Chapter 2

Motion in a Straight Line

• Kinematics is the study of motion.
• Velocity and acceleration are important physical quantities.
• Motion can be vertical (a falling stone) horizontal (a car on
a leveled highway), or slanted .
Vector and Scalar
• A vector quantity is characterized by having both a magnitude and
a direction.
− Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force …
− Denoted in boldface type or with an arrow over the top .

• A scalar quantity has magnitude, but no direction.

− Distance, Mass, Temperature, Time …

• For motion along a straight line, the direction is represented simply

by + and – signs.
− + sign: Right or Up.
− − sign: Left or Down.

• 1-D motion can be thought of as a

component of 2-D and 3-D motions.
Quantities in Motion
• Any motion involves three concepts

 Displacement

 Velocity

 Acceleration

These concepts can be used to study objects in motion.

Distance and Position-time graph

• Displacement in space
− From A to B: Δx = xB – xA = 52 m – 30 m = 22 m
− From A to C: Δx = xc – xA = 38 m – 30 m = 8 m

• Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle

− from A to B: d = |xB – xA| = |52 m – 30 m| = 22 m
− from A to C: d = |xB – xA|+ |xC – xB| = 22 m + |38 m – 52 m| = 36 m

• Displacement is not Distance.

Velocity
• Velocity is the rate of change of position.
• Velocity is a vector quantity.
• Velocity has both magnitude and direction.
displacement
• Velocity has a unit of [length/time]: meter/second.
• We will be concerned with three quantities, defined as: distance
−Average velocity: ∆x x f − xi
vavg = =
∆t ∆t

−Average speed: savg =

total distance
∆t

∆x dx
=
−Instantaneous: v =
lim
∆t →0 ∆t dt
velocity
displacement
Average Velocity

• Average velocity
∆x x f − xi
vavg = =
∆t ∆t

is the slope of the line segment

between end points on a graph.
• Dimensions: length/time (L/T) [m/s].
• SI unit: m/s.
• It is a vector (i.e. is signed), and
displacement direction sets its sign.
Average Speed

• Average speed

total distance
savg =
∆t

• Dimension: length/time, [m/s].

• Scalar: No direction involved.
• Not necessarily close to Vavg.
Finding velocity on an x-t graph

• Velocity can be determined from a

position-time graph

• Average velocity equals the slope

of the line joining the initial and
final positions. It is a vector
quantity.

• An object moving with a constant

velocity will have a graph that is a
straight line.
Instantaneous velocity
• The instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a specific
instant of time or specific point along the path and is given by
vx = dx/dt.
• The average speed is not the magnitude of the average
velocity!
Uniform Velocity

Uniform velocity is the special case of constant velocity.

In this case, instantaneous velocities are always the same, all the
instantaneous velocities will also equal the average velocity

∆x x f − xi
vx = = x f = xi + v x ∆t
∆t ∆t

x v plot velocity vs.

x(t) time
v(t)
xf

xi
0 t 0 t
x-t graphs
Example
A Honda Civic travels in a straight line along a road. The car’s distance x from a
stop sign is given as a function of time t by the equation x(t) = at2 - bt3 , where a =
1.50 m/s2 and b = 0.0500 m/s3 . Calculate the average velocity of the car for each
time interval: (a) t = 0 to t = 2.00 s.

∆x
The average velocity is vav-x = .
∆t
x(0) = 0, x(2 . 00 s) =
5 . 60 m,

5 . 60 m − 0
vav-x = =+ 2 . 80 m/s
2 . 00 s
Example
A physics professor leaves her house
and walks along the sidewalk toward
campus. After 5 min it starts to rain,
and she returns home. Her distance
from her house as a function of time is
shown in Fig. At which of the labeled
points is her velocity (a) zero? (b)
constant and positive? (c) constant and
negative? (d) increasing in magnitude?
(e) decreasing in magnitude?
Example
A physics professor leaves her house
and walks along the sidewalk toward
campus. After 5 min it starts to rain,
and she returns home. Her distance
from her house as a function of time is
shown in Fig. At which of the labeled
points is her velocity (a) zero? (b)
constant and positive? (c) constant and
negative? (d) increasing in magnitude?
(e) decreasing in magnitude?

(a) The velocity is zero where the graph is horizontal; point IV.
(b) The velocity is constant and positive where the graph is a straight line with
positive slope; point I.
(c) The velocity is constant and negative where the graph is a straight line with
negative slope; point V.
(d) The slope is positive and increasing at point II.
(e) The slope is positive and decreasing at point III.
Acceleration
• Changing velocity (non-uniform) means an acceleration is present.

• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

• Acceleration is a vector quantity.

• Acceleration has both magnitude and direction.

• Acceleration has a dimensions of length/time2: [m/s2].

Definition:
∆v v f − vi
Average acceleration aavg = =
∆t t f − ti

Instantaneous acceleration
∆v dv d dx d 2 v
a = lim = = = 2
∆t →0 ∆t dt dt dt dt
Average Acceleration
Average acceleration

∆v v f − vi
aavg = =
∆t t f − ti
Velocity as a function of time
v f (t ) = vi + aavg ∆t

It is tempting to call a negative acceleration a “deceleration,” but note:

When the sign of the velocity and the acceleration are the same (either
positive or negative), then the speed is increasing

When the sign of the velocity and the acceleration are in the opposite
directions, the speed is decreasing

Average acceleration is the slope of the line connecting the initial and final
velocities on a velocity-time graph
Relationship between Acceleration and Velocity

• Velocity and acceleration are in the

same direction
• Acceleration is uniform (blue arrows
maintain the same length)
• Velocity is increasing (red arrows are
getting longer)
• Positive velocity and positive
acceleration
Relationship between Acceleration and Velocity

Uniform velocity (shown by red arrows

maintaining the same size)
Acceleration equals zero

v f (t ) = vi + at
Relationship between Acceleration and Velocity

• Acceleration and velocity are in opposite

directions

• Acceleration is uniform (blue arrows maintain the

same length)

• Velocity is decreasing (red arrows are getting

shorter)

• Velocity is positive and acceleration is negative

Kinematic Variables: x, v, a

• Position is a function of time:

x = x(t )
• Velocity is the rate of change of position.
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
∆x dx ∆v dv
= =
v lim a = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt ∆t →0 ∆t dt
d d
dt dt
• Position Velocity Acceleration

• Graphical relationship between x, v, and a

• This same plot can apply to an elevator that is initially

stationary, then moves upward, and then stops.

• Plot v and a as a function of time.

Simplest case: constant velocity (a=0)
• If a = 0, then the velocity v is constant.

• In this case the distance xf an object will travel in a certain

amount of time t is given by distance = velocity x time

xf = xi + v t (for a = 0)

• xi is the starting (initial) position, and xf is the final

position.
Motion with constant acceleration

Acceleration is a constant

Kinematic Equations:

v = v0 + at
1
∆x = v t = (v0 + v)t
2
∆x = v0t + 12 at 2

v = v0 + 2a∆x
2 2
Derivation of the Equation (1)
Given initial conditions:
a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
Start with definition of average acceleration:

∆v v − v0 v − v0 v − v0
aavg = = = = =a
∆t t − t0 t −0 t
We immediately get the first equation
Shows velocity as a function of acceleration and time
Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked to find the
displacement
v = v0 + at
Derivation of the Equation (2)

Given initial conditions:

a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0

Start with definition of average velocity:
x − x0 ∆x
vavg = =
t t
Since velocity changes at a constant rate, we have
1
∆x = vavg t = (v0 + v)t
2
Gives displacement as a function of velocity and time
Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked for the acceleration
Derivation of the Equation (3)
Given initial conditions:
a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
Start with the two just-derived equations:

1
v = v0 + at ∆x = vavg t = (v0 + v)t
2

1 1 1 2
We have ∆x = (v0 + v)t = (v0 + v0 + at )t ∆x = x − x0 = v0t + at
2 2 2

Gives displacement as a function of all three quantities: time, initial velocity

and acceleration
Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked to find the final velocity
 Derivation of the Equation (3)

Given initial conditions:

a(t) = constant = a, v(t = 0) = v0, x(t = 0) = x0
Rearrange the definition of average acceleration

∆v v − v0 v − v0
aavg = = , =a t=
∆t t to find the time a
Use it to eliminate t in the second equation:
,
v 2 − v0 , rearrange to get
2
1 1
∆x = (v0 + v)t = (v + v0 )(v − v0 ) =
2 2a 2a

Gives velocity as a function of acceleration and displacement

Use when you don’t know and aren’t asked for the time

v 2 = v0 + 2a∆x = v0 + 2a ( x − x0 )
2 2
Problem-Solving Hints

• Read the problem

• Draw a diagram
• Choose a coordinate system, label initial and final points, indicate a
positive direction for velocities and accelerations

• Label all quantities, be sure all the units are consistent. Convert if
necessary
• Choose the appropriate kinematic equation
v = v0 + at
• Solve for the unknowns
∆x = v0t + 12 at 2
• You may have to solve two equations for two unknowns
v 2 = v0 + 2a∆x
2
Freely falling bodies
• Free fall is the motion of an object under
the influence of only gravity.
• The velocity change is the same in each
time interval, so the acceleration is constant.
• Earth gravity provides a constant
acceleration. Most important case of
constant acceleration.
• Free-fall acceleration is independent of
mass.
• Direction: always downward, so ag is
negative if we define “up” as positive,
a = -g = -9.8 m/s2
• Try to pick origin so that xi = 0
A freely falling ball
• If there is no air resistance, the downward acceleration of any
freely falling object is g = 9.8 m/s2 = 32 ft/s2.
 Free Fall for Rookie

• A stone is thrown from the top of a building with an initial

velocity of 20.0 m/s straight upward, at an initial height of
50.0 m above the ground. The stone just misses the edge of
the roof on the its way down. Determine
• (a) the time needed for the stone to reach its maximum
height.
• (b) the maximum height.
• (c) the time needed for the stone to return to the height from
which it was thrown and the velocity of the stone at that
instant.
• (d) the time needed for the stone to reach the ground
• (e) the velocity and position of the stone at t = 5.00s
Velocity and position by integration
• The acceleration of a car is not always constant.
• The motion may be integrated over many small time intervals
to give and
Example
 Example

Solution:
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example

Solution:
Example
An object moves along the x axis according to the equation x = t3 - 2t, where x is in meters and t is in
seconds.
(a) Determine the average speed between t = 2 s and t = 3 s.
(b) Determine the instantaneous speed at t = 3 s.
(c) Determine the average acceleration between t = 2 s and t = 3 s.
(d) Determine the instantaneous acceleration at t = 2 s.

∆𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡=3 −𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡=2)

(a) 𝑣𝑣̅ = ∆𝑡𝑡
=
3−2
=17 m/s

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(b) ϑ= = 𝑡𝑡 3 − 2𝑡𝑡 = 3𝑡𝑡 2 -2 m/s 𝜗𝜗𝑡𝑡=3 = 25𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

∆𝜗𝜗 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡=3 −𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡=2)

(c) 𝑎𝑎� = ∆𝑡𝑡
=
3−2
=15 m/s2

𝑑𝑑𝜗𝜗 𝑑𝑑
(d) a = = 3𝑡𝑡 2 − 2 = 6𝑡𝑡 m/s2 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡=2 = 12 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Example
A brick is dropped from the roof of a tall building. After it has been falling for a
few seconds, it falls 40.0 m in a 1.00 s time interval. What distance will it fall
during the next 1.00 s? Ignore air resistance.
Example
A brick is dropped from the roof of a tall building. After it has been falling for a
few seconds, it falls 40.0 m in a 1.00 s time interval. What distance will it fall
during the next 1.00 s? Ignore air resistance.

Solution:
Applying the above formula with ay = 9.80 m/s2, t = 1.00 s, and
y – y0 = 40.0 m, y − y0 = v0 yt + 12 a yt 2 we get v0y = 35.1 m/s.

At the end of this 1.00-s interval, the velocity is vy = 35.1 m/s +

(9.80 m/s2)(1.00 s) = 44.9 m/s.
This is v0y for the next 1.00-s interval. Using with this initial
velocity gives y − y0 = v0 yt + 12 a yt = 49.8 m.
2
Example
A man throws a ball straight up and lets it fall to the ground. If the ball leaves his
hand 124 cm above the ground and it lands on the ground 1.14 seconds later, to
what maximum height did the ball go above the ground?
Example
A man throws a ball straight up and lets it fall to the ground. If the ball leaves his
hand 124 cm above the ground and it lands on the ground 1.14 seconds later, to
what maximum height did the ball go above the ground?

Now going up: