Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

MODULE – 5
LESSON CONTENTS:
Weldability and thermal aspects: Concept of weldability of materials; Thermal Effects in
Welding (Distortion, shrinkage and residual stresses in welded structures); Welding defects and
remedies.
Allied processes: Soldering, Brazing and adhesive bonding
Advance welding processes: Resistance welding processes, friction stir welding (FSW).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
WELDABILITY
Definition and Concept

• Weldability is the capacity of a material to be welded under the fabrication conditions

imposed into a specific, suitably designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the
intended service.
• This implies that a metal with good weldability can be welded readily so as to perform
satisfactorily in the fabricated structure.

Weldability encompasses the

1) Metallurgical Compatibility of a metal/alloy with any specific welding process.
2) Ability of the metal/alloy to be welded with mechanical soundness.
3) Serviceability of the resulting welded joint

1) Metallurgical Compatibility of a metal/alloy with any specific welding process.

 Metallurgical compatibility implies that the base metals and weld metal can be combined
within the degree of dilution encountered in a specific process without the production of
deleterious constituents or phases.
2) Ability of the metal/alloy to be welded with mechanical soundness.
 The mechanical soundness must meet soundness requirements and normal engineering
standards.
3) Serviceability of the resulting welded joint
 Serviceability factors, e.g., may concern the ability of the welded structure to work under
low and high temperatures, impact loads, etc.

REQUIREMENTS OF WELDABILITY
A metallic material with adequate weldability should fulfil the following requirements:
(i). Have full strength and toughness after welding.
(ii). Contribute to good weld quality even with high dilution.
(iii). (Have unchanged corrosion resistance after welding .
(iv). Should not be embrittled when stress relieving.

Page 1
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS ON WELDABILITY

Alloying elements
a) Increase or decrease hardenability of the HAZ.
• The elements that have greatest effect on the hardenability of steel are C, Mn, Mo, Cr,
V, Ni and Si.
• The effect of these alloying elements on controlling the tendency to form HAZ
martensite, and thus cold cracking may be expressed as carbon equivalent (CE)

b) Form age-hardening precipitates.

• Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening or particle hardening, is a heat
treatment technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable materials,
including most structural alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some
steels and stainless steels.
c) Provide grain refinement (aluminium, vanadium, titanium, zirconium and nitrogen act as
grain refiners in carbon and low alloy steels).
d) Reduce segregation.
e) Control ductile-to-brittle transformation temperature.
f) Form substitutional alloys and strengthen the metal by solid solution hardening.
g) Form interstitial alloys and increase mechanical properties by lattice distortion, (e.g. carbon
and boron, form interstitial alloys with steel).
h) Form carbides.
i) Provide deoxidation of molten metal without loss of primary alloying elements (e.g.
titanium, zirconium, aluminium, silicon, etc., have affinity for oxygen than iron and thus act
as deoxidizers in carbon and low alloy steels).

Page 2
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

WELDABILITY TESTING
• The purpose of Weldability testing is to gather such information about the behaviour of a
material during welding that it is possible to establish the correct welding conditions.
• Weldability tests provide useful information as regards:
 (i) Appropriate process selection
 (ii) Preheat
 (iii) Energy input
 (iv) Joint design, etc.
• Weldability testing of a material can be done either directly i.e, by welding the material
under the conditions that one wants to examine or indirectly by simulating the welding
conditions.
• Weldability tests may be classified as
 (i) Theoretical tests.
 (ii) Simulated tests.
 (iii) Actual welding tests.

(i) An example of the theoretical weldability test can be as follows:

• A number of notched bend specimens can be austenitized at 1150°C and cooled at calculated
rates to duplicate the expected hardness of the HAZ.
• If the specimens can be bent through 10°-20°, they are considered sufficiently ductile for
most applications.
(ii).A simulated test may involve heating and cooling a metal specimen over a thermal cycle
exacting like that found in a particular weld.
(iii) Actual welding tests may be of two types:
• (a) Fabrication weldability tests
• (b) Service weldability tests

• (a) Fabrication weldability tests that determine the susceptibility of the welded joint to
cracking.
• These tests are
 * Hot cracking tests.
 *Hydrogen induced cracking tests.
• (b) Service weldability tests that measure mechanical properties which are considered
essential for the satisfactory performance of the welded joint during service.
• These tests are
 *Tensile, hardness and bend tests.
 *Fatigue tests.
 *Creep tests, etc.

Page 3
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

EFFECT OF CARBON CONTENT ON STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF STEEL

• Steel is the most widely used material in welding compared to other materials.
• Steel may be defined as refined pig iron, or an alloy of iron and carbon.
• Various elements like sulphur, manganese, phosphorous etc., are added to steel in order to
impart the properties like hardenability, strength, hardness, weldability, wear resistance etc.
• Of all the constituents, carbon is the most important ingredient in steel, because it has a direct
effect on the physical properties of steel.
• Steel with low carbon content has the same properties as iron; soft, but easily formed.
• As the carbon content increases, the metal becomes harder and stronger, but less ductile and
hence, making it more difficult to weld
• Also, harder steels have the tendency to crack if welded, because the carbon content lowers
the melting point of steel and its temperature resistance.
• Welding is of course a form of heat treatment on a joint, and as a general rule, the more
easily hardened and higher tensile the steel, the more difficult they are to weld.
• Hence, the carbon content should be suitably controlled to obtain favourable properties.

METALLURGICAL ASPECT IN WELDING

Microstructure and Properties
• The cooling rate and chemical composition affect the microstructure of the welded joint
• The mechanical properties of a welded joint depend on the microstructure produced by
welding

Metallurgical Processes
• Melting and solidification
• Nucleation and growth
• Phase transformations
• Segregation and diffusion
• Precipitation
• Recrystallization and grain growth

Page 4
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

• Liquation mechanisms
• Embrittlement
• Thermal expansion, contraction, and residual stress

Figure Macro/microstructure of 2205 DSS spot welded joint:

(a) macrostructure,
(b) BM microstructure,
(c) BM/HAZ/FZ interface,
(d) equiaxed grain / columnar grain interface and
(e) columnar grain structure at FZ centre (lighter phase is austenite and darker one is ferrite).

Page 5
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

FORMATION OF DIFFERENT ZONES IN WELDING

• During welding, when the heat source interacts with the workpiece material, the flow of
temperature in the material varies from region to region resulting in three distinct region s or
zones.
Figure 7.1 shows the three distinct zones in the weld metal;
• Zone-1: Fusion zone,
• Zone- 2: Heat affected zone,
• Zone- 3: Unaffected base metal zone (workpiece metal zone).

Page 6
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

ZONE-1: FUSION ZONE

• Region of the weld that is completely melted and resolidified
• Fusion zone is the weld metal itself; more specifically, it is the region where the molten metal
of the filler rod combines with the molten metal of the workpiece to form the weld.
• The fusion zone can be considered similar to a casting process, wherein the workpiece metal
reaches the molten state and then allowed to cool.
• Hence, the metal in the fusion zone has basically, a cast structure with the microstructure
reflecting the cooling rate in the weld.
• The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the filler metal used and its
compatibility with the workpiece materials.
• May exhibit three regions Composite zone, Transition zone, Unmixed zone

ZONE - 2: HEAT AFFECTED ZONE,

• The fusion zone is surrounded by the heat affected zone; the portion that was not melted, but
subjected to elevated temperatures for a brief period of time.
• As a result, these portions experience changes in its microstructure and mechanical
properties.
• The extent and magnitude to which the changes occur depend primarily on the type of the
base metal, and the amount and concentration of heat input at the joint.
• The metal in this area is often weaker than both the base metal and the weld metal, and it
is also where residual stresses are found.

ZONE- 3: UNAFFECTED BASE METAL ZONE (WORKPIECE METAL ZONE).

• Base metal zone is the portion around the heat affected zone which remains unaffected, as
it was not heated sufficiently to change its microstructure.

STRUCTURE OF WELDS
• During welding, a small portion at the edges of the workpiece (fusion zone) will be melted
followed by immediate and fast cooling of the molten metal.
• Hence, the microstructure development in this region depends on the solidification
behaviour of the molten metal.
• The solidification process is similar to that in casting and begins with the formation of
columnar (dendritic) grains.
• Figure 7.2 shows the grain structure in a deep weld. Along the fusion line, the growth rate
is low, while the temperature gradient is steepest.
• Grains appear at the line of fusion, and as the weld centerline is approached, the growth rate
increases while the temperature gradient decreases.
• Consequently, the microstructure that develops varies noticeably from the edge to the
centerline of the weld.
• The grains formed are relatively long and parallel to the heat flow.

Page 7
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

• The grain structure and size depend on the type of welding process employed, filler metal
used, and the alloy (metal) being melted.
• Adjacent to the portion of the weld metal, i.e., in the heat affected zone, coarse grains are
formed as a result of overheating.
• The grain growth will cause this portion to be brittle thereby making it the weakest
portion in the welded metal.

Heat Affected Zone

• Welding makes use of intense heat to melt the edges of the workpiece material being joined.
But during welding, the portion of the base metal adjacent to the edges being joined also get
heated to varying temperatures.
• As a result, these portions experience changes in its microstructure and mechanical properties.
The extent and magnitude to which the changes occur depends primarily on the type of base
metal, and the amount and concentration of heat input at the joint
• Thus the heat affected zone can be defined as that portion of the base metal which has not
been melted , but, whose microstructure and mechanical properties have been altered by the
heat of welding.
• The heat affected zone is often the weakest part in the welded metal, because it neither
possesses the properties of the base metal nor that of the solidified weld metal.
• Consequently, heat affected zone forms the origin for most of the failures of the welded joint.
• However, the heat affected zone can be reduced by controlling a few parameters as
described below:
a) Thermal diffusivity
b) Heat input
c) Welding speed

Page 8
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

(a) Thermal diffusivity

• The thermal diffusivity* of the base material plays a large role; if the diffusivity is high, the
material cooling rate will be high, and hence the heat affected zone will be relatively small.
• Low diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger heat affected zone.
• (*Thermal diffusivity - In heat transfer analysis, it is defined as the ratio of thermal
conductivity to volumetric heat capacity.)

(b) Heat input

• Processes like oxy-fuel welding, electroslag welding etc., use high heat input thereby
increasing the size of the heat affected zone,
• whereas processes like laser welding, electron beam welding etc., give a highly concentrated,
limited amount of heat resulting in small heat affected zone.
• Arc welding falls between these two extremes with the individual processes like TIG SAW
etc., varying somewhat in heat input.
(c) Welding speed
• Slow welding speeds (slow heating) causes slow cooling rates and a large heat affected zone.
• Normally welding speed preferred range 5mm/s -7mm/s

SHRINKAGE IN WELDS
• Welding involves highly localized heating of the metals being joined together.
• During welding, when the weld metal is deposited, the base metal is heated, and thus it
expands, but on cooling, the base metal plus the weld metal shrinks.
• It is obvious that the shrinkage of a welded joint is far greater than the expansion.
• This shrinkage in turn can introduce residual stress and distortion* which is a major
problem in welding.
• Shrinkage is the inherent property of any metal, and hence cannot be prevented but can be
controlled.
• There are various methods that can be used at the design stage, or in welding shops to
minimize the effects caused by shrinkage.

Page 9
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

DISTORTION AND RESIDUAL STRESSES

• When a metal is heated, it expands. If this expansion is resisted, deformation will occur.
• After welding/ heating when the metal cools, it contracts. If this contraction is resisted, a
stress is applied.
• If this applied stress causes movement, distortion occurs.
• If this applied stress cause no movement, it is left as residual stress

MINIMIZE THE EFFECTS CAUSED BY SHRINKAGE DURING WELDING PROCESS

There are various methods that can be used at the design stage, or in welding shops to minimize
the effects caused by shrinkage. These include:
a) Do not over weld
b) Use intermittent welding
c) Use as few weld passes as possible
d) Place welds near neutral axis
e) Balance welds around the neutral axis.
f) Balance shrinkage forces with opposing forces.
g) Removing shrinkage forces after welding
h) Minimize welding time

Page 10
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

(a) Do not over weld

• The more metal placed in the joint, the greater is the shrinkage forces.
• Hence, use of right joint preparation avoids excessive gap thereby requiring least amount
of weld metal. Refer figure 7.3(a).

(b) Use intermittent welding

• Another way to minimize weld metal is to use intermittent welding rather than
continuous welds. Refer figure 7.3(b).

(c) Use as few weld passes as possible

• Fewer passes with large electrodes are preferable to a greater number of passes with
small electrodes.
• This helps to minimize shrinkage. Refer figure 7.3(c).

Page 11
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

(d) Place welds near neutral axis

• Attempts regarding placing welds near the neutral axis should be done at the design
stage itself. Refer figure 7.3(d).

(e) Balance welds around the neutral axis.

• This practice, shown in figure 7.3(e) will balance one shrinkage force against another
thereby minimizing distortion of the weldment.

(f) Balance shrinkage forces with opposing forces.

• Pre-bending, as shown in figure 7.3(f) makes use of opposing mechanical forces to
counteract distortion due to the shrinkage effect.
• Clamps, jigs or fixtures may be used to hold the workpiece until welding is completed.

Page 12
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

• When the clamps are released , the plates return to the flat shape allowing the weld to
relieve its shrinkage stresses.
• For heavy weldments, restraining forces are imposed by clamps, jigs or fixtures etc.

(g) Removing shrinkage forces after welding

• One method involves peening or hammering the weld metal with a blunt rounded edge
that will cause the weld bead to stretch and make it thinner, thereby relieving the stress
induced by shrinkage. But, peening may cause damage to the weld metal, and hence has to
be used in special cases.
• Another method is by thermal stress relieving or heat treatment technique, wherein,
controlled heating of the weld metal to elevated temperature is followed by controlled
cooling.
• The residual stresses that would tend to distort the weldments are thus minimized.
(h) Minimize welding time
• It is desirable to finish the weld quickly, before a large volume of the surrounding metal
heats up and expands.
• This helps to minimize the shrinkage effects.

Page 13
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

RESIDUAL STRESSES
• During welding, the metal expands due to heating, and upon cooling, the weld metal
solidifies and shrinks, exerting stresses on the surrounding weld metal.
• In other words, the heating and cooling of the weld metal induces residual stresses in the
material.
• Residual stresses remain in a body (material) and are independent of any applied load

Fig. Residual stress distribution in butt, box and H shapes

EFFECTS OF RESIDUAL STRESSES

a) Residual stresses can result in visible distortion of a component.
b) Residual stresses can reduce the strength of the base material and can lead to catastrophic
failure through cold cracking.
c) Lowers the ductility of the metal.
d) Residual stresses may increase the rate of damage by fatigue, creep or environmental
degradation.

Page 14
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

CONTROL OF RESIDUAL STRESSES

a) Residual stresses are minimized by reducing the amount of weld metal deposited.
 Since residual stresses result from the restrained expansion and contraction that occur
during welding, the lower the weld metal deposited, the lower will be the induced
stress.
 Example use of U groove instead of V-groove, consumes less weld metal
b) Reduce the amount of heat input at the joint.
c) The welding sequence should not be directly from one end to the other, but in segments.

RELIEVING RESIDUAL STRESSES

Two commonly used methods for relieving residual stresses are discussed below:
(a) Peening
(b) Heat treatment

(a) Peening
• Peening or hammering of the weld metal with a blunt rounded edge will cause the weld
bead to stretch and make it thinner, thereby relieving the stresses induced by shrinkage.
• Peening should be employed on those weld metals possessing sufficient ductility to
undergo necessary deformation.
• Also, peening should be employed carefully so that it will not cause damage to the weld
metal.
(b) Heat treatment
• Heat treatment (Example Annealing) is a thermal stress relieving technique that employs
controlled heating of the weld metal usually in a furnace, followed by controlled cooling so
as to relieve the stresses induced in the weld metal.
• The metal is cooled slowly either inside the furnace, or in atmospheric air up to room
temperature.

Page 15
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

WELDING DISTORTION
• Distortion in a weld results from the expansion and contraction of the weld metal and
adjacent base metal during the heating and cooling cycle of the welding process.
• There was a time when the welding operator used to pick up his shield and electrode holder
and commenced welding a job, beginning and finishing at any place.
• If the completed work became distorted, it was taken for granted that it could not be avoid
& The impression that all welding caused distortion, so why worry.
• This was purely ignorance, because distortion can be controlled and minimized by
approaching the job in the correct manner.
• Today, welded work is being completed with minimum or no distortion.
• For example, large machine beds are being fabricated out of rolled steel sections and plates
and welded within a tolerance of 1.5 mm.
• The minimization of distortion is one of the most important factors in the production of a
successful and economical weldment, or in the repair of a broken part.
• Uncontrolled or excessive distortion increases the job cost due to the expense of
rectification or may render the job useless.

Page 16
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

THE CONTROL OF WELDING DISTORTION

• If distortion is to be prevented or minimized in a weldment, strategies must be used in the
design and in shop practices to overcome the effects of the heating and cooling cycles.
Shrinkage or contraction cannot be prevented, but it can be controlled.
There are various practical ways for minimizing the distortion caused by contraction:
1. Keep the contraction forces as low as possible
2. Use as few weld passes as possible
3. Place welds near the neutral axis
4. Balance welds around the neutral axis
5. Use of backstep welding or skip method of welding
6. Make shrinkage forces work in the desired direction
7. Balance shrinkage (contraction) forces with opposing forces
8. Welding sequences
9. Removal of shrinkage forces during or after welding
10. Reduce the welding time
11. Breakdown large weldments

(REFER: MINIMIZE THE EFFECTS CAUSED BY SHRINKAGE DURING WELDING

PROCESS Page 10-13)

Fig. Welds of counteracting one another

Page 17
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Fig. Back step welding

WELDING DEFECTS
• Like casting, welding also involves various parameters viz., type of workpiece material ,
electrode material, power source, heat input, cooling rate, welding speed etc.
• Loss of control in any of these parameters may cause defects in the weld metal. Most of
the defects encountered in welding are due to improper welding procedure.
Some of the common defects and their causes are discussed below:
a) Crack
b) Distortion
c) Incomplete penetration
d) Inclusions
e) Porosity
f) Under cut
g) Lack of fusion or overlapping

a) Crack
• Crack is a small sharp split that occurs in the base metal, weld metal or at the interface
between the two and are visible to the naked eye.
• Crack is a serious defect because they are seen as stress raisers capable to grow until
fracture takes place. Refer figure 7.5(a).

Page 18
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Causes
• Incorrect technique for ending the weld.
• Poor ductility of the base metal.
• Combination of joint design and welding techniques, which results in a weld bead with an
excessively concave surface that promote cracking.
• Low welding currents.
• Restrained joints -Joint members are not free to expand and contract when subjected to
heat

b) Distortion
• Distortion is the change in the original shape of the two workpieces after welding. Refer
figure 7.5(b).
Causes
• High residual stresses due to shrinkage.
• High heat input.
• More number of passes.
• Slow welding speeds

c) Incomplete penetration
• When the molten metal fails to penetrate the entire thickness of the base plate, it forms a
bridge across the two plates causing a defect in the weld. Refer figure 7.5(c).
Causes
• Improper joint design.
• Low welding current.
• Slow arc travel speed.
• Incorrect torch angle.

Page 19
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

d) Inclusions
• Inclusions are usually non-metallic particles such as slag or any foreign material that does
not get a chance to float on the surface of the solidifying metal and thus gets trapped
inside the same. Refer figure 7.5(d).
Causes
• Use of large electrodes in a narrow groove.
• Low currents that are insufficient for melting metal.
• High viscosity of the weld metal.

e) Porosity
• Porosities are small voids or cavities formed when gases are trapped in the solidifying
weld metal.
• Porosity can occur either under or on the weld surface. Refer figure 7.5(e).
Causes
• Atmospheric contamination caused due to inadequate shielding gas.
• Excessively oxidized workpiece surfaces.
• Use of wet electrodes.
• Excessive gases released during welding.

Page 20
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

e) Under cut
• Under cut the worst of all defects is the term given to a sharp narrow groove along the toe
of the weld due to the scouring action of the arc removing the metal and not replacing it
with the weld metal. Refer figure 7.5(f).
Causes
• High voltage and welding currents.
• High arc travel speed.
• Incorrect electrode manipulation.
• Arc gap too long.

e) Lack of fusion or overlapping

• Lack of fusion is the failure of a welding process to fuse together layers of the base metal.
• The weld metal just rolls over the workpiece surfaces. Refer figure 7.5(g).
Causes
• Low welding currents that are insufficient to raise the temperature of the workpiece metal
to melting point.
• Excessive surface impurities of workpiece.
• Improper electrode type/size.
• Wrong polarity.
• Low arc travel speed.

Page 21
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

SOLDERING
Principle
• Soldering is a group of joining process used for joining similar or dissimilar metals by
means of a filler metal whose melting temperature is below 450°C.
• The filler metal usually called solder is an alloy of tin and lead in various proportions.
• The flow of molten solder into the gap between the two workpieces is by the capillary
action*.
• The solder cools down and solidifies forming a joint. The base metals are not fused in the
process.
• [* During soldering, the molten solder is introduced at the joint. A pulling force draws
the molten filler between the surfaces of the parent (base) metals. This is known as
capillary action.]

Types of Solder
A solder is an alloy, which melts at low temperatures.
There are two types of solder:
• (i) Soft solder
• (ii) Hard solder

(i) Soft solder

• These are alloys of tin and lead. Example Lead = 37% and Tin= 63 %.
• They have low melting points ranging from 150°C - 190°C
• A very small amount of antimony, usually less than 0.5% is sometimes added to increase
the mechanical properties of the solder.
• But, its addition should be controlled, otherwise which might impair soldering
characteristics.
• Soft solders are used in those applications, where the joint is not subjected to heavy loads
and high temperatures.
(ii) Hard solder
• Silver alloyed with lead (Example lead = 97.5 % and silver = 2.5%) or
• silver alloyed with copper and zinc (Example Silver = 50%, copper 34%, and zinc=16%)
are called hard solder.
• Melting point of hard solder ranges from 300 - 600°C.
• Used to make strong joints that can resist high temperatures.

Page 22
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

SURFACE CLEANING AND SOLDERING FLUX

• Capillary action (wettability) is achieved by proper surface preparation and use of suitable
flux for wetting and cleaning the surfaces to be bonded.
• Surface preparation includes thoroughly cleaning the workpiece surfaces to remove
contaminants like oil, rust, scale, paint, and other impurities either mechanically (wire
brushing, abrasion techniques etc.) or chemically (soaking, cleaning or acid etching ). Once
the contaminants are removed, the next step is to select a suitable flux.
• A soldering flux is a substance, either in a liquid or semi-liquid state that melts during the
preheating stage and spreads over the joint area, wetting it and protecting the surface from
oxidation. The flux also cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.
• Different types of flux include rosin-alcohol, zinc chloride, aniline phosphate etc. The flux
may be applied onto the metal surface by brushing, dipping, spraying, or by any other
methods.

TYPES OF SOLDERING
• Soldering methods are classified based on the mode of heat application.
• The heat applied should be such that it should melt the solder and permit the molten solder
to flow quickly into the joint.
Various soldering methods include:
1) Soldering iron method
2) Torch method
3) Induction method
4) Wave method
5) Resistance method
6) Ultrasonic method etc.

1) Soldering iron method

• It is the most common and widely used method of soldering. The tool used in this method
is a soldering iron with a copper coated tip (due to good conductor of heat), which may
be heated electrically or by oil/gas flame.
• The tip of the soldering iron stores and conducts heat from the heat source to the
components being joined. Figure 8.1 shows the soldering process.

Page 23
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

• The surface of the workpieces are cleaned thoroughly to remove any contaminants. Flux
is applied at the joint. The soldering iron is heated to a suitable temperature and a little
solder is melted at the tip of the soldering iron.
• The tip of the soldering iron, called the bit, is brought at the joint and the molten solder is
deposited. The molten solder flows into the joint by the capillary force.
• The solder cools down and solidifies forming a joint. The joint is cleaned to remove flux
residues in order to prevent corrosion.
• Soldering irons come with various ratings from 15W to over 100W.
• The advantage of using high Wattage iron is that, heat can flow quickly into the joint , so
it can be rapidly made.
• Small irons are used to make joints for small electronic components only, as they might
get damaged due to excess heat.

2) Torch method
• Torch soldering utilizes the heat of a flame issued from a oxy-fuel gas torch.
• The torch mixes a fuel gas like acetylene with oxygen in suitable proportions, and burn
the mixture at its tip.
• The flame generated at the torch tip is directed at the workpieces with a flux applied on
their surfaces.
• When the workpieces are heated to a suitable temperature, the solder is fed into the joint
region to melt and flow into the gap between the two workpieces.
• The solder cools down and solidifies forming a joint.

3) Wave method
• Wave soldering is a very popular approach for soldering through-hole components on
printed circuit boards. This method uses a tank full with a molten solder.
• The solder is pumped, and its flow forms a wave of a predetermined height. The printed
circuit boards pass over the wave touching it with their lower sides. As shown in figure
below

Page 24
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Advantages of Soldering
• Low power requirements.
• Low temperature process. Hence, no thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint
• Dissimilar parts can be easily joined.
• Thin parts can be joined.

Disadvantages of Soldering
• Flux residues should be removed after soldering, otherwise which causes corrosion.
• Thick parts cannot be efficiently joined.
• Soldered joints cannot be used in high temperature applications.
• Strength of joint is low.

BRAZING
Principle
• Brazing is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by means of a filler metal whose
Melting temperature is above 450°C, but below the melting point of the base metal The
filler metal called spelter is a non-ferrous metal or alloy.
• Copper and copper alloys, silver and silver alloys, and aluminum alloys are the most
commonly used filler metals.
• The flow of molten filler material into the gap between the two workpieces is driven by the
capillary force. The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a strong joint. The
base metals are not fused in the process.

Page 25
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Flux used in Brazing

• Flux performs its usual function as in soldering, i.e., it melts during the preheating stage
and spreads over the joint area, wetting it and protecting the surface from oxidation. It also
cleans the surface, dissolving the metal oxides.
• The flux used in brazing is available in powder, liquid, and paste form. One method of
applying the flux in powdered form is to dip the heated end of the filler rod into the
container of the powdered flux, and allowing the flux to stick to the filler rod.
• Another method is to heat the base metal slightly and sprinkle the powdered flux over the
joint, allowing the flux to partly melt and stick to the base metal. Sometimes, it is desirable
to mix powdered flux with clean water (distilled water) to form a paste.
• Flux in either the paste or liquid form can be applied with a brush to the joint. Better results
occur when the filler metal is also given a coat.
• The most common type of flux used is borax, or a mixture of borax with other chemicals.
Some of the commercial fluxes contain small amounts of phosphorous and halogen salts of
iodine, bromine, fluorine, chlorine, or astatine.
• When a prepared flux is not available, a mixture of 12 parts of borax and 1 part boric acid
may be used.

TYPES OF BRAZING
• Brazing is similar to soldering, except, the difference is in the melting point of the filler
alloy.
• Brazing methods are classified based on the mode of application of heat. They are:
a) Torch brazing
b) Furnace brazing
c) Dip brazing
d) Resistance brazing
e) Induction brazing
f) Vacuum brazing etc.

Page 26
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

a) Torch brazing
• Torch brazing is a brazing process in which the two metals are joined by the heat
obtained with a gas flame, and by using a non-ferrous filler metal having a melting
temperature of above 450°C, but below the melting temperature of the base metal. Figure
8.2 shows the brazing process.
• In operation, the surfaces to be joined are cleaned thoroughly in order to remove dirt.
grease and other oxides.
• After cleaning, flux is applied at the joint. The base metals are broadly heated by an oxy-
acetylene welding torch as shown in figure 8.2(a). The filler metal is then placed at the
joint and is heated with a carburizing flame.
• The filler metal melts and flows through the joint by capillary action. Refer figure 8.2(b).
The workpiece is allowed to cool for sometime.
• The joint is cleaned to remove flux residues in order to prevent corrosion .

b) Furnace brazing
• Furnace brazing is a brazing process in which bonding is produced by the furnace heat
and a non- ferrous filler metal having a melting temperature of above 450°C, but below
the melting temperature of the base metal. The filler metal is distributed in the joint by
capillary attraction.
• Furnace brazing is suited for fabricating complete brazements, and does not require a
highly skilled operator.
• Pre-fluxed or pre-cleaned parts with filler metal pre-placed at the joints are heated in
furnaces.
• Brazing can be done in an air furnace with a flux, though a protective atmosphere usually
is needed.
• The type of atmosphere required depends on the materials being brazed and the filler
metals being used.
• Base metals with readily reducible oxides can be brazed in an atmosphere of combusted
natural gas or cracked ammonia.

Page 27
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

• Dry hydrogen, a powerful reducing agent can be used for brazing most stainless steels
and many nickel, cobalt and iron-base alloys.

c) Dip brazing
• Dip brazing is one of the oldest brazing processes.
• The materials to be joined are immersed in a bath of hot liquid, which is either a molten
flux or a molten filler metal that usually contains layer of flux to prevent oxidation.
• Dip brazing is used on aluminum assemblies, since the temperature of the molten bath can
be controlled.

• In aluminum dip brazing the filler metal is basically 88% aluminum and 12% silicon.
• The parts to be brazed after being chemically cleaned, are assembled with the filler metal
preplaced as near the joints as possible.
• The assembly is then preheated in an air furnace to 550°C to ensure uniform temperature
of dissimilar masses in the assembly.
• The part is then immersed in a molten salt bath. These salts are actually aluminum brazing
flux.
• The bath is maintained at about 590-600°C in a salt bath furnace.
• As the assembly is immersed or dipped, the molten flux comes in contact with all internal
and external surfaces simultaneously. This liquid heat is extremely fast and uniform.

Page 28
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

• Since the bath is a flux, complete bonding on oxide-free surfaces assures unusually high
quality joints. The time of immersion is determined by the mass to be heated, but never
exceeds above two minutes in duration.
d) Resistance brazing
• Resistance brazing is suited for special joints where heat must be restricted to a localized
area without overheating surrounding parts.
• The heat required for brazing is produced due to the electrical resistance offered by the
joint members to the flow of current through them.

e) Induction brazing
• Induction brazing utilizes alternating electromagnetic field of high frequency for heating
the workpieces together with the flux and the filler metal placed in the joint region.
• The technique is used only in those applications, where the entire assembly would be
adversely affected by heat.
• Since the workpieces are heated selectively by the coil, induction brazing reduces
unwanted part distortion.
• Induction heating brings the joint rapidly to brazing temperature.

Page 29
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

ADVANTAGES OF BRAZING
• Much heat is not involved in the process. Hence, low thermal distortions and residual
stresses in the joints.
• Easily automated process.
• Dissimilar parts can be joined.

DISADVANTAGES OF BRAZING
• Flux residues must be removed after brazing, otherwise which may cause corrosion.
• Large and thick sections cannot be brazed efficiently.
• Relatively expensive filler materials.

COMPARISON BETWEEN BRAZING AND SOLDERING

Table shows a brief comparison between brazing and soldering.

Page 30
 Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRAZING, SOLDERING AND WELDING

Brazing Soldering Welding

In brazing filler metal is having the Soldering using the filler Welding using the filler metal having the
melting point greater than 450ºC metal having the melting melting point nearly equal to the base Metal
point less than 450ºC
Joints takes place due to capillary Capillary action is also No capillary action is present. Joint takes
action between the base metal and the present in soldering between place due to fusion.
filler metal the base metal and filler
metal.
Base metal does not melt Base metal does not melt. Base metal melts in welding

Filler metal is having the melting point Filler metal is having the In welding filler metal is not having the
less than the base metal. melting point less than the melting point less than the base metal.
base metal.
Filler metal is uniformly distributed Filler metal is uniformly Filler metal melts and gets mixed with the
because of capillary action. distributed because of base metal
capillary action

Joints are stronger than soldering but Joints are weaker than Joints are stronger as compared to brazing,
weaker than welding Brazing soldering
It was uses filler metal which contains It uses the filler metal which It uses the filler metal mostly having the
copper and zinc etc. contains lead and tin. same composition as that of base metal.

ADHESIVE BONDING
• “Adhesive bonding is a material joining process in which an adhesive, placed between
the adherend surfaces, solidifies to produce an adhesive bond.”
• Adhesively bonded joints are increasing alternatives to mechanical joints (bolted, riveted or
welded) in engineering applications and provide many advantages over conventional
mechanical fasteners.
• Among these advantages are lower structural weight, lower fabrication cost and improved
damage tolerance.

Page 31
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

• The uses of adhesive bonding in the engineering and repairing industry brings considerable
savings of time and cost, reduces stress concentration, are able to join distinct materials, high
corrosion and fatigue resistance, and good damping characteristics are the advantages of
bonded joints.
• The application of adhesively bonded joints in structural components made of fiber
reinforced composites has increased significantly in recent years. The traditional fasteners
usually result in the cutting of fibers and delamination; hence the introduction of stress
concentrations, which reduce structural integrity

Types of Adhesive Bonded Joints

Page 32
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Figure 1.1 Types of adhesive bonded joints

• Generally joint should be designed so that basic stress shear or tensile with cleavage and peel
minimized. All of the bonded area should equally share the load.
• Adhesive bonding may originate in a variety of ways. It may be the result of mechanical
interlocking of the adhesive with the bonded surface in different ways.
• Common types of adhesive bonded joints used in mechanical designs are as shown in Figure
1.1.
• These types of joints are commonly found in assemblies bonded with adhesives. A lap joint,
also called overlap joint, is formed by placing one substrate over another.
• A scarf joint is very similar to a lap joint, but one substrate wraps or molds around the other
substrate.
• A bevel joint is an angular butt joint where the substrates to be bonded are cut at an angle to
increase bonding area.
• A butt joint is formed by bonding two objects end to end. Finally, a strap joint combines a
butt joint with one or two overlap joints.
• The lap joint load bearing can be improved in a number of ways. By simply increasing the
joint’s width, the bond area at the ends of the joint is increased, strengthening the adhesive
bond.
• The joint can be redesigned to become a single or double lap shear with a larger bond face
for increased strength. In all cases, peel and cleavage forces on the end of the joint are
reduced

Page 33
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Types of Stresses in Adhesive Bonds

There are several types of stresses commonly found in adhesive bonds which include:
 Tensile
 Shear
 Compressive
 Peel
 Cleavage

Fig. 1.2 Types of stresses in adhesive bonds

Tensile Stress
• Tensile stress is exerted equally over the entire joint straight and away from the adhesive
bond. Tensile stress also tends to elongate an object.

Page 34
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Shear Stress
• Shear stress is across the adhesive bond. The bonded materials are being forced to slide
over each other.
Compressive Stress
• When a bond experiences compressive stress, the joint stress distribution is illustrated as a
straight line. The stress is evenly distributed across the entire bond.
Peel Stress
• A peel stress occurs when a flexible substrate is being lifted or peeled from the other
substrate. The stress is concentrated at one end.
Cleavage Stress
• A cleavage stress occurs when rigid substrates are being opened at one end. Here also the
stress is concentrated at one end.

Types of Adhesive failure

• Adhesive bonded joints, whether made using pressure-sensitive tapes or liquid adhesives,
can experience failure. Oftentimes, the comments we hear are, “It’s not sticking,” “It’s
coming off,” or “It’s just not working.”
• Fortunately, there is a method for understanding adhesive failures, and that knowledge can
lead to an effective solution. Types of Adhesive failure is given below
1. Adhesion Failure
2. Cohesion Failure
3. Adhesion / Cohesion Failure
4. Substrate Failure

Fig. Types of Adhesive failure

Page 35
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

1. Adhesion Failure
• Adhesive failure occurs when the adhesive system debonds or separates prematurely from
one of the surfaces or substrates.
• In some cases, you want adhesive failure; particularly if you want the tape to peel cleanly
away from the substrate.
• In most cases, however, the reality is a bit more complicated. Sometimes, the adhesive
selected incapable of developing a strong bond, due to its chemistry and limited ability to
wet out a surface with a lower surface energy than the adhesive can handle.
• Other times, there can be contamination left on the surface, preventing the adhesive from
bonding properly. Cleaning and proper surface preparation (including primers in some
cases) can resolve this issue. Environmental factors, like temperature, water, chemical
contact and radiation are common culprits that can also deteriorate the adhesive bond to a
substrate. Still, other times, there are migratory species in substrates.
• Even the adhesive itself, such as plasticizers or other additives, can migrate to the substrate
interface and disrupt the bond.
• Lastly, the release liners that protect a tape product can sometimes leave behind uncured
silicone or fluorocarbons residue that can inhibit the formation of a good bond.
2. Cohesive Failure
• This is the breakdown of the intermolecular forces within the adhesive itself, and its
occurrences in the bulk layer of the adhesive.
• This breakdown can be caused by shear, tensile or cleavage forces that are acting on the
bond line.
• Often, there are the environmental factors already listed that are acting simultaneously
with these forces that exacerbate the effects and cause a failure.
3. Adhesion / Cohesion Failure
• Just as the name implies, mixed mode typically exhibits both adhesive and cohesive
failures.
• This failure is not uncommon when plasticizer migration is involved, particularly after
exposure to elevated temperatures.
4. Substrate Failure
• This is not the only failure where the adhesive is not the culprit. The implication is that
the strength of the adhesive bond exceeds the strength of the substrate itself.
• In some foam materials, you can observe this type of failure and, frankly, it is not always
a bad thing

ADVANTAGES OF ADHESIVE BONDING

In many applications, adhesive bonding is used to replace traditional assembly techniques like
bolting, riveting, welding and soldering.
The advantages of adhesive bonding are;
• Reduced weight, fatigue resistance, no stress concentration, leak -proof joints, lighter
structures and clean-looking joints.
• Ability to join thick or thin materials and dissimilar materials.
• Uniform stress distribution with increased life.

Page 36
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

• The bond is continuous which results in a more uniform distribution of stresses over the
bonded area.
• Most adhesives have good mechanical damping properties.
• The joint is waterproof and forms a seal.
• Adhesive bonding is a simple joining technique.
• Enhanced attenuation and absorption capabilities.
• Fast and cheap joining technique.
• Provides design convenience and flexibility.

DISADVANTAGES OF ADHESIVE BONDING

• The strength of the joint is often low in comparison with other joining techniques.
• Adhesives mostly perform poor under peel and cleavage stresses.
• Strength of the joint is attained only after a curing period.
• Not suitable for joints subject to alternate loading.
• It is difficult to separate the bonded components in a nondestructive way.
• Difficult to inspect the quality of bonded joints.
• Precautions must be taken to avoid health hazards by solvents and other chemicals.
• Limited heat resistance and temperature limitation of 260˚C.
• Tendency to creep under sustained load, i.e, Low creep strength.
• Difficult to assess the durability of the bonded structure.
• Surface pre-treatment is usually required.
• Change in the mechanical properties of the adhesive with time (ageing)
• Long mixing and curing time may be required.

APPLICATIONS OF ADHESIVE BONDING

Aircraft and Aerospace Industry
• Adhesive bonded joints in the aircraft and aerospace industries primarily because they offer
a low-weight, fatigue-resistant, and aerodynamically sound method of assembly.
• Some of them are cowl panels, strut fairing, flaps, wing trailing edge cover panels, tear
straps, lap splice, spoiler and laminated edge cover panels.
Automotive Industry
• Some of the applications of automotive industries are side molding, wheel covering
emblems, front and rear taillight assemblies, side-view mirrors and ornamentation.
Electrical and Electronic Industry
• Adhesives are used in the electrical and electronic industries in a variety of different
ways, from holding micro components in place on a circuit board to bonding coils in
large power transformers.
• Assembly of motors and relays, bonding of nonstructural insulators, assembly of
magnetic recording heads, sealing stainless steel shells on submerged pump motors,
bonding stranded wire ends, bonding thermal and electronic sealing capacitor cases,
bonding embossed or die-stamped printed-circuit boards, bonding copper foil to dielectric
material (laminates or flexible film), fabrication of electronic coils and adhesives for
static dissipative, interconnecting, felt and rubber gasketing in appliances and insulators
shielding applications.

Page 37
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Construction Industry
• Polymeric materials such as adhesives, sealants, and composites have been used
considerably in the last several decades for the construction, repair, and rehabilitation of
our transportation infrastructures.
• Some of them are airfield runways and aprons, highway and bridge joints, bridge
abutments, concrete lined canals, traverse and longitudinal joints, multilevel parking lot
joints, underground tunnel construction joints and sections, attaching metal studs in
concrete, bonding pancake lighting systems on airport runways, bonding traffic markers
on roadways and road dividers.
Other fields of applications are
• Medical industry, offshore and shipbuilding construction, wood and plastic industry,
textile industry and package materials.

ADVANCE WELDING PROCESSES:

RESISTANCE WELDING
• Resistance welding is a welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat
generated due to the resistance offered by the workpieces to the flow of electric current
through them.
• A certain amount of pressure is applied to the workpieces to complete the weld.

Page 38
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

PRINCIPLE OF RESISTANCE WELDING

• When electric current flows through a material, it offers resistance to the flow of current
resulting in heating of the material. The heat generated is used to make a weld between
two or more workpieces. Resistance welding is based on the above principle.
• The heat generated in the material is given by Joules law:

Where,
H = heat generated in the material in Joules,
I = Flow of current through the material in Amperes,
R = Electrical resistance of the material in Ohms,
T = time for which the electric current flows through the material in seconds,
k = a constant, usually < 1 to account for heat loss through conduction and radiation.

• High current is the primary requirement to produce a resistance weld.

• A step-down transformer that converts the high voltage, low current power line to a high
current (upto 100,000 A) and low voltage (0.5 - 10V) power is used for the purpose.

CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTANCE WELDING

a) Spot welding
b) Seam welding
c) Flash butt welding
d) Projection welding
e) Percussion welding

Page 39
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING

• Spot welding is a resistance welding process in which the two overlapping workpieces
held under pressure are joined together at one spot (location), Hence the name spot
welding.
• Figure 6.1(a) shows the details of a resistance spot welding process

Description and Operation:

a) The two workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other oxides either
chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
b) The workpieces are then overlapped and placed firmly between two water cooled
cylindrically shaped copper alloy electrodes, which in turn are connected to a secondary
circuit of a step down transformer. The electrodes carry high currents, and also transmit the
force/pressure to the workpieces to complete the weld.

Page 40
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

c) In operation, the welding current is switched ON. As the current passes through the
electrodes, to the workpiece, heat is generated in the air gap at the point of contact of the
two workpieces.
d) The heat at this contact point is maximum, with temperature varying from 815 - 930°C, and
as result melts the workpieces locally at the contact point to form a spot weld.
e) In order to obtain a strong bond, external pressure is applied to the workpiece, through the
electrode, by means of a piston-cylinder arrangement. The current is switched OFF.
In some cases, external pressure is not required, and the holding pressure of the two
electrodes is just sufficient to create a good joint.
f) Heat dissipates throughout the workpiece, which cools the spot weld causing the metal to
solidify. The pressure is released and the workpiece is moved to the next location to make
another spot weld.
In some spot-welding machines, the workpiece remains stationary while the electrode
moves to the next location to make a weld.

Note:
• The duration of current flow varies from fraction of a second to a few seconds. Both the
current and the duration of current flow form the important parameters in spot welding
and depend on the thickness and type of the workpieces being welded.
• The shape and the surface condition of the electrode is another parameter in obtaining a
good weld. figure 6.1(b) shows the different types of electrode tip used for spot welding.
Advantages:
• Efficient energy use.
• Limited workpiece deformation. Also, workpiece is not melted to a larger extent. Heat is
concentrated only at the spot to be welded.
• High production rates.
• Suitable for automation.
• Filler metals are not required. Hence, no associated fumes or gas. This results in clean
weld.
Disadvantages:
• Weld strength is significantly lower when compared to other processes. This makes the
process suitable for only certain applications.
• Silver and copper are difficult to weld because of their high thermal conductivity.
Applications
• Spot welding is extensively used for welding steels, and especially in the automotive
industry for cars that require several hundred spot welds made by industrial robots.

Page 41
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

• Seam welding is a resistance welding process in which the overlapping workpieces held
under pressure are joined together by a series of spot welds made progressively along the
joint utilizing the heat generated by the electrical resistance of the work pieces.
• Seam welding is similar to spot welding process, but , instead of pointed electrodes,
mechanically driven wheel shaped electrodes are used to produce a continuous weld .
Figure 6.2 shows the two principal views of a seam welding process :

Description and Operation

a) The two workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other oxides either
chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
b) The workpieces are overlapped and placed firmly between two wheel shaped copper alloy
electrodes, which in turn are connected to a secondary circuit of a step-down
transform er.
c) The electrode wheels are driven mechanically in opposite directions with the workpieces
passing between them, while at the same time the pressure* on the joint is maintained .
d) Welding current is passed in series of pulses at proper intervals through the bearing of the
roller electrode wheels (not shown in figure).
e) As the current passes through the electrodes, to the workpiece , heat is generated in the air
gap at the point of contact (spot) of the two workpieces. This heat melts the workpieces
locally at the contact point to form a spot weld.
f) Under the pressure of continuously rotating electrodes and the current flowing through
them, a series of overlapping spot welds are made progressively along the joint as shown
in the figure.
g) The weld area is flooded with water to keep the electrode wheels cool during welding.

Page 42
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Advantages
• A continuous overlapping weld produced by the process makes it suitable for joining
liquid or gas tight containers and vessels.
• Efficient energy use.
• Filler metals are not required. Hence, no associated fumes or gases. This results in clean
welds.
Disadvantages
• Requires complex control system to regulate the travel speed of electrodes as well as the
sequence of current to provide satisfactory overlapping welds. The welding speed, spots
per inch and the timing schedule are all dependent on each other.
• Difficult to weld metals having thickness greater than 3 mm.
Applications
• Used to fabricate liquid or gas tight sheet metal vessels such as gasoline tanks,
automobile mufflers, and heat exchangers.

RESISTANCE BUTT WELDING

• Resistance butt welding or upset* welding is a resistance welding process in which the
two parts to be joined are heated to elevated temperatures and forged (by applying the
desired pressure) together at that temperature.
• Figure 6.3(a) shows the equipment for resistance butt welding process.

Page 43
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Description and Operation

a) The machine used for butt welding consists of two clamps mounted on a horizontal
slide. The clamps are made from a conducting material, usually copper alloy, which
serve to carry high currents from a step-down transformer.
b) The two workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other oxides
either chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
c) The workpieces are clamped rigidly on the welding machine. By applying external
force, the workpiece in the movable clamp is brought in tight contact with the surface of
the workpiece in the fixed clamp.
d) High amperage current is then passed through the joint which heats the abutting
surfaces.
e) When the workpieces reaches a temperature of about 870-930°C, pressure is increased
to give a forging squeeze.
f) Upsetting takes place while the current is flowing, and continues until the current is
switched OFF.
g) When the metal has cooled, the pressure is released and the weld is completed .
h) The weld joint obtained will be bulged and round due to the squeezing action of the
softened metal. Refer figure 6.3(b). This unwanted material can be removed later by
machining process.
Advantages
• Joint obtained is clean, since filler metal is not used in this process.
• Produces defect free joint. Oxides, scales and other impurities are thrown out of the
weld joint due to the high pressure applied at elevated temperatures.
Disadvantages
• The process is suitable for parts with similar cross-sectional area.
• Joint preparation is a must for proper heating of workpieces to take place.
Applications
• Used for producing joints in long tubes and pipe.

Page 44
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

PROJECTION WELDING
• Projection welding is a resistance welding process in which the workpieces are joined by
the heat generated due to the resistance of the workpieces to the flow of electric current
through them.
• The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by projections, embossments
or intersections.
• Figure 6.4(a) shows the resistance projection welding process.

Page 45
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Description and Operation

a) The process uses two flat, large cylindrically shaped water cooled copper electrodes in
which one electrode is fixed, while the other to which the pressure is applied is
movable. The electrodes are connected to a step-down transformer that provides the
required electric current for heating.
b) One of the workpieces contains small projections or embossment (similar to a pimple on
a human face) made at a particular location where the joint is to be made.
c) The workpieces are cleaned to remove dust, scale and other oxides either chemically or
mechanically to obtain a sound weld
d) The workpieces are then placed between the two electrodes and held firmly under
external pressure.
e) When the welding current is made to pass through the electrodes, to the workpieces,
maximum heat is generated at the point of contact of the two workpieces , i.e., at the
projections.
f) This heat softens and melts the projections causing it to collapse under the external
pressure of the electrode thereby forming a spot weld. Refer figure 6.4(b).
g) The current is switched OFF and the pressure on the workpiece is removed.

Advantages
• More than one spot weld can be made in a single operation.
• Welding current and pressure required is less.
• Suitable for automation.
• Filler metals are not used. Hence, clean weld joints are obtained
Disadvantages
• Projections cannot be made in thin workpieces.
• Thin workpieces cannot withstand the electrode pressure.
• Equipment is costlier
Applications
• A very common use of projection welding is the use of special nuts that have projections
on the portion of the part to be welded to the assembly.
• Also, the process is used for welding parts of refrigerator, condensers, refrigerator racks,
grills etc.

Page 46
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

FRICTION WELDING
• Friction welding is a solid state welding process in which the workpieces are joined by
the heat generated due to the friction at the interface of the two workpieces.
• Figure 6.5(a) shows the arrangement for friction welding process.

Page 47
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

Description and Operation

a) The machine for friction welding is similar to a lathe, which consists of a chuck held in the
spindle of the headstock. The chuck holds one of the workpieces and rotates it at high
speeds (around 3000 rpm).
b) The other workpiece is held stationary, and in a movable clamp so that it can be brought in
contact with the rotating workpiece.
c) The workpieces to be joined are prepared to have a smooth square cut surfaces .
d) In operation, the stationary workpiece is slowly brought in contact with the rotating
workpiece under an axial force. Refer figure 6.5(b). As the workpieces come in contact
with each other, friction is generated at the contact surface resulting in heating of the
workpieces.
e) The axial pressure to the stationary workpiece is increased until the friction between the
surfaces raises the heat to the welding temperature.
f) At this moment, the rotation of the workpiece is stopped, but the pressure (force) on the
stationary workpiece is maintained, or in some cases increased to complete the weld. Refer
figure 6.5(c).
g) The weld joint obtained will be bulged due to the squeezing action of the softened metal.
The excess metal can be removed by machining.
Advantages
• Process is simple
• Low power requirements.
• Edge preparation is not required. The impurities are thrown away by the friction generated
between the two workpieces.
• No filler metal. Hence the joint obtained is clean.
• Dissimilar metals can be easily welded.
Disadvantages
• The process is restricted to tubular parts and butt welds .

FRICTION STIR WELDING (FSW)

• Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process that requires no melting of the
materials during the process.
• As shown in Figure, a non-consumable rotating tool with a specially designed pin and
shoulder is inserted into the abutting edges of plates to be joined and traversed along the
joint line .
• The heat generated by the rotational and transverse movements of the tool softens the
materials and stirs it due to the friction and the plastic deformation.
• It is primarily used on wrought or extruded aluminium and particularly for structures
which need very high weld strength.
• FSW is capable of joining aluminium alloys, copper alloys, titanium alloys, mild steel,
stainless steel and magnesium alloys.

Page 48
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

RS – Retreating side
AS – Advancing side

Fig. Friction stir welding (FSW)

Working Principle of Friction Stir Welding

• The FSW is performed with a rotating cylindrical tool which has profiled pin (also known a
probe) having diameter smaller than the diameter of shoulder.
• During welding the tool is fed into a butt joint between two clamped workpieces, until the
probe pierces into the workpiece and shoulder touches the surface of the workpieces.
• The probe is slightly shorter than the weld depth required, with the tool shoulder riding atop
the work surface.
• After a short dwell time, the tool is moved forward along the joint line at the pre-set welding
speed.
• Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant tool and the work pieces.
• This heat, along with that generated by the mechanical mixing process and the adiabatic
heat within the material, cause the stirred materials to soften without melting.
• As the tool is moved forward, a special profile on the probe forces plasticised material from
the leading face to the rear, where the high forces assist in a forged consolidation of the
weld.

Page 49
Manufacturing Process (BME302)

Module-5

• This process of the tool traversing along the weld line in a plasticised tubular shaft of metal
results in severe solid-state deformation involving dynamic recrystallization of the base
material

Advantages of Friction Stir Welding

Friction stir welding offers many advantages over fusion-based joining processes, especially
when joining aluminium alloys:
• Remaining in the solid-state, avoiding many of the defects associated with melting and
solidification during fusion welding, such as pores and solidification cracks.
• The peak temperatures are lower, allowing a reduction in distortion and shrinkage.
• Being able to join many ‘non-weldable’ aluminium alloys, namely from the 2xxx and 7xxx
series.
• Producing superior mechanical properties.
• No filler metals, flux or shielding gas are required. No fumes, porosity or spatter are
generated.
• Fully automated, making the process highly repeatable.
• Energy efficient.
• Does not require special edge preparation in most applications.

Disadvantages of Friction Stir Welding

• Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn.
• Large down forces required with heavy-duty clamping necessary to hold the plates together.
• Less flexible than manual and arc processes (difficulties with thickness variations and non-
linear welds).
• Often slower traverse rate than some fusion welding techniques, although this may be offset
if fewer welding passes are required.

REFERENCES:
1. Ghosh, A. and Mallik, A. K., (2017), Manufacturing Science, East-West Press.
2. Parmar R. S., (2007), Welding Processes and Technology, Khanna Publishers.
3. Little R. L. – ‘Welding and Welding Technology’ – Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi – 1989
4. Grong O. – ‘Metallurgical Modelling of Welding’ – The Institute of Materials – 1997 –
2nd Edition
5. Kou S. – ‘Welding Metallurgy’ – John Wiley Publications, New York – 2003 – 2nd
Edition.
6. Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid – ‘Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology’ – Prentice Hall – 2013 – 7th Edition
7. Principles of foundry technology, 4th edition, P L Jain, Tata McGraw Hill, 2006.
8. Advanced Welding Processes technology and process control, John Norrish, Wood Head
Publishing, 2006.
9. A text book of “Manufacturing Process-I” by Kestoor Praveen, Suggi Publishing

Page 50