Physics - study of the

properties of matter that are

shared by all substances

Chemistry - the study of the

properties of the substances
that make up the universe and
the changes that these
substances undergo

Physical Chemistry - the best

of both worlds!
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
In Physical Chemistry matter is referred to as a system.
The system may be a:
Liquid
Solid
Gas or
any combination of these.
 GASES
▪The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles and Avogadro
▪The Ideal Gas Law
▪Gas Stoichiometry
▪Dalton’s Laws of Partial Pressure
▪The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
▪Effusion and Diffusion
▪Collisions of Gas Particles with the Container Walls
▪Intermolecular Collisions Real Gases
▪Chemistry in the Atmosphere
Brown, LeMay, Bursten, Murphy, Langford, Sagatys: Chemistry 2e © 2010 Pearson Australia
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES
▪Gases assume the volume and shape of their containers.
▪Gases are easily compressible.
▪Gases will mix evenly and completely when confined to
the same container.
▪Gases have much lower densities than liquids and solids.
Elements that exist as gases at 25 0C and 1 atmosphere
PRESSURE

Pressure is
force per unit
area

Units of Pressure
1 pascal (Pa) = 1
N/m2
Conversion of
Pressure units
PRESSURE GAUGE
Pressure gauges operate
based on the principle of
converting the physical
deformation caused by
pressure into a readable
measurement.
PRESSURE GAUGE
Types of Pressure Gauges
Analog Pressure Gauges: Typically have a
dial with a needle that points to the
pressure value. Common types include
Bourdon tube gauges and diaphragm
gauges.
Digital Pressure Gauges: Display the
pressure reading on a digital screen. They
often provide more precise readings and
may offer additional features like data
logging.
Differential Pressure Gauges: Measure the
difference in pressure between two points.
Useful for applications like monitoring
filters or flow rates.
Vacuum Gauges: Specifically designed to
measure pressures below atmospheric
pressure.
MANOMETER
Is a device used to measure the
pressure of gases or liquids. It
operates based on the principle of
balancing the fluid's pressure against
a column of liquid. Manometers are
commonly used in laboratories to
measure low pressures or pressure
differences.
MANOMETER
Types of Manometers
1.U-Tube Manometer:
1. Consists of a U-shaped tube filled with a
liquid, typically mercury or water. One end
of the tube is open to the atmosphere, and
the other end is connected to the pressure
source. The pressure is determined by
measuring the difference in liquid height
between the two arms of the tube.

2.Inclined Manometer:
1. Similar to a U-tube manometer, but the tube
is inclined at an angle. This design increases
the sensitivity and accuracy for measuring
small pressure changes.

3.Differential Manometer:
1. Measures the difference in pressure
between two points. Often used in
applications where monitoring pressure
differences is crucial, such as across filters
or orifice plates.

4.Digital Manometer:
1. Uses electronic sensors to measure pressure.
Provides digital readings, which can be
more precise and easier to read than
traditional liquid column manometers.
PRESSURE CONVERSION EXERCISE
1 standard atmosphere = 1 atm= 101.3 KPa = 760 mm of Hg = 760 torr
A. Convert 135.4 KPa to torr.
B. Convert 950 torr to mm Hg.
C. Convert 5.76 atm to in of KPa
PRESSURE CONVERSION ANSWERS
1 standard atmosphere = 1 atm= 101.3 KPa = 760 mm of Hg = 760 torr
A. Convert 135.4 KPa to torr.
101,3 KPa = 760 torr
Answer: 1 015,8 torr
B. Convert 950 torr to mm Hg.
760 torr = 760 mm Hg
Answer: 950 mm Hg
C. Convert 5.76 atm to in of Kpa
1 atm = 101,3 Kpa
Answer: 583,5 Kpa
CALCULATION OF PRESSURE
BOYLE’S LAW: PRESSURE AND VOLUME
The product of the pressure and volume, PV, of a
sample of gas is a constant at a constant
temperature: PV = k = Constant (fixed T,n)
BOYLE’S LAW
EXAMPLE
A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume of 946 mL
at a pressure of 726 mmHg. What is the pressure of the
gas (in mmHg) if the volume is reduced at constant
temperature to 154 mL?
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
P1 = 726 mmHg
V1 = 946 mL
P2 = ?
V2 = 154 mL
SOLUTION
P2 = P1 X V1/V2

= 726 mmHg X 946 mL/154 mL

= 4 459.7 mmHg
BOYLE’S LAW: THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON GAS
VOLUME
Example
The cylinder of a bicycle pump has a volume of 1131 cm3
and is filled with air at a pressure of 1.02 atm. The outlet
valve is sealed shut, and the pump handle is pushed down
until the volume of the air is 517 cm3. The temperature of the
air trapped inside does not change. Compute the pressure
inside the pump.
SOLUTION
V1 = 1 131 cm3
P1 = 1,02 atm
V2 = 517 cm3
P2 = ?
P1V1= P2V2
P2 = P1V1/V2
P2 = 1,02 atm x 1131 cm3/517 cm3
P2 = 2,23 atm
 CHARLES’ LAW:
TEMPERATURE VS VOLUME
At constant pressure, the volume of a
sample of gas is a linear function of its
temperature.
V = kT
Where V = volume
k = non-zero constant
T = temperature
CHARLES’ LAW:
TEMPERATURE VS VOLUME
CHARLES’ LAW:
TEMPERATURE VS VOLUME
EXAMPLE
A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 3.20 L at 125
0C. At what temperature will the gas occupy a volume of

1.54 L if the pressure remains constant?

V1/T1 = V2/T2
V1 = 3.20 L
T1 = (125 + 273) =398. K
V2 = 1.54 L
T2 = ?
SOLUTION
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

V1T2 = V2T2

T2 = (V2 X T1)/V1
T2 = (1,54 L X 398.15 k)/3,20 L
T2 = 191,5 k
AVOGADRO’S LAW
For a gas at constant temperature and
pressure the volume is directly
proportional to the number of moles of
gas.

V = kn

Where:
V = volume
n = number of moles of gas
k = proportionality constant
EXAMPLE
Example Calculation
Suppose a gas occupies a volume of 5 liters and contains 2 moles of gas. If the
number of moles increases to 5 moles, the new volume V2V2 can be calculated
using Avogadro’s Law:
EXAMPLE
Ammonia burns in oxygen to form nitric oxide (NO) and water
vapor. How many volumes of NO are obtained from one
volume of ammonia at the same temperature and pressure?

4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O

SOLUTION
1 mole NH3 = 1 mole NO
At constant T and P
1 volume NH3 = 1 volume NO
GAS LAWS EQUATIONS
IDEAL GAS EQUATION
 IDEAL GAS LAW
The conditions 0 0C and 1 atm are
called standard temperature and
pressure (STP).
Experiments show that at STP, 1
mole of an ideal gas occupies
22.414 L.

PV = nRT
R = PV /nT = (1 atm)(22.414L)/
(1 mol)(273.15 K)
R = 0.082057 L • atm / (mol • K)
IDEAL GAS LAW CONSTANTS
EXAMPLE
What mass of hydrogen gas is needed to fill a weather
balloon to a volume of 10.0 L, 1.00 atm and 30 ̊ C?
1) Use PV = nRT; n=PV/RT
2) Find the number of moles.
3) Use the atomic weight to find the mass.
SOLUTION
What mass of hydrogen gas is needed to fill a weather
balloon to a volume of 10.0 L, 1.00 atm and 30 ̊ C?
n = PV/RT
= (1.00 atm) (10.0 L)/ (303,15 K)-1 (0.082 L atm mol-1 K-
1)-1

= 0.402 mol
Mass = (0.402 mol)(2.0 g mol-1) = 0.804 g
LEARNING CHECK
What is the volume (in liters) occupied by 49.8 g of HCl at STP?
T = 0 0C = 273.15 K
P = 1 atm
mHCl = 49,8 g
STP conditions
V=?
SOLUTION
n = 49.8 g/36.45 g/mol HCl
= 1.37 mol

PV = nRT
V = nRT/P
= 1.37 mol x 0.0821 L. atm. mol-1.k-1 x 273.15 k/1 atm
= 30.7 L
LEARNING CHECK
Argon is an inert gas used in lightbulbs to retard the vaporization
of the filament. A certain lightbulb containing argon at 1.20 atm
and 18 0C is heated to 85 0C at constant volume. What is the final
pressure of argon in the lightbulb (in atm)?
P1 = 1.20 atm
T1 = 18 oC + 273.15 k = 291.15 k
T2 = 85 oC + 273.15 k = 358.15 k
V = constant
P2= ? In atm
 SOLUTION
PV = nRT n, V and R are constant
𝑛𝑅 𝑃
𝑉
= 𝑇
= constant
𝑃1 𝑇1
𝑃2
= 𝑇2

1.2 atm x 358.15 k

P2 = 291.15 𝑘
= 1.5 atm
CALCULATION FOR GAS DENSITY AND MOLAR MASS
Density (d) Calculations:

𝑚 𝑃𝑀
d= 𝑉
= 𝑅𝑇

m is the mass of the gas in g

M is the molar mass of the gas

Molar Mass (M) of a Gaseous Substance

𝑑𝑅𝑇
M= 𝑃
d is the density of the gas in g/L
GAS DENSITY AND MOLAR MASS
Example:
Calculate the density of gaseous hydrogen at a pressure
of 1.32 atm and a temperature of -45oC.
P = 1.32 atm
T = -45 oC + 273.15 k = 228.15 k
d =?
SOLUTION

𝑃𝑀 1.32 atm x 2.0 g.mol−1

d = 𝑅𝑇 = 0.0821 L.atm.mol−1.k−1 x 228.15 𝑘
= 0.14 g/L
EXAMPLE
A 0.100g sample of a compound of empirical formula
CH2F2 occupies 0.0470 L at 298k and 755 mm of Hg.
What is the molar mass of the compound?
 SOLUTION
• Convert Pressure from mm Hg to atm
• Use the Ideal Gas Law to Find the Number of Moles:
• Use the Ideal Gas Law to Find the Number of Moles:
 GAS
STOICHIOMETRY
Gas stoichiometry involves the Stoichiometry is based on the
calculation of volumes, masses, or
amounts (moles) of reactants and law of conservation of mass,
products in chemical reactions meaning that the mass of the
involving gases reactants must be equal to the
mass of the products.
This assumption can be used to
solve for unknown quantities of
reactants or products.
GAS
STOICHIOMETRY
Use volumes to
determine
stoichiometry.
GAS STOICHIOMETRY
GAS STOICHIOMETRY
GAS STOICHIOMETRY
 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL
PRESSURES
•The pressure exerted by an
individual gas in a mixture is
known as its partial pressure.

•Assuming we have a mixture of

ideal gases, we can use the ideal
gas law to solve problems
involving gases in a mixture.

V and T are constant

MIXTURES OF GASES
Dalton’s Law of Partial
Pressures
The total pressure of a
mixture of gases equals the
sum of the partial pressures
of the individual gases.
 MOLE FRACTION OF GAS MIXTURE
Mole fraction It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of the component to the
total number of moles in the mixture.
 MOLE FRACTION OF GAS MIXTURE
The partial pressure of a gas AA in a mixture (PA) can be expressed as the product of the
mole fraction of A (χA) and the total pressure of the gas mixture (Ptotal).
EXAMPLE
A sample of natural gas contains 8.24 moles of CH4,
0.421 moles of C2H6, and 0.116 moles of C3H8. If the
total pressure of the gases is 1.37 atm, what is the partial
pressure of propane (C3H8)?
SOLUTION
•Calculate the total number of moles in the gas mixture:
•Calculate the mole fraction of propane (C3H8):
•Use the mole fraction to find the partial pressure of propane:
Answer= 0.0181 atm.
EXAMPLE
A solid hydrocarbon is burned in air in a closed container,
producing a mixture of gases having a total pressure of
3.34 atm. Analysis of the mixture shows it to contain 0.340
g of water vapor, 0.792 g of carbon dioxide, 0.288 g of
oxygen, 3.790 g of nitrogen, and no other gases.
Calculate the mole fraction and partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in this mixture.
EXAMPLE
A solid hydrocarbon is burned in air in a closed container,
producing a mixture of gases having a total pressure of
3.34 atm. Analysis of the mixture shows it to contain 0.340
g of water vapor, 0.792 g of carbon dioxide, 0.288 g of
oxygen, 3.790 g of nitrogen, and no other gases.
Calculate the mole fraction and partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in this mixture.
THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES
The Ideal Gas Law is an empirical relationship based on
experimental observations.
▪Boyle law
▪Charles law
▪Avogadro law
Kinetic Molecular Theory is a simple model that
attempts to explain the behavior of gases.
THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES
In order to apply the kinetic model of gases, five assumptions are made:
1.Gases are made up of particles with no defined volume but with a defined mass. In
other words, their volume is extremely small compared to the distance between
themselves and other molecules.
2.Gas particles undergo no intermolecular attractions or repulsions. This assumption
implies that the particles possess no potential energy and thus their total energy is
simply equal to their kinetic energies.
3.Gas particles are in continuous, random motion. Gas particles are always moving in
random directions with various speeds. They move in straight lines until they collide
with either another gas particle or the walls of the container.
4.Collisions between gas particles are completely elastic. In other words, there is no
net loss or gain of kinetic energy when particles collide.
5.The average kinetic energy is the same for all gases at a given temperature,
regardless of the identity of the gas. Furthermore, this kinetic energy is proportional
to the absolute temperature of the gas.
 TEMPERATURE AND KMT
The last assumption can be written in equation form as:

where
KE is the average kinetic energy of the gas particles.
m is the mass of a gas particle.
v2 is the mean square velocity.
kB is Boltzmann's constant (kB = 1.381×10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1) and
T is the absolution temperature (in Kelvin)
The equation implies that the speed of gas particles is related to their absolute temperature. In other
words, as their temperature increases, their speed increases, and finally their total energy increases as
well. However, it is impossible to define the speed of any one gas particle. As such, the speeds of gases
are defined in terms of their root-mean-square speed.
EXAMPLE
At a certain speed, the root-mean-square-speed of the
molecules of hydrogen in a sample of gas is 1055 ms-1.
Compute the root-mean square speed of molecules of
oxygen at the same temperature.
EXAMPLE
GASEOUS DIFFUSION AND EFFUSION
Diffusion is the process by which gas molecules spread out to uniformly fill a container or mix
with other gases. It occurs due to the random, continuous motion of gas molecules.
Gaseous particles tend to undergo diffusion because they have kinetic energy
Diffusion is faster at higher temperatures because the gas molecules have greater kinetic
energy.
Key Points about Diffusion:
•Random Motion: Gas molecules move in random directions and collide with each other and
the walls of the container.
•Concentration Gradient: Molecules move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower
concentration until equilibrium is reached.
•Rate of Diffusion: The rate at which diffusion occurs depends on the temperature, the mass of
the gas molecules, and the concentration gradient. Lighter molecules diffuse faster than
heavier molecules.
DIFFUSION
•According to Kinetic Molecular Theory, gaseous particles
are in a constant state of motion, moving at random
speeds and in many different directions.
•Because of their kinetic energy at temperatures above
absolute zero, all particles undergo diffusion.
•Diffusion refers to the process of particles moving from an
area of high concentration to one of low concentration.
•The rate of this movement is a function of temperature,
viscosity of the medium, and the size (mass) of the
particles.
•Diffusion results in the gradual mixing of materials, and
eventually, it forms a homogeneous mixture.
GASEOUS DIFFUSION AND EFFUSION
Effusion is the process by which gas molecules pass through a small opening or hole
from a container into a vacuum or another container with lower pressure.
Key Points about Effusion:
•Small Opening: Effusion occurs through a hole that is smaller than the mean free path
of the gas molecules (the average distance a molecule travels between collisions).
•Rate of Effusion: The rate at which effusion occurs is described by Graham's Law of
Effusion.
EFFUSION
•Not only do gaseous particles move with high kinetic energy, but their small size
enables them to move through small openings as well; this process is known as
effusion.
•For effusion to occur, the hole’s diameter must be smaller than the molecules’ mean
free path (the average distance that a gas particle travels between successive
collisions with other gas particles).
•The opening of the hole must be smaller than the mean free path because otherwise,
the gas could move back and forth through the hole.
•Effusion is explained by the continuous random motion of particles; over time, this
random motion guarantees that some particles will eventually pass through the hole.
GRAHAM’S LAW OF EFFUSION
states that the rate of effusion of a gas (r) is inversely proportional to the square root
of its molar mass (M):
DERIVATION OF GRAHAM’S LAW
Graham’s Law can be understood as a
consequence of the average molecular kinetic
energy of two different gas molecules (marked 1
and 2) being equal at the same temperature.
(Recall that a result of the Kinetic Theory of Gases
is that the temperature, in degrees Kelvin, is
directly proportional to the average kinetic energy
of the molecules.) Therefore, equating the kinetic
energy of molecules 1 and 2, we obtain:
EXAMPLE
A gas mixture contains equal numbers of molecules of N2
and SF6. A small portion of it is passed through a gaseous
diffusion apparatus. Calculate how many molecules of N2
are present in the product of gas for every 100 molecules of
SF6.
EXAMPLE
A gas mixture contains equal numbers of molecules of N2
and SF6. A small portion of it is passed through a gaseous
diffusion apparatus. Calculate how many molecules of N2
are present in the product of gas for every 100 molecules of
SF6.
•Calculate the molar masses:
•Determine the rates of effusion:
•Calculate the ratio of the effusion rates
Determine the number of molecules in the effused portion:
For every 100 molecules of SF6, the number of N2 molecules will be:
Number of N2 molecules=2.28×100=228