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II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Concept of Speaking

Speaking is an activity of delivering massage, it occurs between speaker and

listener orally. In other words, the main point of speaking activity is that

speakers communicate their massage to the listeners. In this case, the speaker and

listener should be able to understand each other. The speaker can produce the

sounds that involved the massages and the listener can receive, process, and

response the massages.

According to Byrne (1984) speaking is oral communication. It is a two ways

process between speaker and listener and involve productive and receptive skill

of understanding, while Huebner (1969) states that speaking is the main skill in

communication. Based on this idea it is understood that through speaking,

someone can communicate or express what she or he wants in order to

understand one another.

Rivers (1978: 162) says through speaking someone can express her or his ideas,

emotions and reactions to other person or situation and influence other person.

Furthermore, someone can communicate or express what he or she wants from

other and response to other speaker. It means that in order to express someone’s
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ideas, speaker must also attend the aspect of speaking, in order that the massage

is understandable to the listener.

According to Brown (1987: 2) in all communication or conversation two people

are exchanging information or they have a communication or conversation need.

It means that the reason for the people to communicate with other is in order to

tell people something, which they do not know, or to find something out from

other people.

Johnson (1983: 18) refers to speaking as the ability to produce articulation,

sounds or words to express, to say, to show and to think about ideas, taught and

feeling. Murica (1978: 91) says speaking is the primary element of language and

it can be developed from the beginning when someone was born, from the first

contact with the language.

Furthermore, in speaking, there are some aspects that should be concerned. They

are fluency, accuracy (grammar and pronunciation) and comprehensibility.

Fluency is the smoothness or flow with which sounds, syllable, words and

phrases are joined together when speaking.

(htt://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/fluency: 2007). More over Harris

(1974: 81) states that the fluency is the case of speed of the flow of the speech.

While, accuracy focuses on issues of appropriation and other formal factors. It

relates to the use of grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary (Brumfit; 1984).

Brown (2001: 268) says that both fluency and accuracy are important goal in

Communicative Language Teaching. While fluency may in many communicative

language courses be an initial goal in language teaching, accuracy is achieved to

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some extant by allowing the students to focus on the element of phonology,

grammar, and discourse in their spoken output. The statement infers that both

fluency and accuracy are important in speaking. Grammar is needed for students

to arrange a correct sentence and conversation, while pronunciation refers to the

ability to produce easily comprehensible articulation (Syakur; 1987).

Besides, fluency and accuracy, comprehensibility is also needed in speaking

since it reflect how much the speaker understands what he is talking about. If

someone says something beyond the topic discussed, it can be said that he has no

comprehensibility towards the topic. In other words, comprehensibility

determines how well the speaker interprets and responds the massage received.

Comprehensibility is defined as measurement of how much interpretation is

required to understand the others’ responses

(http:/wwwkl2.dc.us/teachingandlearning/document/ Rubrics.pdf).

Harris (1974: 82) adds that comprehension for all communication certainly

requires a subject to respond to speech as well as initiate it.

From the theories above it can be concluded that speaking is an ability to express

ideas, feelings and emotions to other person. The language is used to express

oneself to be understood by others. Therefore speaking is a skill of transferring

the idea to others in spoken language. It concerns with the use of language in

daily activity in which people need to communicate with others to fulfill the need

of socialization.
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2.2 Types of Speaking

Brown (2001: 250) says that much of our language teaching is devoted to

instruction in mastering English conversation. He classifies the types of oral

language as the figure below:

1. Monologue

Planned Unplanned

2. Dialogue

Interpersonal Transactional

In monologues, when one speaker uses spoken language, as in speeches, lectures,

readings, and news broadcast, the listener must process long stretches of speech

without interruption-the stream of the speech will go on whether or not the hearer

understands. In planed, as it opposed to unplanned, monologue differs

considerably in their discourse structures. While dialogues involve two or more

speakers and can be subdivided into those exchanges that promote social

relationship (interpersonal) and those for which the purpose is to convey

proportional or factual information (transactional).

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Brown also provides type of classroom speaking performance, they are:

1. Imitative

A very limited portion of classroom speaking time may legitimately be spent

generating” Human tape-recorder” speech, where for example, learner practice an

intonation contour or try to pinpoint a certain vowel sound. Imitation of this kind

is carried out not for the purpose of meaning full interaction, but for focusing on

some particular element of language form.

2. Intensive

Intensive speaking goes one-step beyond imitative to include any speaking

performance that is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical

aspect of the language. Intensive speaking can be self-imitated or it can even

from part of some pair work activity, where learners are “going over” certain

forms of language.

3. Responsive

The students’ speech in the classroom is responsive short replies to teacher-or-

students-initiated questions or comment. These replies are usually sufficient and

do not extend into dialogues. Such speech can be meaningful and authentic:

4. Transactional (dialogue)

Transactional dialogue, which is carried out for the purpose of conveying or

exchanging specific information is to extend form of responsive language.

Conversation, for example, may have more of a negotiate nature to them than

does responsive speech e.g.

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5. Interpersonal (dialogue)

Interpersonal dialogue carried out more for maintaining social relationship than

for the transmission of the facts and information e.g. The conversations are little

trickier for learner because they can involve some or all of the following factors:

a casual register, colloquial language, emotionally charged language, slag,

ellipsis, sarcasm, and a covert “agenda”.

6. Extensive (monologue)

Students at intermediate to advanced level are called on to give extended

monologues in the form of oral reports, summaries, or perhaps short speeches. In

this, the register is more formal and deliberative. This monologue can be planned

or impromptu.

From the types of speaking described above, the researcher choose extensive

monologue, since its purpose is to report or to retell a story, which the story will

be based on students’ experiences.

2.3 Concept of STAD

STAD is the teaching strategy in small heterogeneous group or terms based on

the differences of the level academic, genders, race, religion, social background

and ethnics. STAD was developed by Slavin (1995) and has been used in such

diverse subject areas as language arts, social studies, mathematics, and science.

STAD is also important in ESL and EFL areas to develop learners’ language

skills (Kagan; 1996) in STAD, students are assigned to four member learning

terms that are mixed in performance level, gender, and ethnicity. STAD

cooperative has 4-6 members in a group. STAD is one of the simple learning
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cooperative that is created to help the students’ socialization. Learning

cooperative STAD type is featured by the task structure, purpose and cooperative

reward. STAD can influence the feedback between the students. STAD consists

of five major components: class presentation, teams, quizzes, individual

improvement scores, and team recognition. The details of each component are

discussed as follows:

1. Class presentations.

This component is mainly constructed by the teacher. Materials are

presented and explained to the students; however, the students must

always realize that they must pay careful attention because the learning

content will appear on the worksheet that they will be assigned in the

next component.

2. Teams.

Students are divided into groups of heterogeneous academic performance,

sex, and race or ethnicity. This component is important because it

prepares students to do well on the quizzes. All teammates study the

worksheet or materials together and need to explain them to each other

carefully. Students must ensure that all members understand the materials

thoroughly before doing the quiz.

3. Quizzes

After studying the materials or worksheet, students take individual

quizzes and they cannot help each other. This component demonstrates

individual accountability that each student is responsible for studying the

materials and working on the worksheet attentively. Every member in the

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group gets higher score, this will be possible to help the team to improve

their scores in the next components.

4. Individual improvement scores

The idea behind this component is that each student has a performance

goal to work harder and better than in the past. All students can improve

the team scores if they do better in the quizzes. Students at all levels

of achievement: high, average, or low have equal opportunities to work

for the team. However, each student has a base score driving from their

score on their last performance.

5. Team recognition

Team gets a reward if the team’s average score satisfy the criteria.

Teacher may have a role in creating how to reward successful group.

However, this component does not mainly focus to the rewards, it rather

focuses on the recognition of the students’ accomplishment.

2.3.1 The Purpose of STAD

According to Vygotsky (www.depdiknas.com: 2004) the major implication in

learning that require the setting class have the form of cooperative learning,

students interact and give the strategies to overcome the problem effectively.

Besides that, cooperative learning of STAD type can also help students work in

group, critical thinking and develop their social skill.

STAD is one of cooperative learning that has a purpose as cited by Arends

(1997:111) who said that there are three purposes of cooperative learning that are
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academic achievement, reception many kinds of opinion and develop social

skills.

1. Achievement academic

Cooperative learning can increase students’ achievement and charge

behavior to back up the result of student study. Besides that, cooperative

learning is very useful for the students that get low, middle, and high

achievement because they can cooperate to handle the problem with their

friends.

2. Receive many kinds of opinion

In cooperative learning, the students can develop and charge their ideas or

opinion in a group. Cooperating to handle academic problem and also to

passed student structure appreciation to value each other.

3. Develop social skill

In cooperative learning, students can develop their social drill because

always share in a group with their friend and student study cooperative

skill to value other opinion and determine the purpose together.

Slavin (1984) also said that there are many reason for cooperative such as greater

students’ achievement, social benefit, and changing structure.

These points are as follow;

1. Greater student achievement

In individual competition many students attempt to accomplish a goal

with only a few winners. But in cooperative team there are more winners

in the team, because all members reap from the success of an

achievement. Slavin (1984) said that there is a competition among group

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in cooperative learning. Some forms of group competition promote

cohesiveness among group members and group spirit. Slavin also found

that 63% of cooperative learning groups that were analyzed had a growth

in achievement.

2. Social benefit

Learning cooperative can increase the social skill of the student. Because

they find that teams are able to accomplish more when they are trained to

work together.

3. Changing together

Many students that work in teams or are moving toward this concept and

many others are finding more beneficial and profitable to combine the

knowledge and manpower of a team in an interdisciplinary group.

2.3.2 Criteria of STAD

Gnagey and Ostrowski (1992) said that STAD is a system of cooperative learning

which features small heterogeneous teams of 4-6 members who tutor each other

on the material in the course and prepare each other for weekly quizzes. Students

take the quizzes individually but are awarded bonus point on the basis of the

teams’ mean performance. Rather than awarding bonus points to the team with

the highest average quiz score which worked in favor of the teams with more

bright, motivated students.

According to Arends (1997) STAD is perhaps the simplest and most straight

forward of the cooperative learning approaches. In STAD, the students work in

mixed-ability teams to study the lessons or work on the materials presented by

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the teacher. Then, they work in groups of four until six members before doing

individuals quizzes. The teams may earn reward based on how much they

progress over the previous learning period. The only way that the team can be

successful is to ensure that everyone in the group has learned the content and is

able to master the quizzes.

2.3.3 Standardization of STAD

Standardization of teaching English by using STAD in this study as cited by

Slavin (2000), the students’ ability in each group are chosen heterogeneously. So

the ability of one group to the other groups is homogeneous. If it is possible, to

make groups the teacher should notice the differences of race, religion, gender,

and social background of the students. If in the class the differences of race,

religion, gender, and social background of the students are the same relatively. So

the teacher makes the group based on the academic ability of each student.

STAD has some components.

The first is teams; STAD cooperative has 4-6 students in group. They are

heterogeneous students. They have different level in academic, gender, and ethnic

group. Every group has a task to be solved in the classroom. Placement test; the

teacher gives the students the test. The question that is given based on the

material that will be taught by the teacher. It is to help the students in

understanding the material.

The second is the students’ creative; to help the students to be active in group

works the students is given assignment or responsibility. The third is team study;
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the teacher makes the team study to work together in a group to solve the material

that is given. And ask the students to read the instructions and ask the teacher or

their about the instruction. And the last is team score and recognition; the teacher

gives the score to the students.

Slavin (1995) said that to give the score in group work or cooperative is

calculated by calculate the result pre-test and add the result post-test:

Group score

Score Point
100% ( perfect score) 30 points
10 above the benchmark 30 points
5-9 above the benchmark 20 points
4 below to 4 above the benchmark 10 points
5 or more below the benchmark 0 point

And then the teacher gives reward to the group, reward is given by the teacher

based on the formula as follow:

Group reward

Mean of the group Reward

5 < X < 15 Good
15 < X < 25 Very good
25 < X < 30 Excellent

2.4 Concept of Teaching Speaking

Teaching speaking means teaching how to use the language for communication,

for transferring idea, thought or even feeling to other people. River (1978:6)

states that speaking is developed from the first contact with the language that we
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learn, because by the speaking we can transfer our ideas or thought to order

people. Moreover Johnson (1983;23) says that the essence of human language is

human activity on the part of the individual to make him understand by another

and activity on the part of the other understands what was on the first. Then, he

adds that the languages as an activity that permits people to communicate with

each other. So it is clear that language is very important. We can not only teach

what will be spoken but also the situation what we deal with. The teacher teaches

speaking by carrying out the students in certain situation when the topic is being

talked about. The topic must be familiar with the students so what the ideas have

an oral command of the language need to describe the topic.

From the explanation above, the researcher assumes that in teaching speaking,

teacher should gives the situation and opportunity to students in order that they

will see the real thing because any single utterance always reflect to the

communication of speakers without being ashamed or afraid of communicating to

the others to tell their ideas, experience or feeling. In this case the researcher

proposes the teaching for speaking by using STAD Technique.

2.5 Procedure of Teaching Speaking Through STAD

STAD or Student Team Achievement Division is a system developed by Slavin.

The system offers a way to incorporate individual quizzes into a team context.

Team member support each other to learn material presented by the teacher and

score points according to individual improvement. And its work procedures as

follows;
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1. Students are divided into teams. Four is an ideal number. Teams are

chosen heterogeneously. That is to say that a team should consist of a mix

of boys and girls and have a spread of ability level.

2. The teacher introduces the materials to be learnt.

3. The teacher gives handouts and answer sheets to the teams. Each team

should receive fewer sheets than the total needed. For example a team of

four would be given two worksheets and two answer sheets. This is to

stress the idea of working together.

4. Team member practice together.

5. The quiz is taken. The students take the quiz individually. If necessary

move tables apart to minimize the chance of copying.

6. The teacher collects the handout and marks them before the next class.

The first quiz becomes the benchmark for the team score. The process is

repeated for five or six lessons.

Team Points

Score Point
100% ( perfect score) 30 points
10 above the benchmark 30 points
5-9 above the benchmark 20 points
4 below to 4 above the benchmark 10 points
5 or more below the benchmark 0 point

7. Once a benchmark is established it is recomputed after every two quizzes

: (current benchmark + last quiz) : 3

8. The teacher keeps track of the improvement point scored. This can be

done, individually as a team and for the class as a whole.

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2.6 Advantage of STAD in Teaching Speaking

Johnson (1997) the use of learning cooperative especially STAD type has

beneficial to motivate students in group so that they can help each other in

mastering the materials that is given. Beside that the use of STAD also can

growing awareness that learning is important, useful and fun, the students more

responsible in learning process, and make students positive thinking in learning

the materials that’s given.

Cooperative learning methods like STAD have been proven to be successful

among a wide range of subject and age different levels. STAD is the most heavily

researched of the entire cooperative learning methods and the positive effects

have been consistent in all subjects. The greatest positive effects on students

learning occur when group are recognized or rewarded based on the individual

learning of each of the group members.

In teaching and learning process, it is considered the importance of the language

classroom. Brown (1994: 173-174) conveys that an integration of these principle

and issues yield a number of advantages of group work for English language

classroom.

The first is the cooperative as generates interactive language; it means that group

work help to solve the problem of the classes. That are too large to offer many

opportunities to speak and small group provide opportunities for the student

initiation for face give and take, for practice in negotiation of meeting, for
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extended conversational, exchanges, and for the students adoption or role that

would otherwise be possible.

The second is offers and embracing affective climate; it means that the second

important advantage offered by the group is security of a smaller group of the

students where each individual is not starkly on public display to what the student

may perceive as critics and rejection. Suddenly, students become increase in

students’ motivation.

The third is cooperative promotes learner responsibility and autonomy; it means

that group work places responsibility for action and progress upon each of

member of group somewhat equally. The fourth is cooperative a step toward

individualization instruction; it means that small group can help the students with

varying abilities to accomplish separate the goals. The teacher can recognize and

capitalize upon other individual differences such as age, culture heritage, field of

study, cognitive style, to name a few by careful selection of small groups and by

administering different task to different groups.

The last, cooperative is genetic term covering a multiplicity of techniques in

which two or more students are assigned a task that involves collaboration and

self-initiated language. It is note, that what we commonly call pair work is

usually implies that small group is students in groups of perhaps six or fewer.

Large grouping defeats one of the major purposes for doing group work giving

student greater opportunities to speak.

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2.7 Theoretical Assumption

In teaching English, it is important to set a teaching learning situation where the

students feel secure, enjoyable, and full of teamwork problem solving. Teaching

learning process adapts it by presenting a certain interaction which every student

to interact each other and build understanding and knowledge together through

cooperative learning.

Characteristics had by cooperative learning strategy are regarded to be a means

that might give a positive influence in improving one of the oral skills which has

to be mastered by senior high school’s students, that is speaking ability.

STAD teaching technique is one of teaching cooperative concept. In this

technique student will learn English in the spirit of mutual cooperation. This

atmosphere could decrease students to fell insecurity while learning process.

They will also be more motivated to study because this technique set them to help

each other in mastering the materials. By those, the writer assumes that this

technique is able to improve students’ speaking performance.

2.8 Hypothesis

Referring the theories and the assumptions above, the writer would like to

formulate hypothesizes as follows;

H: There is a significant difference of students’ speaking

ability score after being thought through STAD teaching technique.