UNIT-1

What is Software Engineering?

The term software engineering is the product of two words, software, and engineering.

The software is a collection of integrated programs. Software Engineering is an engineering

branch related to the evolution of software product using well-defined scientific principles,
techniques, and procedures. The result of software engineering is an effective and reliable
software product.

Definitions:

IEEE defines software engineering as:

(1) The application of a systematic,disciplined,quantifiable approach to the
development,operation and maintenance of software; that is, the application of engineering to
software.
(2) The study of approaches as in the above statement.
Fritz Bauer, a German computer scientist, defines software engineering as:
Software engineering is the establishment and use of sound engineering principles in order to
obtain economically software that is reliable and work efficiently on real machines.

Software Evolution:

The process of developing a software product using software engineering principles and
methods is referred to as software evolution. This includes the initial development of software
and its maintenance and updates, till desired software product is developed, which satisfies the
expected requirements.
Evolution starts from the requirement gathering process. After which developers create a
prototype of the intended software and show it to the users to get their feedback at the early
stage of software product development. The users suggest changes, on which several
consecutive updates and maintenance keep on changing too. This process changes to the
original software, till the desired software is accomplished.
Even after the user has desired software in hand, the advancing technology and the changing
requirements force the software product to change accordingly. Re-creating software from
scratch and to go one-on-one with requirement is not feasible. The only feasible and economical
solution is to update the existing software so that it matches the latest requirements.
Software Evolution Laws:

Lehman has given laws for software evolution. He divided the software into three different
categories:

 S-type (static-type) - This is a software, which works strictly according to

defined specifications and solutions. The solution and the method to achieve it, both are
immediately understood before coding. The s-type software is least subjected to changes
hence this is the simplest of all. For example, calculator program for mathematical
computation.
 P-type (practical-type) - This is a software with a collection of procedures. This is
defined by exactly what procedures can do. In this software, the specifications can be
described but the solution is not obvious instantly. For example, gaming software.
 E-type (embedded-type) - This software works closely as the requirement of real-
world environment. This software has a high degree of evolution as there are various
changes in laws, taxes etc. in the real world situations. For example, Online trading
software.

Software Paradigms:

Software paradigms refer to the methods and steps, which are taken while designing the
software. There are many methods proposed and are in work today, but we need to see where in
the software engineering these paradigms stand. These can be combined into various categories,
though each of them is contained in one another:
Programming paradigm is a subset of Software design paradigm which is further a subset of
Software development paradigm.

Software Development Paradigm:

This Paradigm is known as software engineering paradigms where all the engineering concepts
pertaining to the development of software are applied. It includes various researches and
requirement gathering which helps the software product to build. It consists of –

 Requirement gathering
 Software design
 Programming

Software Design Paradigm:

This paradigm is a part of Software Development and includes –

 Design
 Maintenance
 Programming

Programming Paradigm:
This paradigm is related closely to programming aspect of software development. This
includes-

 Coding
 Testing
 Integration

Need of Software Engineering:

The need of software engineering arises because of higher rate of change in user requirements
and environment on which the software is working.

 Large software - It is easier to build a wall than to a house or building, likewise, as the
size of software become large engineering has to step to give it a scientific process.
 Scalability- If the software process were not based on scientific and engineering
concepts, it would be easier to re-create new software than to scale an existing one.
 Cost- As hardware industry has shown its skills and huge manufacturing has lower down
he price of computer and electronic hardware. But the cost of software remains high if
proper process is not adapted.
  Dynamic Nature- The always growing and adapting nature of software hugely depends
upon the environment in which user works. If the nature of software is always changing,
new enhancements need to be done in the existing one. This is where software
engineering plays a good role.
 Quality Management- Better process of software development provides better and
quality software product.

Characteristics of good software:

A software product can be judged by what it offers and how well it can be used. This software
must satisfy on the following grounds:

 Operational
 Transitional
 Maintenance
Well-engineered and crafted software is expected to have the following characteristics:

Operational:
This tells us how well software works in operations. It can be measured on:

 Budget
 Usability
 Efficiency
 Correctness
 Functionality
 Dependability
 Security
 Safety

Transitional:
This aspect is important when the software is moved from one platform to another:

 Portability
 Interoperability
 Reusability
 Adaptability
Maintenance:
This aspect briefs about how well a software has the capabilities to maintain itself in the ever-
changing environment:

 Modularity
 Maintainability
 Flexibility
 Scalability

Why is Software Engineering required?

Software Engineering is required due to the following reasons:

o To manage Large software

o For more Scalability
o Cost Management
o To manage the dynamic nature of software

Importance of Software Engineering:

1. Reduces complexity: Big software is always complicated and challenging to progress.

Software engineering has a great solution to reduce the complication of any project.
Software engineering divides big problems into various small issues. And then start
solving each small issue one by one. All these small problems are solved independently
to each other.
2. To minimize software cost: Software needs a lot of hardwork and software engineers
are highly paid experts. A lot of manpower is required to develop software with a large
number of codes. But in software engineering, programmers project everything and
decrease all those things that are not needed. In turn, the cost for software productions
becomes less as compared to any software that does not use software engineering
method.
3. To decrease time: Anything that is not made according to the project always wastes
time. And if you are making great software, then you may need to run many codes to get
the definitive running code. This is a very time-consuming procedure, and if it is not well
handled, then this can take a lot of time. So if you are making your software according to
the software engineering method, then it will decrease a lot of time.
4. Handling big projects: Big projects are not done in a couple of days, and they need lots
of patience, planning, and management. And to invest six and seven months of any
company, it requires heaps of planning, direction, testing, and maintenance. No one can
 say that he has given four months of a company to the task, and the project is still in its
first stage. Because the company has provided many resources to the plan and it should
be completed. So to handle a big project without any problem, the company has to go for
a software engineering method.
5. Reliable software: Software should be secure, means if you have delivered the software,
then it should work for at least its given time or subscription. And if any bugs come in the
software, the company is responsible for solving all these bugs. Because in software
engineering, testing and maintenance are given, so there is no worry of its reliability.
6. Effectiveness: Effectiveness comes if anything has made according to the standards.
Software standards are the big target of companies to make it more effective. So Software
becomes more effective in the act with the help of software engineering.

Characteristics of Software in Software Engineering:

1. Functionality:
It refers to the suitability, accuracy, interoperability, compliance, security of software
which is measured as degree of performance of the software against its intended
purpose.
2. Reliability:
Refers to the recoverability, fault tolerance, maturity of software, which is basically
a capability of the software that provide required functionality under the given
situations.
3. Efficiency:
It is the ability of the software to use resources of system in the most effective and
efficient manner. Software must make effective use of syetm storage and
execute command as per required timing.
4. Usability:
It is the extent to which the software can be utilized with ease and the amount of
effort or time required to learn how to use the software.
5. Maintainability:
It is the ease with which the modifications can be made in a software to extend or
enhance its functionality, improve its performance, or resolve bugs.
6. Portability:
It is the ease with which software developers can relaunch software from one
platform to another, without (or with minimum) changes. In simple terms, software
must be made in way that it should be platform independent.
Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC):

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process used by the software industry to design,
develop and test high quality software. The SDLC aims to produce a high-quality software that
meets or exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within times and cost estimates.
 SDLC is the acronym of Software Development Life Cycle.
 It is also called as Software Development Process.
 SDLC is a framework defining tasks performed at each step in the software development
process.
 ISO/IEC 12207 is an international standard for software life-cycle processes. It aims to
be the standard that defines all the tasks required for developing and maintaining
software.

SDLC is a process followed for a software project, within a software organization. It consists of
a detailed plan describing how to develop, maintain, replace and alter or enhance specific
software. The life cycle defines a methodology for improving the quality of software and the
overall development process.

Stage 1: Planning and Requirement Analysis:

Requirement analysis is the most important and fundamental stage in SDLC. It is performed by
the senior members of the team with inputs from the customer, the sales department, market
surveys and domain experts in the industry. This information is then used to plan the basic
project approach and to conduct product feasibility study in the economical, operational and
technical areas.
Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identification of the risks associated with
the project is also done in the planning stage. The outcome of the technical feasibility study is to
define the various technical approaches that can be followed to implement the project
successfully with minimum risks.
Stage 2: Defining Requirements:
Once the requirement analysis is done the next step is to clearly define and document the
product requirements and get them approved from the customer or the market analysts. This is
done through an SRS (Software Requirement Specification) document which consists of all
the product requirements to be designed and developed during the project life cycle.
Stage 3: Designing the Product Architecture:
SRS is the reference for product architects to come out with the best architecture for the product
to be developed. Based on the requirements specified in SRS, usually more than one design
approach for the product architecture is proposed and documented in a DDS - Design Document
Specification.
This DDS is reviewed by all the important stakeholders and based on various parameters as risk
assessment, product robustness, design modularity, budget and time constraints, the best design
approach is selected for the product.
A design approach clearly defines all the architectural modules of the product along with its
communication and data flow representation with the external and third party modules (if any).
The internal design of all the modules of the proposed architecture should be clearly defined
with the minutest of the details in DDS.
Stage 4: Building or Developing the Product:
In this stage of SDLC the actual development starts and the product is built. The programming
code is generated as per DDS during this stage. If the design is performed in a detailed and
organized manner, code generation can be accomplished without much hassle.
Developers must follow the coding guidelines defined by their organization and programming
tools like compilers, interpreters, debuggers, etc. are used to generate the code. Different high
level programming languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Java and PHP are used for coding. The
programming language is chosen with respect to the type of software being developed.
Stage 5: Testing the Product:
This stage is usually a subset of all the stages as in the modern SDLC models, the testing
activities are mostly involved in all the stages of SDLC. However, this stage refers to the testing
only stage of the product where product defects are reported, tracked, fixed and retested, until
the product reaches the quality standards defined in the SRS.
Stage 6: Deployment in the Market and Maintenance:
Once the product is tested and ready to be deployed it is released formally in the appropriate
market. Sometimes product deployment happens in stages as per the business strategy of that
organization. The product may first be released in a limited segment and tested in the real
business environment (UAT- User acceptance testing).
Then based on the feedback, the product may be released as it is or with suggested
enhancements in the targeting market segment. After the product is released in the market, its
maintenance is done for the existing customer base.

SDLC Models:

There are various software development life cycle models defined and designed which are
followed during the software development process. These models are also referred as Software
Development Process Models". Each process model follows a Series of steps unique to its type
to ensure success in the process of software development.
Following are the most important and popular SDLC models followed in the industry −

 Waterfall Model
 Iterative Model
 Spiral Model
 V-Model
 Big Bang Model

Waterfall Model:
The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as
a linear-sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall
model, each phase must be completed before the next phase can begin and there is no
overlapping in the phases.
The Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for software development.
The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in a linear sequential flow.
This means that any phase in the development process begins only if the previous phase is
complete. In this waterfall model, the phases do not overlap.

Waterfall Model – Design:

The sequential phases in Waterfall model are −
 Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of the system to be
developed are captured in this phase and documented in a requirement specification
document.
 System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are studied in this
phase and the system design is prepared. This system design helps in specifying
hardware and system requirements and helps in defining the overall system architecture.
 Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is first developed in
small programs called units, which are integrated in the next phase. Each unit is
developed and tested for its functionality, which is referred to as Unit Testing.
 Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation phase are
integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the entire system is
tested for any faults and failures.
 Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing is done; the
product is deployed in the customer environment or released into the market.
 Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client environment. To fix
those issues, patches are released. Also to enhance the product some better versions are
released. Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the customer environment.

Application:
  Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.
 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is understood and is not dynamic.
 There are no ambiguous requirements.
 Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the product.
 The project is short.

Advantages:

 Simple and easy to understand and use

 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific deliverables and
a review process.
 Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.
 Clearly defined stages.
 Well understood milestones.
 Easy to arrange tasks.
 Process and results are well documented.

Disadvantages:

 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.

 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of
changing. So, risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.
 It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
 Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
 Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
 Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't allow identifying any
technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.
Iterative Model:
In the Iterative model, iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a small set of the
software requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the complete system
is implemented and ready to be deployed.
An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of requirements.
Instead, development begins by specifying and implementing just part of the software, which is
then reviewed to identify further requirements. This process is then repeated, producing a new
version of the software at the end of each iteration of the model.

Iterative Model – Design:

Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software requirements
and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system is implemented. At each
iteration, design modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added. The basic
idea behind this method is to develop a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller
portions at a time (incremental).

Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both iterative design or iterative

method and incremental build model for development. "During software development, more
than one iteration of the software development cycle may be in progress at the same time." This
process may be described as an "evolutionary acquisition" or "incremental build" approach."
In this incremental model, the whole requirement is divided into various builds. During each
iteration, the development module goes through the requirements, design, implementation and
testing phases. Each subsequent release of the module adds function to the previous release. The
process continues till the complete system is ready as per the requirement.
The key to a successful use of an iterative software development lifecycle is rigorous validation
of requirements, and verification & testing of each version of the software against those
requirements within each cycle of the model. As the software evolves through successive
cycles, tests must be repeated and extended to verify each version of the software.
Application:

Like other SDLC models, Iterative and incremental development has some specific applications
in the software industry. This model is most often used in the following scenarios −
 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or requested
enhancements may evolve with time.
 There is a time to the market constraint.
 A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the development team while
working on the project.
 Resources with needed skill sets are not available and are planned to be used on contract
basis for specific iterations.
 There are some high-risk features and goals which may change in the future.
Advantages:
 Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in the life cycle.
 Results are obtained early and periodically.
 Parallel development can be planned.
 Progress can be measured.
 Less costly to change the scope/requirements.
 Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.
 Risks are identified and resolved during iteration; and each iteration is an easily managed
milestone.
 Easier to manage risk - High risk part is done first.
 With every increment, operational product is delivered.
 Issues, challenges and risks identified from each increment can be utilized/applied to the
next increment.
 Risk analysis is better.
 It supports changing requirements.
 Initial Operating time is less.
 Better suited for large and mission-critical projects.
 During the life cycle, software is produced early which facilitates customer evaluation
and feedback.
 Disadvantages:
 More resources may be required.
 Although cost of change is lesser, but it is not very suitable for changing requirements.
 More management attention is required.
 System architecture or design issues may arise because not all requirements are gathered
in the beginning of the entire life cycle.
 Defining increments may require definition of the complete system.
 Not suitable for smaller projects.
 Management complexity is more.
 End of project may not be known which is a risk.
 Highly skilled resources are required for risk analysis.
 Projects progress is highly dependent upon the risk analysis phase.
Spiral Model:
The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the systematic, controlled
aspects of the waterfall model. This Spiral model is a combination of iterative development
process model and sequential linear development model i.e. the waterfall model with a very
high emphasis on risk analysis. It allows incremental releases of the product or incremental
refinement through each iteration around the spiral.

Spiral Model - Design

The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes through these phases in
iterations called Spirals.
Identification:
This phase starts with gathering the business requirements in the baseline spiral. In the
subsequent spirals as the product matures, identification of system requirements, subsystem
requirements and unit requirements are all done in this phase.
This phase also includes understanding the system requirements by continuous communication
between the customer and the system analyst. At the end of the spiral, the product is deployed in
the identified market.
Design:
The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral and involves
architectural design, logical design of modules, physical product design and the final design in
the subsequent spirals.
Construct or Build:
The Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product at every spiral. In the
baseline spiral, when the product is just thought of and the design is being developed a POC
(Proof of Concept) is developed in this phase to get customer feedback.
Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design details a working
model of the software called build is produced with a version number. These builds are sent to
the customer for feedback.
Evaluation and Risk Analysis:
Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating and monitoring the technical feasibility and
management risks, such as schedule slippage and cost overrun. After testing the build, at the end
of first iteration, the customer evaluates the software and provides feedback.
The following illustration is a representation of the Spiral Model, listing the activities in each
phase.

Based on the customer evaluation, the software development process enters the next iteration
and subsequently follows the linear approach to implement the feedback suggested by the
customer. The process of iterations along the spiral continues throughout the life of the
software.
Application:

 When there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.

 For medium to high-risk projects.
 Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to economic priorities as
the requirements change with time.
 Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.
 Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.
 New product line which should be released in phases to get enough customer feedback.
 Significant changes are expected in the product during the development cycle.
Advantages:
 Allows extensive use of prototypes.
 Requirements can be captured more accurately.
 Users see the system early.
 Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be developed
earlier which helps in better risk management.
Disadvantages:
 Management is more complex.
 End of the project may not be known early.
 Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small projects.
 Process is complex
 Spiral may go on indefinitely.
 Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.
V-Model:
The V-model is an SDLC model where execution of processes happens in a sequential manner
in a V-shape. It is also known as Verification and Validation model.
The V-Model is an extension of the waterfall model and is based on the association of a testing
phase for each corresponding development stage. This means that for every single phase in the
development cycle, there is a directly associated testing phase. This is a highly-disciplined
model and the next phase starts only after completion of the previous phase.

V-Model – Design:

Under the V-Model, the corresponding testing phase of the development phase is planned in
parallel. So, there are Verification phases on one side of the ‘V’ and Validation phases on the
other side. The Coding Phase joins the two sides of the V-Model.
The following illustration depicts the different phases in a V-Model of the SDLC.
V-Model - Verification Phases:

There are several Verification phases in the V-Model, each of these are explained in detail
below.
Business Requirement Analysis:
This is the first phase in the development cycle where the product requirements are understood
from the customer’s perspective. This phase involves detailed communication with the customer
to understand his expectations and exact requirement. This is a very important activity and
needs to be managed well, as most of the customers are not sure about what exactly they need.
The acceptance test design planning is done at this stage as business requirements can be used
as an input for acceptance testing.
System Design:
Once you have the clear and detailed product requirements, it is time to design the complete
system. The system design will have the understanding and detailing the complete hardware and
communication setup for the product under development. The system test plan is developed
based on the system design. Doing this at an earlier stage leaves more time for the actual test
execution later.
Architectural Design:
Architectural specifications are understood and designed in this phase. Usually more than one
technical approach is proposed and based on the technical and financial feasibility the final
decision is taken. The system design is broken down further into modules taking up different
functionality. This is also referred to as High Level Design (HLD).
The data transfer and communication between the internal modules and with the outside world
(other systems) is clearly understood and defined in this stage. With this information,
integration tests can be designed and documented during this stage.
Module Design:
In this phase, the detailed internal design for all the system modules is specified, referred to
as Low Level Design (LLD). It is important that the design is compatible with the other
modules in the system architecture and the other external systems. The unit tests are an essential
part of any development process and helps eliminate the maximum faults and errors at a very
early stage. These unit tests can be designed at this stage based on the internal module designs.

Coding Phase:

The actual coding of the system modules designed in the design phase is taken up in the Coding
phase. The best suitable programming language is decided based on the system and architectural
requirements.
The coding is performed based on the coding guidelines and standards. The code goes through
numerous code reviews and is optimized for best performance before the final build is checked
into the repository.

Validation Phases:

The different Validation Phases in a V-Model are explained in detail below.

Unit Testing:
Unit tests designed in the module design phase are executed on the code during this validation
phase. Unit testing is the testing at code level and helps eliminate bugs at an early stage, though
all defects cannot be uncovered by unit testing.
Integration Testing:
Integration testing is associated with the architectural design phase. Integration tests are
performed to test the coexistence and communication of the internal modules within the system.
System Testing:
System testing is directly associated with the system design phase. System tests check the entire
system functionality and the communication of the system under development with external
systems. Most of the software and hardware compatibility issues can be uncovered during this
system test execution.
Acceptance Testing:
Acceptance testing is associated with the business requirement analysis phase and involves
testing the product in user environment. Acceptance tests uncover the compatibility issues with
the other systems available in the user environment. It also discovers the non-functional issues
such as load and performance defects in the actual user environment.
Big Bang Model:
The Big Bang model is an SDLC model where we do not follow any specific process. The
development just starts with the required money and efforts as the input, and the output is the
software developed which may or may not be as per customer requirement. This Big Bang
Model does not follow a process/procedure and there is a very little planning required. Even the
customer is not sure about what exactly he wants and the requirements are implemented on the
fly without much analysis.
Usually this model is followed for small projects where the development teams are very small.

Design and Application:

The Big Bang Model comprises of focusing all the possible resources in the software
development and coding, with very little or no planning. The requirements are understood and
implemented as they come. Any changes required may or may not need to revamp the complete
software.
This model is ideal for small projects with one or two developers working together and is also
useful for academic or practice projects. It is an ideal model for the product where requirements
are not well understood and the final release date is not given.

What is Software Prototyping:

Prototype is a working model of software with some limited functionality. The prototype does
not always hold the exact logic used in the actual software application and is an extra effort to
be considered under effort estimation.
Prototyping is used to allow the users evaluate developer proposals and try them out before
implementation. It also helps understand the requirements which are user specific and may not
have been considered by the developer during product design.
Following is a stepwise approach explained to design a software prototype.
Basic Requirement Identification:
This step involves understanding the very basics product requirements especially in terms of
user interface. The more intricate details of the internal design and external aspects like
performance and security can be ignored at this stage.
Developing the initial Prototype:
The initial Prototype is developed in this stage, where the very basic requirements are
showcased and user interfaces are provided. These features may not exactly work in the same
manner internally in the actual software developed. While, the workarounds are used to give the
same look and feel to the customer in the prototype developed.
Review of the Prototype:
The prototype developed is then presented to the customer and the other important stakeholders
in the project. The feedback is collected in an organized manner and used for further
enhancements in the product under development.
Revise and Enhance the Prototype:
The feedback and the review comments are discussed during this stage and some negotiations
happen with the customer based on factors like – time and budget constraints and technical
feasibility of the actual implementation. The changes accepted are again incorporated in the new
Prototype developed and the cycle repeats until the customer expectations are met.
Prototypes can have horizontal or vertical dimensions. A Horizontal prototype displays the user
interface for the product and gives a broader view of the entire system, without concentrating on
internal functions. A Vertical prototype on the other side is a detailed elaboration of a specific
function or a sub system in the product.
The purpose of both horizontal and vertical prototype is different. Horizontal prototypes are
used to get more information on the user interface level and the business requirements. It can
even be presented in the sales demos to get business in the market. Vertical prototypes are
technical in nature and are used to get details of the exact functioning of the sub systems. For
example, database requirements, interaction and data processing loads in a given sub system.