Then z=
(1 − y )(h3 − h2 )
(h12 − h2 )

z=
(1 − 0.173)(640.09 − 192.3) = 0.131
(3014.8 − 192.3)
 Applying first law of thermodynamics on the mixing chamber

h8 = (1 − y )h5 + yh7 m=1

h8 = (1 − 0.173)*1087.4 + 0.173*1098.51 = 1089.32 kJ / kg m=1-y

m=y
Cycle Analysis

wturb = (h9 − h10 ) + (1 − y )(h11 − h12 ) + (1 − y − z )(h12 − h13 )

wturb = (3582.3 − 3155) + (1 − 0.173)(3674.9 − 3014.8) + (1 − 0.173 − 0.131)(3014.8 − 2335.7)

wturb = 1445.86 kJ / kg

w pump = (1 − y − z )w pump I + (1 − y )w pump II + w pump III

w pump = (1 − 0.173 − 0.131)* 0.4949 + (1 − 0.173)*14.645 + 11.11

= 23.566 kJ / kg

wnet = wturb − w pump = 1445 .86 − 23 .566 = 1422 .3 kJ / kg

qin = (h9 − h8 ) + (1 − y )(h11 − h10 )
qin = (3583.1 −1089.8) + (1 − 0.173)(3674.9 − 3155.0) = 2923.25 kJ / kg
wnet 1422.3
th = = = 48.64% kJ / kg
qin 2923.25
 Cogeneration
Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process heat. Process heat in
these industries is usually supplied by steam at 5 to 7 atm and 150 to 200°C. Energy is usually
transferred to the steam by burning coal, oil, natural gas, or another fuel in a furnace.
Industries that use large amounts of
process heat also consume a large amount
of electric power.
The result is a plant that produces
electricity and supplies the process-heat
with steam
This steam power plant is called
(cogeneration plant)

Cogeneration: The production of more than

one useful form of energy (such as process
heat and electric power) from the same
energy source.

Utilization
factor
40
 At times of high demand for process heat, all the
steam is routed to the process-heating units and
none to the condenser (m7= 0). The waste heat is
zero in this mode.
If this is not sufficient, some steam leaving the
boiler is throttled by an expansion or pressure-
reducing valve to the extraction pressure P6 and is
directed to the process-heating unit.
Maximum process heating is realized when all the
steam leaving the boiler passes through the PRV
(m5= m4). No power is produced in this mode.

When there is no demand for process heat, all the

steam passes through the turbine and the condenser
(m5=m6=0), and the cogeneration plant operates as
an ordinary steam power plant.
A cogeneration plant with Analysis
adjustable loads.

41
End