MIDTERM TOPIC

Teaching and Assessing Speaking Skills

Function of Speaking
According to Brown and Yale there are three function of speaking, three part version of
Brown and Yale's framework (after Jones 1996 and Bus 1998) calls as interaction tall as
transaction: talk as performance. Each of these speech activities is quite distinct in term of form
and function and requires different teaching approaches.

1 Talk as Interaction
Our daily communication remains interactional with other people. This refers to what we
said as conversation. It is an interactive communication which done spontaneous by two or
more person. This is about how people try to convey his message to other people. Therefore
they must use speaking skill to communicate to other person. The main intention in this
function is social relationship.

2 Talk as Transaction
In talk as transaction is more focus on message that conveyed and making other person
understand what we want convey, by clearly and accurately. In this type of spoken language,
student and teacher usually focus on meaning or talking what their way to understand.

3 Talk as Performance
In this case, speaking activities is more focus monolog better than dialogue. Function of
speaking performance happened at speeches, public talks, public announcements, retell
story, telling story and so on.

The following skills need to be developed for effective speaking in a second language.

1. Vocabulary
To be able to speak effectively, you have to acquire enough words to say what you want
to say and to make you more capable of delivering exactly what you want to convey. Being a
good speaker means constantly expanding your vocabulary. Reading is an effective way to
improve your vocabulary.

2. Grammar
The fewer grammar mistakes you make, the more effective is your speech. However,
your grammar doesn't need to be 100% accurate to be an effective speaker. What is important is
the accuracy of the message that you convey while speaking. You may need to learn specific
grammatical structures like the different tenses, comparative forms, relative clauses,
conditionals, passive and active voice, to name a few.

3. Pronunciation
Two large categories: segmentals and suprasegmentals.

Segmentals are also called phonemes. Individual sounds of the consonants and vowels
are segmentals. The segmental features of speech are discrete units that can be auditorily
identified in the speech stream such as consonants and vowels (Crystal, 2015).

Suprasegmentals are speech techniques that apply to multiple segments such as stress,
intonation, and rhythm. The suprasegmental features (also known as prosodic features) refer to
"the phonetic and phonological aspects of spoken language that cannot necessarily be reduced to
individual consonants and vowels but generally extend across several segments or syllables"
(Fletcher, 2013). Suprasegmentals are the musical aspects of pronunciation. They are important
for marking all kinds of meanings, in particular speakers' attitudes or stances to what they are
saying (or the person they are saying it to), and in marking out how one utterance relates to
another (Ogden, 2009). Competent speakers possess various skills of pronunciation to emphasize
and make the communicative effect of their speech more effective.

Speech Register
Speech registers refer to the level of formality and style in speaking anchored on different
situations and contexts. In determining the type of speech register, you have to consider the
purpose of your speech, the audience, and the occasion.

Types of speech registers:

1. Frozen or Fixed Register
This type of register is often used in very formal ceremonies and must be said the same
each time we say it. This register is frozen in time, form, and content. Some examples are
Shakespearean plays, the Philippine National Anthem, the Lord's prayer, the Preamble of the
Philippine Constitution, and laws.

2. Formal Register
This type often follows a prescriptive format. It is used in formal settings and is usually
impersonal. This includes academic language. Formal registers are speeches, announcements,
sermons, and pronouncements by the judges. The speaker uses technical and academic
vocabulary, uses complete sentences, avoids slang, and may use technical or academic
vocabulary.

3. Consultative Register
This is the standard form of communication. The speaker uses the participation and
feedback of the listener. Situations using consultative registers are doctor and patient, lawyer and
client, teacher and student, and counselor and client.

4. Casual Register
This is an informal speech, usually used between, friends, or colleagues who have things
to share. There is free and easy participation of both speaker and listener. Casual registers
happen among buddies, teammates, group chats, blogs, and messages to friends.

5. Intimate Register
The last type is a conversation between two very close individuals. It is described by an
economy of words, with a high chance of nonverbal communication. Intimate registers usually
occur between husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, parents and children, and siblings.

Speech Act
Speech act refers to an utterance expressed by an individual that presents information and
performs an action as well. The speech act theory of Austin and Searle (1971) captures all the
possible functions of language by classifying the kinds of action that can be performed by
speech. It is categorized as locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary.

 Locutionary act is the act of making an expressive meaning. This is an utterance that
produces literal meaning based on what is said by the speaker.
 Illocutionary act (force) is the meaning one wishes to convey. It is an utterance that has a
social function in mind. In an illocutionary act, it is not just the act of saying something but
the act of saying something for the purpose of:
 stating an opinion, confirming or denying something;
 making a prediction, a promise, request;
 issuing an order or a decision; and
 giving advice or permission.

 Perlocutionary act is the effect of our words that entails a person to do something.

Take this as an example:

Locution: Stop smoking.

The Speech Act
Illocution Perlocution (the
(intended meaning) Locution effect)
Locution (specific words)

Illocution: The locution can be interpreted as a request to stop smoking, an order, or a warning.
Perlocution: The person stops smoking as an effect.

Speech Delivery

Types of speech delivery are impromptu, extemporaneous, manuscript, and memorized.

o Impromptu speaking involves delivering a message on the spur of the moment without
preparation and predetermination. The speaker is provided on the spot with a topic and
she/he will say something about it.
o Extemporaneous speaking consists of delivering a speech in a conversational fashion
using notes. This is planned and prepared but the speaker uses an outline only as a
reference while speaking. This is the style most professional and experienced public
speakers prefer since the extemporaneous method of delivery has a more natural flow.
o Manuscript speaking consists of reading a fully scripted speech. This is used when
people read important statements or when people deliver reports in public that would
require exact words in the correct order.
o Memorized speaking is delivering a scripted speech from memory. Memorization
allows the speaker to be free of notes. However, there is stress associated with it since it
will entail the speaker to commit to memory what she/he has to say.

Teaching and Learning Speaking

Competence in speaking involves the following components:
1. Knowledge of language and discourse – requires mastering the sound patterns of the
language and being able to pronounce the language intelligibly at segmental and
suprasegmental levels, knowing the grammar and vocabulary of the language (spoken
structures, grammatical features, lexis), and understanding how stretches of connected
speech (discourse, genre) are organized so that they are socially and pragmatically
appropriate (register) (Goh and Burns, 2012)
 2. Core speaking skills – include the ability to process speech quickly to increase fluency
(e.g. speech rate, chunking, pausing, formulaic language, discourse markers), being able
to negotiate speech like initiating topics, turn-taking, signaling intentions, etc.

3. Communication and discourse strategies – involve developing cognitive strategies to

compensate to limitations in language knowledge (e.g., circumlocution, paraphrasing,
gestures, word coinage, approximation, avoidance), and interaction strategies like asking
for clarification/repetition, reformulating , and rephrasing.

Teaching-Speaking Cycle
1. Focus learner's
attention on
speaking

7. Facilitate
feedback on 2. Provide input/
learning or guide planning

6. Direct learner's
3. Conduct
reflection on
speaking tasks
learning

4. Focus on
5. Repeat speaking
language/ skills/
tasks
strategies

Figure 1. Teaching-Speaking Cycle, Goh and Burns (2012)

1. Focus learners’ attention on speaking

Burns (2019) opined that the teaching speaking cycle starts with focusing
learners’ attention in speaking. Students are guided to prepare themselves for speaking.
2. Provide input and/or guide planning
The teacher needs to allow the learners to plan before the real speaking. The
teacher can also provide inputs to activate or reactivate learners’ linguistic knowledge.
3. Conduct speaking task
Teachers provide speaking task for students to practice. As students are guided on
how to plan their speech in stage 2, they are expected to practice speaking in this stage
focusing on how to say it that encourages fluency of expression.
4. Focus on language/skills/strategies
This cycle aims at creating opportunities for learners to improve language
accuracy, as well as to enhance their effective use of skills and strategies (Burns 2019).
5. Repeat speaking tasks
Learners carry out the speaking task(s) from stage 3 again. The difference
between Stage 3 and Stage 5 is that learners now have a chance to analyze and practice
selected language items or skills during stage 4, thus learners can apply this knowledge to
enhance their performance (Burns 2019).
6. Direct learners’ reflection on learning
The students need to monitor their speaking activity. Reflection can be done
individually, in small groups, or in pairs which can focus on the following (Burns, 2019):
  demands of the speaking tasks which students have become aware of;
 strategies that are useful to meet the demands of the task;
 their informal assessment of their capabilities and performance;
 areas of their performance that show improvement;
 areas to be further improved; and
 plans for improving a specific area.
7. Facilitate feedback on learning
The teacher gives feedback on the performance of the students in the speaking
tasks either through qualitative comments, grade, narrative rubrics, and other
assessment measures.

Kayi (2006) proposed suggestions in teaching speaking that teachers might further consider.
They the following:
1. Provide a maximum opportunity for students to speak the target language by providing a
rich environment that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks, and
shared knowledge.
2. Try to involve each student in every speaking activity.
3. Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student speaking time. Step back
and observe students.
4. Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student’s response.
5. Ask eliciting questions such as “What do you mean? How did you reach that
conclusion?” in order to prompt students to speak more
6. Provide written feedback like “Your presentation was great. It was a good job. I really
appreciated you efforts in preparing the matrials and efficient use of your voice…”
7. Do not correct students’ pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking.
Correction should not distract the student from his or her speech.
8. Circulate around the classroom to ensure that students are on the right track and see
whether they need your help while they work in groups or pairs.
9. Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities.
10. Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in expressing themselves in the
target language and provide more opportunities to practice the spoken language.

Assessing Speaking
Pronunciation, vocabulary, accuracy, interaction, and fluency are important components
of students’ overall speaking competencies. Using different assessment techniques is the best
way for educators to get a clear picture of each student’s speaking abilities.

Assessing speaking skills entails teachers to pay attention to the following:

1 Fluency
Fluency means speaking easily, reasonably quickly without having to stop and
pause a lot. It refers to how many languages a student can speak, as opposed to accuracy
 which focuses on whether that language is correct or not. A lot of conversation classes,
especially more informal conversation classes, focus solely on fluency.
2 Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the act of producing the sound speech, including articulation,
stress, and intonation. Pronunciation is important in speaking. However, when it comes to
speaking assessments, the utmost consideration is whether the learner’s pronunciation
makes communication easy or difficult.
3 Vocabulary
This refers to the body of words used in a particular language. Vocabulary is
usually assessed through vocabulary tests, using multiple choice or fill-in-the-blanks.
However, in the context of speaking, it is the consideration of the breadth and depth of
the vocabulary used by the speaker.
4 Accuracy
This refers to the correct use of the language system. Language teachers expand
grammatical constructs by going beyond the assessment of grammatical form and
meaning to grammatical use.
5 Interaction
This refers to the ability to interact with others during communicative tasks.

Types of Speaking Assessment Tasks

Brown (2004:142) provides five types of tasks that teachers can use to assess the
speaking ability of students.
1. Imitative
This involves repeating a small stretch of language and focusing on pronunciation.
2. Intensive
1.1 Reading aloud
Brown (2004) suggests that reading aloud can be used as a companion for other
more communicative tasks.
1.2 DRT is beneficial to elicit a specific grammatical form or a transformation of a
sentence which requires minimal processing like producing English stress patterns, words
in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and intonational contours;
produce reduced forms of words and phrases and using adequate number of lexical units
(words), grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g., tense, agreement,
pluralisation), word order, patterns, rules, forms. (brown, 2004)
3. Responsive
These are speaking tasks that involve responses to spoken prompts.
4. Interactive
This refers to interactional and transactional conversations. Some examples are interview,
drama-like task, discussions and conversations, and games.
5. Extensive (monologue)
a. Speech (Oral Presentation or oral report)
It is commonly practiced to present a report, paper, or design in a school setting.
An oral presentation can be used to assess the speaking skill holistically or
analytically.
b. Picture-cued Story Telling
The main consideration of using a picture or series of pictures is to make it into a
stimulus for a longer story or description.
c. Retelling a Story or New Event
The focus is usually on the meaningfulness of the relationship of events within the
story, fluency, and interaction with the audience (Brown, 2004).
 Assessing Speaking Using Rubrics
There are two types of rubrics that can be used in assessing speaking:
1) Holistic rubric – leads the rater to evaluate or score the overall components of
communicative competence without separately considering another component of
language production.
2) Analytic rubric – requires the rater to evaluate or score the components of language
production separately (Moskal, 2000; Nitko, 2001)

Step in developing rubric:

1. Set criteria of task success
2. Set dimensions of language to be assessed
3. Give appropriate weight to each dimension
4. Focus on what test taker can do instead of what they cannot.

Sample of Analytic Rubric

5 4 3 2 1
Words and There are There are Many errors Multiple
phrases are occasional frequent errors interfere with problems with
Pronunciation correctly errors in that confuse the understanding pronunciation
pronounced and pronunciation listener the message. interfere with
enunciated. and intonation. communication.
Grammar is Grammar is Grammar is Grammar is Grammar is not
consistently mostly accurate sometimes rarely accurate. at all accurate.
accurate and with few errors accurate. There were Most structures
Grammar
appropriate that do not many errors are incorrect that
impede (agreement, verb impede
communication. forms). communication.
Uses rich and Uses appropriate Uses a range of Uses a limited The vocabulary
varied vocabulary most vocabulary range of is inadequate all
Vocabulary vocabulary of the time sometimes vocabulary the time
appropriate to
the topic
Thoughts are There are some Speech is Speech is Speech has very
expressed hesitation but choppy and/or halting and long pauses and
completely with manages to slow with uneven with speech halting
Fluency
few pauses or continue and frequent pauses, long pauses or
hesitation complete most thoughts incomplete
thoughts. are complete. thoughts.
Comprehensibility Response is Response is Some parts of Most parts of Almost all parts
readily comprehensible; the response are the response are of the speech
comprehensible; requires comprehensible; not could not be
requires no minimal others require comprehensible understood.
 interpretation on interpretation on interpretation on to the listener.
the part of the the part of the the part of the
listener. listener. listener.

Sample of Holistic Rubric

Score Description
Non-communicating. Shows no ability to communicate in continuous writing.
0
Language command and/or organization of ideas are merely rudimentary.
Inadequate. Exhibits some or all of the following:
-very weak command of grammatical structure with errors frequently threatening
communication
1
-very limited range of grammatical patterns; practically all simple sentences with little
use of modifiers
-very poor command of cohesive devices, leading to a bad disjointed text
Below par. Exhibits some or all of the following:
-excessive frequency of grammatical errors, some of which threaten communication
2 -inadequate grammatical pattern; too sparse use of modifiers and complex sentence
-inadequate command of cohesive devices
-excessive frequency of unacceptable words
Adequate. Exhibit some or all of the following:
-moderate number of grammatical errors but rarely impairing communication
3 -reasonable range of grammatical pattern in clause and sentence
-reasonable command of cohesive devices
-reasonable appropriateness and range of lexis, though with some defects
Good. Exhibits some or all of the following:
4 -few grammatical errors and not affecting communication
-varied, flexible, and appropriate use of grammatical, lexical, and cohesive elements
Excellent: Indistinguishable from a well-educated native speaker in the use of
5 standard written English, range of language, organization of content, relevance, and
appropriateness

Strategies for Developing Speaking Skills

1. Using minimal responses
It is a good strategy that really works when we have learners who lack confidence in their
ability to participate successfully in oral interaction often listen in silence while others do
the talking. One way to encourage such learners to begin to participate is to help them
build up a stock of minimal responses that they case in different types of exchanges.
Maximal responses a predictable, often idiomatic phrases that conversation participants
use to indicate understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another
speaker is saying. Having a stock of such responses enables a learner focus on what the
other participant is saying, without having to simultaneously plan a response.

2. Recognizing scripts
Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken
exchanges -- a script. Greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, and other functions
that are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow patterns or scripts. So do the
transactional exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making
purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker's turn and the one that
follows it can often be anticipated.
 You can help students develop the speaking ability by making them aware of the scripts
for different situations so that they can predict what they will hear and what they will
need to say in response.

3. Using language to talk about language

Language learners are often too embarrassed or shy so say anything when they do not
understand another speaker or when they realize that a conversation partner has not
understood them. In this case, you can help students overcome this reticence by assuring
them that misunderstanding and the need for clarification can occur in any type of
interaction, whatever the participants’ language skill levels. You can also give students
strategies and phrases to use for clarification and comprehension check.
Before we develop same activities with your students, year have to make emphasis on
your students that the aim of the activity is not just to speak the more but to speak as
much as it is possible and have a good pronunciation of the words. So this video will be
really meaningful to help them to speak like a native speaker.

Speaking Activities
a) Discussion
A discussion is carried out to arrive at a conclusion, to share ideas about an event, or to
find solutions. The teacher needs to orient the students on the purpose of the discussion
so time will not be wasted on talking about other things.
b) Your last word is mine
The first student starts telling a story; another continues using last word uttered by the
first student, then another student continues until the whole story is finished.
c) Short speeches
Given a time frame, students are given a topic and deliver a speech before the class.
d) Guess the picture
One student has the picture and the partner needs to guess what’s in the picture by asking
probing questions and clarifications.
e) Role play
In role play, students pretend they are in various social contexts and have a variety of
social roles.
f) Interviews
Students interview an interesting personality in the community and reprt to the class the
results of the interview.
g) What a life
It is an activity that is developed in groups. First, you have to ask your students to write
in some small cards some events or things that have happened to them in the past. Then
each of them is going to have a turn to pick up a card and read it out to the rest of the
group. After this, they have to make a different question to the reader of the card.
h) Taboo
It is a speaking game where students have to provide some words besides the ones that
you have provided them in se slices of paper. What you have to do is to give student
some words written in a sheet of paper. Then, you have to explain them that they have
written some others related with the ones that you have given them. The point is per each
word they have to write a certain number of words or adjectives that have relation with
the provided.
i) Consequence role play
Here students have to take the role of another person.
Procedure:
Give each student a piece of paper. On this they must first write:
 1. The state of their favourite movie star-male or female but of the opposite gender
to themselves
2. Student’s favourite fruit.
3. A number between 1 - 9
4. The names of vegetables - the same number of vegetables as the number given
above
5. A job they don't like
6. Their favourite job they would like to do
7. A description of their dream house: e.g. by the sea, in the mountains – using
adjectives to describe this place
8. Finally, they describe what country they would really like to live in.

Now they are required to change character to the person they have described on the piece
of paper. Here are what the points above mean:
1. This is their husband's or wife's first name.
2. This is their family name.
3. This indicates the number of children they have
4. This indicates the children's names.
5. This is their job
6. This is the husband's or wife's job
7. This describes the family house and tells the listener where it is located
8. This last point tells us what country they come from.

j) Fashion statements
This is an activity were students have the opportunity to give their personal opinions of
style and fashion.
Procedure:
Before doing this activity, give your students a statement on the board and ask them if
they agree or disagree.
Here some example statements you can use:
a. What you wear says a lot about your personality.
b. I love buying new clothes.
c. I really do not care about what I wear.
d. Second hand clothes can be cool.
e. Then make pairs and ask them to discuss how much they agree or disagree with it.

k) Picture Dictation
This activity requires a low preparation and works well with large classes, especially with
young learners and teens. All your students need is a blank piece of paper and all the
teacher needs is a little bit of imaginations.

l) Brain Storming
On a gives topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the context,
either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners ideas quickly and freely.
The good characteristic of brainstorming is that the students are not criticized for their
ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas.

m) Reporting
Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in class,
they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Students can also
 talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling their friends in their
daily lives before class.
n) Narrating or telling a friend about an amusing weekend experience
o) Playing games that engage students in conversation
p) Conducting class debates

Suggestions for Teachers When Teaching Speaking

Provide maximum opportunity to students to speak the target language by providing a rich
environment that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks, and shared
knowledge.
Try to involve each student in every speaking activity.
Reduce teacher speaking time in class. Step back and observe students.
Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's response.
Asking questions such as "What do you mean? How did you much that conclusion?" in order to
prompt students to speak more.
Provide written back like "Your presentation was really great. It was a good job. I really
appreciated your efforts in preparing the materials and efficient use of your voice...”
Do not correct students’ pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking. Correction
should not distract student from his or her speech.
Involve speaking activities not only in class but also out of class; contact parents and other
people who can help.
Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right track and see whether they
need your help while they work in groups or pair.
Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking activities.
Diagnose problems faced by students who love difficulty in expressing themselves in the target
language and provide more opportunities so practice the spoken language