CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

It is necessary to discuss the literature related to the variables which are

investigated to support his study in order to get a clear description about the
variable of the study.

2.1 Concept of Speaking

Collins (2002:1495) defines that speaking is the activity of giving

speeches and talk, Collins (2002:1945), Meanwhile, Richards and Renandya
(2002:201) defines speaking as casual conversation, for example, to make social
contact with people, to establish report, or to engage in the harmless chitchat that
occupies much time the learner spend with friend. When learner engage in
discussion with someone, the purpose may be to seek express opinions, to
persuade someone about something, or to clarify the information. In this study, the
speaking is the students mastery to present speech or talks to describe thing, to
complaint about something to make request, or to entertain someone else.

Speaking based on Guranlik (2006:400) is “To utter words: to converse

with; to deliver a speech; to produce a characteristic sound; to speak loudly; to
express an opinion frankly. In more details, speaking mean manifestation of
attitude and charecter, which are determine by some words. Speaking means to
use the language in to speaking of nothing worth mentioning (Hornby, 1989:1227).

Harris in Gazali (2010:8) states, “Speaking means the way of people make
of language, in the way of people making of all language for speaking aspects,
there are considered to be mastered orally through role play that is designed well
because there are many supported element in the activity, where those components
will use as measurements.

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 Based on statement above, the researcher can conclude that speaking is the
ability to use the language in ordinary way by speech. It is not only a matter of
transferring some messages to other person but is also communication, which
needs more than one person to communicate with. Like writing, speaking is a
complex skill requiring the simulatenous use of a number of different rates.

2.2 typical of Speaking

In speaking there are five level of speaking which adapted from the ESL
proficiency ratings (as citied in Higgs and Clifford, 1982).

Level 1: able to satisfy minimum courtesy requirements. Can ask and answer
questions on very familiar topics; within the scope of his or her very limited
language experience, can understand simple questions and statements, allowing
for slowed speech, paraphrase; speaking vocabulary inadequate to express
anything but can be understood by a native speaker used to dealing with foreign
attempting to speak hs or her language.

Level 2: Able do deal with routine sofial exchange. Can handle with confidence
but not with facility the simplest type of conversation, including introductions and
chat about autipographical information; can get thegist of most conversation on
non-technical subject (i.e, topicts that require no specialezed knowledge)and has
speaking vocabulary sufficient to express himself or herself simply with some
circumlofution; accent, though often quite faulity, is intelligible; can usually
handle elementary contructions quite accurately and appropiatelly but does not
through or confident control of the grammar.

Level 3: Able to speak with sufficient structural accuracy and appropiateness

and vocabulary to parcipate effectively in most informal conversation on
practical and sofial topics. Can discuss particular interest and special fields of

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competence with reasonable ease; comprehension is quite complete a formal rate
os speech, vocabulary is broad enough that he or she rarely has to grope for a
word; accent may be obvious foreign; control of grammar is good; errors never
interfere with understanding and ratery disturb the native speaker.

Level 4: able to use the language fluently, accurately and appropiately on all
levels normally pertinent to conversation needs. Can understand and participate
in any conversation within the range of his or her experience with a high degree of
fluency and precision of vocabulary; would ratery taken for a native speaker, but
can respond appriately even unfamiliar topics; errors of pronounciation and
grammr quite rare; can handle informal interpreting from and into the language.

Level 5: Conversational proficiency equivalent to that of an educated native

speaker. Has complete fluency in the language in the language sush that his or her
speech on all levels in fully accepted by educated native speakers in all of it’s
feateres including breadth of vocabulary and idiom, colloquialism and pertinent
cultural reference.

2.3 Component of Speaking

In this study explains several component of speaking. These are structure,
pronounciation, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension.

2.3.1 Structure
Structure is network relation between word in a sentence, and it is equal to
word grammar or even act of grammar. The Longman Advance American
Dictionary (1995) defines “grammar as (the study and practice of) the rule by
which words of language change their forms and are combined into sentences, or
the study or use these rule”.

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 Further, grammar is the way in which words change themselves and group
together to make sentence. The garammar of language is happens to word when
they change into negative, plural or when it is use with phrases or clauses in
combining into sentence. The change from one tense to another is mre complex
level for sentence. The change from one tense to another is more complex level
for sentence. The researcher concludes this structure is a change from word or
sentence to another change form.

2.3.2 Pronounciation
The way of speaking the language is called pronounciation. Hornby in
Olpah (2004:8) explains “pronounciation is way in which a language spoken,
person’s way of speaking a language or words of a language”. Where as,
Longman Dictionary of Countemporary English in Oplah (2004:8) states
pronounciation as the way in which a particular language is pronounced, a
particular person’s way of pronounciation a language, the way in which a word is
usually pronounced”.

2.3.3 Fluency
Longman dictionary in Oplah (2004:10) define fluency as “mode
expressing through in a language. Whether oral or written, especially such aas use
of a language in the expression of throught as exhibits the spirit and faculty of an
artist, choice or arrangement of words in discourse, thetorical expression”. Futher,
fluency is defines as the ability of learners to write or speak easily, smoothly and
expressively in English that quote by Jafr in Olpah (2004:10).

2.3.4 Comprehension
Comprehension is the power of understanding an exercise aim at
improving or testing ones understanding of a languge in written or spoken
(Hornby in Olpah, 2004:10). Moreover, it defines as the ability to understand
completely, and aware say by speaker or toward the topics that are discusses
during conversation.

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 Comprehension is one of many component must attetion to increase
students speaking ability in order to speak better. There are pronounciation,
structure or grammar, vocabulary, and fluency. Yet, speaking means making up a
language in ordinary way that involve this components.

Basically, there are a number of different ways of getting students to speak,

range from asking student a number questions to requesting them to give detail
presenttation. This way aim to get the students to speak in order to improve his or
her comprehension.

2.4 Factors Underlying Speaking Effectiveness

According to Shumin in Picasouw (2007:5) factors consider in developing
adult EFL student’s speaking ability not only linguistics knowledge, but also the
culturally acceptable ways of interacting with others in different situation and
relationship, this theory in known as communicative competence which consist of
the interaction grammatically, psycholinguistics, sofiolinguistics and probabilistic
language components.
Building on this theory, Canale and Swain in picasouw (2007:6) propose that
communicative competence includes grammatically competence, discourse
computence, sofiolinguistics competence and strategies competence, which reflect
the use of the linguist system and the funcional aspect of communication
respectively.

2.5 Definition of Ability

Hornby (1989:2) emphasizes that ability is capacity of power to do sth
physical. Meanwhile, Guralik (1998:7), ability means the state of being able;
power to do; talent and skill. In the longman (1995:1), the word “ability” means
the skill, Knack, Flair/gift and talent.

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 The oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary in Hidayati, (2002:8) state ability
skill power (to do something). While in the Oxford Learne’s Dictionary of Current
English in Hidayati, (2002:8), the ability means 1) (potential) capacity of power ti
do smomething, 2) Cleverness; intelegent, 3) Special natural power to do
something.
Base on the qoutations above, it can conclude that ability is the power or
quality of being able to do something. In this case, the ability of speaking is the
power or quality of being able to utterance something with attention and can to
communicate with others people.

2.6 Scope and Sequence of Language Function

For more specific concern, the scope and sequence of language fungcion
are limited according to West (1995:47) as:

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Table 2.1 scope and Sequence of Language Fungcion

Topic Communication Skill

Meeting people Greeting and introducing people

The classroom Getting and giving personal information
Telephone numbers and Asking how to spell something
addresses Thanking
The family Identifying objects
Ofcupations Describing thing and giving their lofations
Physical charecteristics Correcting and confirming
Reting and apartment Apologizing
Seasons and wether Describing and identifying people
Monts and dates Getting someone's attention
Clothes and colors Asking someone to repeat something
Days of the week and Talking about possesions
daily routines Talkinf about the wether and the seasons
Work and chores Getting and giving the time and date
The time Talking about the present
Movies Talking about the telephone
Free time Talking about relatives and friends
Cooking,shopping and Offering help
food

Work Introduction people

Life in the past Complimenting and accepting
History and important compliment
dates Agreeing and disagreeing
The family Apologizing and accepting
Shopping for clothes An apology
Department stores Offering, accepting and declining food

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Bargains Getting and giving personal information
A robbery Talking about the present and past
Illness and the body Talking about family and friends
Vacation and travel Talking about people and events
Applying for a job Giving opinions
The future, Asking for confirmation
furtunetellers and Asking for and giving assistance
horoscopes Talking about clothing
Cars and driving Describing people
Advice
Rules and public Asking for confirmation
behavior Giving and denying permission
Chilhood Getting and giving personal information
Likes and dislike Talking about past habits abiliities and
A wedding activitiea
Vacations an travel Talking about like and dislike
The use of common Expressing enthusiasm
machines Talking about possibility
Sports Drawing conclusions
Interests and abilities Congratulation
Chores around the house Expressing excitement
Baking and food Making requests and offers
Geogtaphy Talking about places people have visited
Trivia Asking for and giving instructions
Production of food and Expressing hopes
goods Making suggestions giving instructions
Famous people, place Expressing hopes
and things Making suggestions giving reasons and
opinion

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 Shopping Making comparisons
Lofation os stores and Making offers and requests
services Asking for and offering help
Getting things done Asking for confirmation
Directions Giving advicenand opinions
Disasters and accidents Asking for and giving lofation
Sightseeing Making appointments
Lifestyles Starting the purpose and reason
Careers and jobs Asking for and giving directions
Bosses and employees Finding out what people have does
The circus recently and when they did it
Television Discussing what to watch on TV
Leisure tone Agreeing and disagreeing
Travel Describing people and things
Describing people behavior, personalities,
and actions

2.7 Language Functions

The students ability on language function, the researcher use oral ability
criteria as to be indicators of the study, they are accuracy, fluenty and
comprehensibility, West (1989:98).

2.7.1 Accuracy

1. Serious pronounciation errors as well as many ‘basic’ grammatical and lexical

errors. No evidence of having mastered any of the language skills and areas
pranctised in the course.

2. Pronounciation seriously influenced by the mother-tounge with errors causing a

breakdown in communication. Many ‘basic’ grammatical and lexical errors.

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3. Pronounciation is fluenced by the mother-tounge but only a few serious
phonological errors. Several grammatical and lexical errors, some of which cause
confusion.

4. Pronounciation is skill moderately influenced by mother-tounge but no serious

phonological errors. A few grammatical and lexical errors but only one or two
major errors causing confusion.

5. pronounciation is only slightly influenced by mother-tounge. A few monir

grammatical and lexical errors but most utterances are correct.

2.7.2 Fluency

1. Full of long and unnatural pauses. Very halting ang fragmentary delivery. At
times gives up making the effort. Very limited range expression.

2. Long pauses while the searches of the desires meaning. Frequently fragmentary
and halting delivery and fragmenrary. Range of expression often limited.

3. Has to make an effort for much of the time. Often has to search for the desired
meaning. Rather halting deliver and fragmentary. Range of expression often
limited.

4. Although he has to make an effort and search for words, there are not too amny
unnatural pauses. Fairly smooth delivery mostly. Occasionally fragmentary but
successed in conveying the general maening. Fair range of expression.

5. Has to make an effort at times to search for words. Nevertheless, smooth

delivery on the whole and only a few unnatural pauses.

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6. Speaks without too great an effort with a fairly wide range of expression.
Searches for words occasionally but only one or two unnatural pauses.

2.7.3 Comprehensibility

1. Hardly anything of what is said can be understood. Even when the listener
makes a great effort or interrupts, the speaker is unable to clarify anything he
seems to have said.

2. Only small bits (usually sshort sentences and phrases) can be understood and
then with consideable effort by sameone who is used to listening to the speaker.

3. The listener can understand a lot of what is said, but the must constanly seek
clarification cannot understand many of the speaker’s more complex or longer
sentences. The listener can understand a lot of what is saidbut the must constantly
seek clarification.

4. Most of what the speakers says is a easy to follow. His intention is always clear
but saveral interruptions are necesarry to help him convey themassag or to seek
clarifications.

5. The speaker’s itention and general meaning are fairly clear. A few interruption
by the listener for the sake of clarification are necessary.

6. Easy for the listener to understand the speaker’s intention and general meaning
very few interruption or clarification required. To analyze the data, the reseacher
apply score to speaking ability of accuracy, fluency an comprehensibility by
Heaton (1989:98).

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2.8 Strategies for Developing Speaking Skills

Students often think that the ability to speak a language is the product of
language learning, but speaking is also a crucial part of the language learning
profess. Effective intructors teach students speaking strategies using minimal
responses, recognizing script, and using language to talk about language and they
can use to help themselves expand their knowlesge of the language and their
confidence in using it. These instructors help students learn to speak do that the
students can use speaking to learn.

2.8.1 Unsing Minimal Response

Language learners who lack confidence in their ability participate

succesfully in oral interaction often listen in silence while others do the talking.
One way to encourage such learners to begin to participate is to help them build
up a stock of minimal responses that they can use in different types of exchanges.
Such responses can be especially useful for beginners.

Minimal responses are predicable, often idomatic phrase that conversation

participants use to indicate understanding, agreement, doubt and other responses
to what another speaking saying, without having to simultaneously plan a
response.

2.8.2 Recornizing Scripts

Some communication situations are assofiated with a predictable set of

spoken exchange a scripts. So do the transactional exchanges involved in
activities such as obtaining information and making a prchase. In these scripts, the
relationship between a speaker’s turn and the one that follows it can often be
anticipated.

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 Instructors can be help students develop speaking ability making them
aware of the script for different situations so that they can predict what they will
hear and what they will need to say in eesponse. Through interactive activities,
instruction can give students practice in managing and varying the language that
different scripts contain.

2.9 Describe Things and Places

Describing things is an object, fact, afair, circumstance or concept

considered as being a separate entiny.of discourse is a discourse that contains
depictions or describe an object, place, or event to the reader clearly and in detail
so that the reader as if look and feel for yourself what is describing by the author.
There are several types or patterns of development discourse description of
one of them is a spatial description (Kotekarea,2015:14). Spatial description is
discourse that describes the object in detail, especially the room, object, or place.
The characteristics of Discourse describing Kotekarea (2015:14) as follows:

1. To describe or depict an object, place, or a certain atmosphere.

2. The depiction is done by engaging the senses (hearing, sight, smell, taste, and
tactile).
3. Idented that the reader as if to see or feel himself the object described.
4. Describe the characteristics of an object such as color, size, shape, and the state
of an object in detail.

Description of place based on three things: the mood, the relevant parts,
and the sequence of events. In relation to the mood which is the most prominent to
be relied on. In connection with the relevant parts of the author's description
should also be able to choose the relevant details to get an idea of the mood.
Meanwhile, with regard to the order of submission, the author is able to set the
order also required the most good in displaying the selected detail.

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