WELDABILITY OF MATERIALS - CARBON

MANGANESE AND LOW ALLOY STEELS

In arc welding, as the weld metal needs mechanical properties to match the parent
metal, the welder must avoid forming defects in the weld. Imperfections are
principally caused by:

 poor welder technique;

 insufficient measures to accommodate the material or welding process;
 high stress in the component.

Techniques to avoid imperfections such as lack of fusion and slag inclusions, which
result from poor welder techniques, are relatively well known. However, the welder
should be aware that the material itself may be susceptible to formation of
imperfections caused by the welding process. In the materials section of the Job
Knowledge for Welders, guidelines are given on material weldability and precautions
to be taken to avoid defects.

Material types
In terms of weldability, commonly used materials can be divided into the following
types:

 Steels
 Stainless steels
 Aluminium and its alloys
 Nickel and its alloys
 Copper and its alloys
 Titanium and its alloys
 Cast iron

Fusion welding processes can be used to weld most alloys of these materials, in a
wide range of thickness. When imperfections are formed, they will be located in
either the weld metal or the parent material immediately adjacent to the weld, called
the heat affected zone (HAZ). As chemical composition of the weld metal determines
the risk of imperfections, the choice of filler metal may be crucial not only in
achieving adequate mechanical properties and corrosion resistance but also in
producing a sound weld. However, HAZ imperfections are caused by the adverse
effect of the heat generated during welding and can only be avoided by strict
adherence to the welding procedure.

This part of the materials section of Job Knowledge for Welders considers the
weldability of carbon-manganese (C-Mn) steels and low alloy steels.

Imperfections in welds

Commonly used steels are considered to be readily welded. However, these

materials can be at risk from the following types of imperfection:

 porosity;
 solidification cracking;
 hydrogen cracking;
 reheat cracking.

Other fabrication imperfections are lamellar tearing and liquation cracking but using
modern steels and consumables, these types of defects are less likely to arise.

In discussing the main causes of imperfections, guidance is given on procedure and

welder techniques for reducing the risk in arc welding.

Porosity

Porosity is formed by entrapment of discrete pockets of gas in the solidifying weld

pool. The gas may originate from poor gas shielding, surface contaminants such as
rust or grease, or insufficient deoxidants in the parent metal (autogenous weld),
electrode or filler wire. A particularly severe form of porosity is 'wormholes', caused
by gross surface contamination or welding with damp electrodes.

The presence of manganese and silicon in the parent metal, electrode and filler wire
is beneficial as they act as deoxidants combining with entrapped air in the weld pool
to form slag. Rimming steels with a high oxygen content, can only be welded
satisfactorily with a consumable which adds aluminium to the weld pool.

To obtain sound porosity-free welds, the joint area should be cleaned and degreased
before welding. Primer coatings should be removed unless considered suitable for
welding by that particular process and procedure. When using gas shielded
processes, the material surface demands more rigorous cleaning, such as by
degreasing, grinding or machining, followed by final degreasing, and the arc must be
protected from draughts.

Solidification cracking

Solidification cracks occur longitudinally as a result of the weld bead having

insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses within the weld metal.
Sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon pick up from the parent metal at high dilution
increase the risk of weld metal (solidification) cracking especially in thick section and
highly restrained joints. When welding high carbon and sulphur content steels, thin
weld beads will be more susceptible to solidification cracking. However, a weld with
a large depth to width ratio can also be susceptible. In this case, the centre of the
weld, the last part to solidify, will have a high concentration of impurities increasing
the risk of cracking.

Solidification cracking is best avoided by careful attention to the choice of

consumable, welding parameters and welder technique. To minimise the risk,
consumables with low carbon and impurity levels and relatively high manganese and
silicon contents are preferred. High current density processes such as submerged-
arc and CO 2 , are more likely to induce cracking. The welding parameters must
produce an adequate depth to width ratio in butt welds, or throat thickness in fillet
welds. High welding speeds also increase the risk as the amount of segregation and
weld stresses will increase. The welder should ensure that there is a good joint fit-up
so as to avoid bridging wide gaps. Surface contaminants, such as cutting oils, should
be removed before welding.

Hydrogen cracking

A characteristic feature of high carbon and low alloy steels is that the HAZ
immediately adjacent to the weld hardens on welding with an attendant risk of cold
(hydrogen) cracking. Although the risk of cracking is determined by the level of
hydrogen produced by the welding process, susceptibility will also depend upon
several contributory factors:

 material composition (carbon equivalent);

 section thickness;
 arc energy (heat) input;
 degree of restraint.

The amount of hydrogen generated is determined by the electrode type and the
process. Basic electrodes generate less hydrogen than rutile electrodes (MMA) and
the gas shielded processes (MIG and TIG) produce only a small amount of hydrogen
in the weld pool. Steel composition and cooling rate determines the HAZ hardness.
Chemical composition determines material hardenability, and the higher the carbon
and alloy content of the material, the greater the HAZ hardness. Section thickness
and arc energy influences the cooling rate and hence, the hardness of the HAZ.

For a given situation therefore, material composition, thickness, joint type, electrode
composition and arc energy input, HAZ cracking is prevented by heating the
material. Using preheat which reduces the cooling rate, promotes escape of
hydrogen and reduces HAZ hardness so preventing a crack-sensitive structure being
formed; the recommended levels of preheat for various practical situations are
detailed in the appropriate standards e.g. BS EN1011-2:2001. As cracking only
occurs at temperatures slightly above ambient, maintaining the temperature of the
weld area above the recommended level during fabrication is especially important. If
the material is allowed to cool too quickly, cracking can occur up to several hours
after welding, often termed 'delayed hydrogen cracking'. After welding, therefore, it is
beneficial to maintain the heating for a given period (hold time), depending on the
steel thickness, to enable the hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area.

When welding C-Mn structural and pressure vessel steels, the measures which are
taken to prevent HAZ cracking will also be adequate to avoid hydrogen cracking in
the weld metal. However, with increasing alloying of the weld metal e.g. when
welding alloyed or quenched and tempered steels, more stringent precautions may
be necessary.

The risk of HAZ cracking is reduced by using a low hydrogen process, low hydrogen
electrodes and high arc energy, and by reducing the level of restraint. Practical
precautions to avoid hydrogen cracking include drying the electrodes and cleaning
the joint faces. When using a gas shielded process, a significant amount of hydrogen
can be generated from contaminants on the surface of the components and filler wire
so preheat and arc energy requirements should be maintained even for tack welds.

Reheat cracking

Reheat or stress relaxation cracking may occur in the HAZ of thick section
components, usually of greater than 50mm thickness. The more likely cause of
cracking is embrittlement of the HAZ during high temperature service or stress relief
heat treatment.

As a coarse grained HAZ is more susceptible to cracking, low arc energy input
welding procedures reduce the risk. Although reheat cracking occurs in sensitive
materials, avoidance of high stresses during welding and elimination of local points
of stress concentration, e.g. by dressing the weld toes, can reduce the risk.

Weldability of steel groups

PD CEN ISO/TR 15608:2005 identifies a number of steels groups which have similar
metallurgical and welding characteristics. The main risks in welding these groups
are:

Group 1. Low carbon unalloyed steels, no specific processing requirements,

specified minimum yield strength R eH ≤ 460N/mm 2 .

For thin section, unalloyed materials, these are normally readily weldable. However,
when welding thicker sections with a flux process, there is a risk of HAZ hydrogen
cracking, which will need increased hydrogen control of the consumables or the use
of preheat.

Group 2. Thermomechanically treated fine grain steels and cast steels with a
specified miniumum yield strength R eH > 360N/mm 2 .

For a given strength level, a thermomechanically processed ( TMCP) steel will have
a lower alloy content than a normalised steel, and thus will be more readily weldable
with regard to avoidance of HAZ hydrogen cracking and the achievement of
maximum hardness limits. However, there is always some degree of softening in the
HAZ after welding TMCP steels, and a restriction on the heat input used, so as not to
degrade the properties of the joint zone (e.g. ≤2.5kJ/mm limits for 15mm plate).

Group 3. Quenched and tempered steels and precipitation hardened steels

(except stainless steels), ReH>360N/mm2

These are weldable, but care must be taken to adhere to established procedures, as
these often have high carbon contents, and thus high hardenability, leading to a hard
HAZ susceptibility to cracking. As with TMCP steels, there maybe a restriction on
heat input or preheat to avoid degradation of the steel properties.

Groups 4, 5 and 6. Chromium-molybdenum and chromium-molybdenum-

vanadium creep resisting steels.

These are susceptible to hydrogen cracking, but with appropriate preheat and low
hydrogen consumables, with temper bead techniques to minimise cracking, the
steels are fairly weldable. Postweld heat treatment is used to improve HAZ
toughness in these steels.

Group 7. Ferritic, martensitic or precipitation hardened stainless steels.

When using a filler to produce matching weld metal strength, preheat is needed to
avoid HAZ cracking. Postweld heat treatment is essential to restore HAZ toughness.

Group 8. Austenitic stainless steels.

These steels do not generally need preheat, but in order to avoid problems with
solidification or liquation cracking upon welding, the consumables should be selected
to give weld metal with a low impurity content, or if appropriate, residual ferrite in the
weld metal.

Group 9. Nickel alloy steels, Ni≤10%.

These have a similar weldability to Groups 4, 5 & 6.

Group 10. Austenitic ferritic stainless steels (duplex).

In welding these steels, maintaining phase balance in the weld metal and in the HAZ
requires careful selection of consumables, the absence of preheat and control of
maximum interpass temperature, along with minimum heat input levels, as slow
cooling encourages austenite formation in the HAZ.

Group 11. High carbon steels.

These steels will be less weldable owing to their increased carbon content with
respect to Group 1. It is likely that care over the choice of consumables and the use
of high preheat levels would be needed.

It is important to obtain advice before welding any steels that you do not have
experience in.
References
1. BS EN 1011-2:2001 'Welding - recommendations for welding of metallic
materials - part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels' British Standards Institution,
March 2001.
2. PD CEN ISO/TR 15608:2005 'Welding - guidelines for a metallic material
grouping system' British Standards Institution, October 2005.