CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. The Definition of Speaking

In English there are four skills, speaking is the most important skills to

study, speaking skill of speaker shows the level of his success in learning

language. In this case, Ur says: “All of the four skills (listening, reading, speaking

and writing), speaking seems intuitively the most important, people who know

language are referred to as speaker of the language, as if speaking included all

other kind of knowing and many is not most foreign language learners are

premarily interested in learning to speak”.1

To clarify the definition of speaking clearly, the writer has found some

opinions that tend to what the speaking is.

Based on oxford dictionary, speaking word uses to talk to somebody about

something, to have a conversation with somebody. This opinion means that it is

capable of speech, express or tellings to the others.2 Brown defines speaking is “as

the skill that are most widely used for class from interaction”. 3 It is clearly showed

that speaking is not only a material which has to study in a classroom, but also is

most widely used for classroom interaction especially in communicating. Hugnes

1
Ur Penny. A Cause in Language Teaching Practice and Theory. (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1996). P. 120.
2
Hornby, AS. Oxford Advanced Leraner’s Dictionary, (Oxford University Press: New
York, 2003), P. 1289.
3
Brown H.D. Teaching by Principle an Interactive Approach to Language,
(Sanfransisco: Stated University, 2001). P, 294.

7
 8

defines speaking as “fundamentally and intective task”.4 Nunan defines speaking

as “particulary relevance to second language speakers concern whether”.5 Richard

defined that speaking is one of central elements of communication.6 In doing a

communication process, speaking is the one process which people use to

interacting each other. It is the correct reason the expert clarified that speaking is

one of the central element of communication.

Speaking is a productive and active skill which requires the students to

retrieve almost instantaneously the precise sounds, grammatical forms, word order

arragement, and contest vocabulary which will express what the students want to

say in an unanticipated sitiations.

Speaking is the complex skill; it needs a good pronunciation to help the

students in clarifying the expressions. Correct pronunciation at the beginner is

very important for leads the listener to get clear understanding of the word

meaning uttered by the speaker, even though, it does not have to be same as the

native speaker’s pronunciation, but it should be acceptable and understandable by

the listener.

Speaking is an essential tool for communicating, thinking, and learning.

Oral language is a powerful learning tool. It shapes, modifies, extends, and

organizes thought. Oral language is a foundation of all language development and,

therefore, the foundation of all learning. It is the base for the other language.
4
Hugnes R. Teaching and Researching Speaking. (Andinburh: person education limited,
2002). P, 135.
5
Nunan D. Second Language Teaching and Learning. (no place: city New Bury House,
1999). P, 27.
6
Jack. C. Richard, Willy A Renandya, Methodelogy in Language Teaching, an Anthology
of Current Practice, (United Stated of America: Cambridge University Press), P. 201.
 9

Through speaking and listening, students learn concepts, develop vocabulary and

perceive the structure of the English language which is essential components of

learning. Students who have a strong oral language base have an academic

advantage. Additionally, speaking is a vehicle to linkindividuals to society.

Exchanges students have with their peers and teachers can help them come to

know the world in more personal and socially responsible ways. When students

talk about their ideas, they clarify their thinking. They can figure out what they

believe and where they stand on issues.7

Therefore, it can be conclude that speaking is a tool to communicate of

one people to the others in order to express opinion, feeling, ideas and thought in

oral form.

B. The Obstacles in Speaking

When teaching and learning process running, the students faced some

problems in speaking skill, they are:

a. Pronunciation

The problem that face by the students in pronuounciation is wrong in

pronuounciation that will make some cannot purpose the idea exactly and cannot

appreciate what has someone said.

b. Intonation

7
Hayriye Kayi, Teaching Speaking: Activeties to Promote Speaking in Second Language,
TheInternetTESLJournal, Vol. XIII, No. 11, (September, 2010). P. 22
 10

In intination, wrong in intonation will give different meaning of the word,

so that, it will make speaking incorrect.

c. Vocabulary, lack of vocabulary will lose change the sentence.

d. Grammar, help someone to express the idea incorrect time, cause in

grammar explain different time such as, the present, past and future.

e. Students are afraid to make mistake.

f. Students are shy to practice their language.

g. Students feel nervous when communicate.8

C. The Kind of Speaking

According to Douglas, basic types of speaking consist of imitative,

intensive, responsive, interactive, and extensive.

1. Imitative.

At one end of a coninoum of types in speaking performance is the ability

to simply parrot back (imitative) a word, phrase or sentence.

2. Intensive

A second type speaking frequently employed in assesment context is the

production of short stretches of oral language designed to demonstrate

competence in a narrow.

3. Responsive

8
Rini Arnita Sari, The Effect of Using Totally English by Teacher in the Speaking Class,
Thesis, (Lhokseumawe, 2009), P. 15
 11

Responsive assesment tasks include interaction and test comprehension

but at the some limited level or very short conversation, standard greetings and

talk, simple request and comment and its like.

4. Interactive

The difference between responsive and interactive speaking is in the

length and complicity of the interaction, which sometimes includes multiple

exchanges of multiple participants.

The basic assumption in any oral interaction is that the speaker wants to
communicate ideas, feeling, attitudes and information to the listener
through speaking one express emotions, communicate intention, reacts to
others persons or situation and fluences that human being, speaking than
will be a tool in daily life to deliver intention.9

5. Extensive

Extensive oral production tasks include speeches, oral presentation, and

story telling, during which the opportunity for oral interaction from listener is

either highly limited (perhaps to nonverbal response) or ruled out all together.

Extensive speaking tasks involve complex, relatively lengthy stetch or discourse.

They are frequently variations on monologue, usually with minimal verbal

interaction.10

D. The Components of Speaking

9
Mulyadi, Teaching Speaking English through Physical Response to the First Year
Students of SMK Negeri 2 Peusangan, Thesis, (Bireuen: Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan
Al-Muslim, 2002), P. 13
10
Brown, Douglas, Language Assessment, (USA: Pearson Education, 2004), P.141.
 12

According to Heaton and Brown in Syakur’s book there are at least five

componetns of speaking skill concerned with comprehension, grammar,

vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency:11

a. Comprehension

For oral communication certainly requires a subject to respond to speech

as well as to initiate it.

b. Grammar

It is needed for students to arrange a correct sentence in conversation, it is

in line with explanation suggested by Heaton: student’s ability to manipulate

structure and to distinguish appropriate grammatical form in appropriate one. The

utility of grammar is also to learn the correct way to gain expertise in a language

in oral and written form.

c. Vocabulary

One cannot communicative effectively or express their ideas both oral and

written form if they do not have sufficient vocabulary. So, vocabulary means the

appropriate diction which is used in communication.

d. Pronunciation

Pronunciation is the way for students’ to produce clearer language when

they speak. It deals with the phonological process that refers to the component of

a grammar made up of the elements and principles that determine how sounds

vary and pattern in a language.

e. Fluency
11
Brown, R and Nation P, The Language Teacher, Teaching Speaking: Suggestions for
the Classroom. (Online) Kyoto City University of Arts & Victoria University,
Wellington.www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/97/jan/speaking.html, accessed 20th Desember 2010.
 13

Fluency can be defined as the ability to speak fluently and accurately.

Fluency in speaking is the aim of many lnguage learners.

Signs of fluency include a reasonbly fast speed of speaking and only a small

number of pauses and “ums” or “ors”. These signs indicate that the speaker does

not have spend a lot of time searching for the language items needed to express

the message.

E. The Functions of Speaking

Speaking is very important in learning English that speaking ability must

be stressed. The function of the spoken language are to interactional and

transactional. The primary intention of the former is to maintain social

relationships, whereas tht of the latter is to convey information and ides. In fact,

much of daily communication remain interactional. Being able to interact in

language is essential. Therefore, language instructor should provide learners with

opportunities for meanigful communicative baehaviour about relevant topic by

using learner-learner interaction as the key to teaching language for

communication because “communication derives essentially from

interaction”.12the function of speaking are to express opinions, to convey

informations and to persuade someone about something. Interactional is

communicating with someone for social purpose, its mean that both establishing

and maintaining social relationship.

12
River, Interactive Language Teaching, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1987), P. 12.
 14

So the function of speaking are to create a sense of social communication

among peers or other people. And the students shareinformation and ideas with

listeners by speaking informally and sharing through conversation

The writer may conclude that, speaking as to make social interaction or

relationship each others, or the other hand.

F. Speaking Ability

Speaking competence is complex set of abilities, which involves many

components, including pronunciation, listening and grammar. Speaking skill also

requires interpersonal responsiveness rather than more production of language

which is trustful, honest, accurate and statistically pleasing look at language rather

than behavioral.

William F. Mockey defines: speaking as spontaneous activity, it can be

said as the most complex of linguistic skill, since it involves thinking of what has

been thought.13 A speaking skill is a kind of bridge for learners between the

classroom and the word outside, it means learning new language in the classroom

and using language to communicate in the real life.14 Another said, speaking

ability is one of essential aspect in learning foreign language. It is an activity

involvestwo or more people sending and receiving in information in oral

communicate and express spontaneous ideas in our mind.15

13
Ely Nurfajri. The Role of English Teacherin Improving Speaking Students’ Abilityat
Tarbiyah Department STAIN Malikussaleh Lhokseumawe, Thesis (Lhokseumawe: STAIN
Malikussaleh, 2009), P. 17.
14
Hadfield, Jill and Hadfield Charles, Oxford Basic Simple Speaking Activity,
(Hongkong: Oxford University Press, 1999), P. 3.
15
Sari Arnita Rini, The Effect of Using Totally English by Teacher in the Speaking Class,
Thesis, (Lhokseumawe, 2009), P. 5.
 15

So, speaking ability is one of essential aspect in learning foreign language.

It is an activity involves two or more people sending and receiving information.

Speaking is a production of speaker competence to communication and express

spontaneous ideas in our mind.

G. Teaching Speaking

To Teaching is usually regarded as something that techers do in order to

bring about changes in learners.16 According to Hornby teaching means giving a

instruction to (a person): give a person (knowledge skill, etc). Teaching is created

by teacher and students in teaching learning language process where they are the

actors of that action. Nalasco and Arthur comment “the class may turn out to

include everything from mechanical drills to task. Based on the problem solving

creativities, it is true that both there types of activity may to some extent at least,

help students develop the skill of taking part in conversation well; they need to

know something about what native speakers do when they have conversation.

This information can help the teacher for teaching pupose”. 17 While speaking

means to use of words in an ordinary voice.18 So, teaching speaking is giving

instruction to a person in order to communicate. The goal of teaching skills is to

communicate efficiency.

16
Jack C, Richards, The Language Teaching Matrix, (Cambridge Language Teaching
Library: Cambridge University Press, 1999), P. 12.
17
Nalasco, R., and Arthur, L, Conversation, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987),
P. 5.
18
Hornby, A. S, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current Language, (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1995), P. 37.
 16

Learning speaking is very difficult, especially to the beginner, because of

that to increase speaking ability of students, the teacher must give motivation for

the students to more active in speaking English, and also have to defind a good

way to conduct teaching and learning process. Total Physical Response Method is

a good way to increase the sudents ability in mastery speaking. Because by using

Total Physical Response Method, the teacher can make the students more active

in teaching learning process, and also Total Physical Response can help the

students to improve their vocabulary usage, because they can memorize more

words, especially everything wich related to their physic. And of course if they

can memorize more words, it is can make the students easily in speaking, and by

total physical response they can speak in well in difference situation.

The formulates what is called a good teaching speaking that meets the

following criteria:

a. Produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns.

b. Use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the

second language.

c. Select appropriate word and sentences according to the proper social

setting, audience, situation and subject matter.

d. Organize their thoughts in a meaningfull of logical sequence.

e. Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments.

f. Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnutural pauses,

which is called as fluency.19

19
Nunan, D. Language Tecahinga Methodelogy: A Texbook for Teacher. (New York:
Prentice Hall: 1991), P. 32.
 17

In teaching speaking the teacher must provide many opportunities for his

students to speak and express the ideas while they work in group or pair, the

teacher do not correct the students’s pronunciation very often and the teacher must

provide written fead back like “excellent”. These efforts are done to improve the

students motivation to speak English and make the students comfortable when

speaking.

H. Definition of Total Phisycal Response

Total Physical Response (TPR) originally was developed by James Asher,

an American professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California in

1960s. Orwig states that Total Physical Response is a language learning mathod

based on the coordination of speech and action, it is like to the trace theory of

memory, which hold that the more often or intensively a memory connection is
20
traced, the stonger memory will be. total Physical Response is based on the

theory that the memory is enhanced through association with physical movement.

Total Physical Response (TPR) attemps on teach language through physical

(motor) activity. It means the basic idea from total physical response is that a

language learner learns to hear something in the language and then phisically

respond to it.

Then Total Physical Response (TPR) is designed with some objective as

follows:

1. Teaching oral proficiency at a beginning leve.

20
Carol J. Orwig, 1999, Total Physical Response, LinguaLinks, http://www.sil.org?
lingualikns/LANGUAGELEARNING/WaysToApproachLanguageLearning?
TotalPhysicalResponse.htm, accessed on Sepetember 2nd, 2010.
 18

2. Using comprehension as a means to speaking.

3. Using action-based drills in the imperative form.21

I. The Features of TPR

The TPR method focusses on two components, the first component is the

use of movement as a memory enhancer, the second component is imperative as

the only method of instruction, this means that the teacher uses command to direct

the students. With TPR the students are able to learn speaking as well as learn

through hand on instruction.

Romo states that James Asher, who developed TPR claimed that second

language learning should be based on model of first language learning. The model

has three vitals aspect as follows:

1) Understanding the spoken language must come before speaking.

2) Understanding is developed through body movement.

3) The listening period creates a readiness to speak.

Furthermore, Asher stated some key features of the Total Physical

Response method as follows:

1) Listening and physical response skills are emphasized over oral prodution.

2) The teacher direct and the students “act” in response, that the instructor is

the director of a stage play in which the studentsare the actors.

3) The imperative mood is the most common language function employed,

even well into advanced levels. Introgatives are also heavily used.

21
Ibid,.
 19

4) Whenever possible, humor is injected into the lessons to make them more

enjoyable for learners.

5) Students are not required to speak until they feel naturally ready or

confident enough to do so.

6) Grammar and vocabulary are emphasized over other language areas.

Spoken language is emphasized over written language.22

J. General Principles of Total Physical Response Method

One of the factor effect the success of language teaching is the method

used.They are many methods used to teach foreign languages one of them is total

Physical Response (TPR). “Total Physical Response (TPR) is the method built

around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach foreign

language through physical activity”23 It was developed by James Asher, a

professor of psychology of San Jose University, California. The method as a result

as observation of the cat’s brain and epileptics boys whose corpus callosum was

surgically divided.

First, meaning in the target language often be conveyed through action.

Memory is activated through learners’ response. Beginning foreign
language instruction should address th right hemisphere of the brain, the
part which control non verbal behavior. The target language should be
presented in chunks, nay just word by word. Second, the students’
understanding of the target language should initially learn one part of the
language rapidly by powerful linguistic device through which the teachers

22
James Asher, 2008. Total Physical Response in The Classroom, Summer Institute 2001,
<http:/si.unm.edu/Web%20Journals/articles2001/TROMO-1.htm>, accessed on October 21th,
2010.
23

David Nunan, Laguage Teaching Methodology, A Text Book for Teacher, (New York:
Cambridgen University press, 1986), p. 87
 20

can direct the students’ behaviors. Third, students can learn though
observing action as well as by performing the action themselvesand.24

Total Physical response (TPR) requires initial attention to meaning rather

than to the form of items. Grammar and vocabulary items are taught according to

stages in which they can be used. It means that the teaching learning depend on

teacher entirely.

Total Physical Response is developed to reduce learner stress, when

studying foreign language and encourage learners’ motivation. So, the lower

stress produced the great learning. One of the important of language conditions of

learning is taught language in the essence of learner stress. Asher claims that

“speech directed to young children commands, which children respond physically

before they begin to produce verbal responses.”25

One of the primarily ways is by allowing the learner to speak when they

are ready, because forcing them to speak will cause some negative effects, such as

anxiety, stress and nervousness, etc.

The meaning obtain is through combination action and speech. And the

action and speech acquire from instruction as the center both teacher and learners

as suggests that “instructional materials within the instructional system will reflect

decisions concerning the primary goal of materials ( e.g. to present content, to

practice content without the teacher, etc)”26

24
Diana Larsen and Freeman , Teachniques and Principles in Llanguage Teaching, (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 114
25
26
Michael H. Jung and Jack C. Richards, Methodology in TESOL: A Book of Readings,
(Heinle & Heinle Publishers, A Division of Wadsworth, inc. 1987), p. 152.
 21

From explanation, the interaction between teacher and learner is very

important to understand the concepts of learning from the students who has many

troubles in acquire meanings from commands. Here, instruction is important to

solve their problems when they learn languages by using certain technique,

especially in learning English itself.

Grammatical features and vocabulary items are selected not according to

the frequency of need or use in target language situation, but according to “the

ease whit which they can be used in the imperative form to initiate action.”27 So

that “most of the grammatical structure of the target language and hundreds of

vocabulary items can be learned from the skillful use of the imperative by the

instructor.”28

In TPR the teacher role is one of drill master, director, and motivator
learners are physically active and mobile. TPR assumes that no particular
relationship develops between learners emphasizes the importance of
individual acting alone. TPR language practice is largely mechanical,
which much emphasis on listening.29

Wants states several comprehension of TPR method based on his

approach, for instance

(a)Comprehension abilities precede production skill in learning a

language. (b) the teaching of speaking should be delayed until
comprehension skill established (c) skill acquire through listening transfers
to other skill. (d) Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form;
and (e) teaching should minimize learner stess.30

27

Ibid…, p. 154.
28

Ibid
29
Ibid…,156
30
Ibid
 22

And also that “the criterion for including a vocabulary item or

grammatical features at a particular point in training is ease of assimilation by

student. If an item is not learned rapidly this means that the students are not

ready for items.”31 He divides the vocabulary one series as abstractions and the

other series as non-abtractions. Non-abtractions specified more in concrete nouns

and imprarative verbs.

Based on the above statement, the real object can support student very

much to recall their ability, because of the object presented as the major clues in

mestering vocabulary, such as slide presentation and role play. Words should be

introduced wich direct and real axperences in veriety of contexts and game-like

situations.

Consequently, in Total Physical Response (TPR) oral commands are the

and major activities. The are typically used to elicit physical (motor) activities and

action on the part of the learned. The process of activities might be applied the

visual aids, the students and theacher’s is a key to the purpose of teaching to

response to oral commands they heard, then learn to read and write.

In this case the writer only used student’s learning area and introduced tge

object around them. The object introduced to gain studet’s basic understanding in

receiving and producing the skill of language from the message they find for

teacher’s commands that the printed.

Learned in Total Physical Response (TPR) hold a primarily roles as a

listener and a performer. They are response to listening attentively. Asher says

that “the instruction is the director of a stage play in which the learners are the
31
 23

actions.”32 The teacher is instructed to the whole group of learners and they are

acted to the other. The teachers give a few commands and they will perform the

action based on order either together or personal resond. “younger learners of

English may not benefit greatly from an emphasis on conscionus learning”33

“an accurate reproduction stage is to give student controlled practice in the form

of the new language.”34

Finally, Total Physical Response is the method buil around the

coordination of speech and action. It is more beneficial to young beginner than

adult beginner, for the roles of teaching themselves in terms of building various

understanding. It means that TPR applies the roles based on the children learn

their mother tongue when they could understand to anything her/his parents will

praise them to build their confidence during they produce basic understanding.

K. The advantages and disadvantages of Total Physical Response Method

Based on several theories above, the writer concludes Four advantages of

Total Physical Response are given below.

1. This method is suitable for the early aged learners, because it is easy

for the learners to understand what they need to do.

2. The method can be the pleasurable and relaxing to the learners to any

given learning situation.

32
Ibid…,P.93
33

Jeremy harmer, The practice of language teaching, (New Edition:Longman and New
York, 1991), P. 33
34
Ibid…,P.59
 24

3. Total Physical Response can increase learner’s self confidence in

knowing language skill, especially speaking through the vocabulary

understanding.

4. Any given objects can influence student’s comprehension of

vocabulary.

And the disadvantages of Total Physical Response are given below.

1. This method is less suitable for the first adult learners.

2. The real learning situation in classroom can be very tiring to the

learner since they have follow and perform teacher’s instruction and

commands. In adult learning. The teachers should be worked hardly.