Chapter-2 : Welding

It is the process of joining two (or) more similar metals (or) dissimilar metals with (or)
without application of heat, with (or) without the application of pressure, with (or) without
application of filler matels.

Classification of welding:
1. Fusion welding 2. Non fusion welding
a) Gas welding a) Resistance welding
b) Arc welding b) Solid state welding
c) Thermit welding c) Allied process
d) Radiant energy welding

Fusion welding: By melting of parent material if a joint is produced it is called as fusion

welding process.

Non fusion welding: Without melting of parent material, if a joint is produced it is called
as non fusion welding.

Metallurgy in welding: Metal is heated over a range of temperature up to fusion and

followed by cooling to ambient temperature. Because of differential heating, the material
for away from the weld bead will be simply warmed out but as the weld area is approached,
progressively higher temperature are obtained, resulting in a corresponding complex
microstructure.
The heating and cooling also results in setting up internal stresses and plastic strain
in the weld.
Depending on the welding process used and the metal being welded, there exists
wide variation in the maximum liquid temperature and in the slope of temperature
gradient curve for the unfused metal.
There are 1. Base metal 2. Heat affect zone 3. Weld metal

Fig: Graph showing the change of thermal condition

Autogenous: A joint produced without filler metal is called Autogenous. And its weld zone
is composed of the resolidified base metal.

Weld metal: A joint produced with filler metal is called weld metal. After the application
of heat and the introduction of the filler metal into the weld area, the molten weld joint is
allowed to cool to ambient temperature.
Since the central portion of the weld bead will be cooled slowly, long columnar grains
will be developed and in the outward direction grains will become finer and finer.
So that ductility and toughness of bead metal at centre will be higher.

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Bead Geometry: By the application of heat source we are depositing the liquid metal at
the joint. The depth, up to which the material is liquified, is called penetration and there
will be raised portion of the plane of parent metal called reinforcement.
AP
Dilution =
AP  AR
A p = Area of penetration
A R = Area of reinforcement
Q. An arc welded joint is shown in the figure,
the part labeled ‘B’ in the figure is known as
a) Weld preparation b) Penetration c) Reinforcement d) Slag
Gas welding:
a) Oxyacetylene gas welding:
In this case heat required for melting and joining of plate is obtained by buring of
oxyacetylene gas mixture.

1. Oxygen and acetylene are drawn from respective cylinder by flexible hose pipe into the
torch body.
2. Both this gases mixed together in the torch body. So that the mixture is possessing
sudden higher pressure.
3. When this high pressure mixture is passed through the convergent Nozzle, the pressure
energy gets converted into velocity energy and the mixture is coming out from the Nozzle at
very high velocity.
C 2 H 2  O 2  2CO  H 2  heat
2CO  O 2  2CO 2  heat
1
H2  O 2  H 2 O  heat
2
So, we have seen that the mixture come out from Nozzle at very high velocity. If this
mixer is given initiation for burning, the continuous flame will be produced.
So that heat available in the mixture is used for melting / joining of work pieces.
Note: For complete combustion of 1 unit volume of C2H2 require 2.5 units volume of O2.
1C 2 H 2  2.5  or  3O 2

Based on the amount of O2 obtained from O2cyclinder the flame produced can be divided
into three types
O2
1. Neutral flame: 1
C2 H 2

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 Two cones can be distinguished based on their colour, The Inner cone will be yellow
(or) Red and outer cone will be light blue colour.
Yellow colour Indicates Incomplete combustion and light blue colour indicates
complete combustion. Maximum temperature is induced of the tip of Inner cone.
Average temperature is 2000 – 2100oC if is the 2/3 rd of maximum temperature.
During combustion of Acetylene large quantity of water is produced.

Note: Neutral flame is used for joining and cutting of all ferrous and non ferrous metals
except brass.
During joining of brass, the zinc present in brass will get evaporated.
O2
2. Oxidising flame:  1.15 to1.5
C2 H 2

1. Here excess amount of oxygen is present, the length of Inner cone is small.
2. Maximum temperature of flame in oxidising flame is more than Neutral flame. It is
about 3380C .
3. Because excess supply of oxygen, there is a possibility of free oxygen may present in the
flame.
Therefore oxidising flame used for joining of high reactive metals, the oxidation will take
place, hence it should not be used for joining of highly reactive metals like Al, Mn etc.
4. Because of higher average temperature it can be used for joining of high melting point
materials.
Note: 1. It is also used for joining brass work piece.
2. It is not used for welding of steel. [Excess oxygen cause the weld bead surface not
good]
Carburising (or) Reducing flame:-
O2
 0.85 to 0.95
C2 H 2

1. Because of short supply of oxygen, the flame has to travel for a longer distance to
completely burn acetylene.
2. Because flame is travelling for large distance the loss of heat energy due to convention
and Radiation is higher. [ i.e. Max temp 3040]
Note:
1. Because of lower average temperature, high melting point material cannot be joint.
2. Unburnt carbon present in flame, this carbon may be absorbed by Iron during joining of
ferrous material and increase the hardness and brittleness and reduces toughness.
3. This is mostly used for high carbon steels.
Torch: Angle made by the axis of the torch with axis of work pieces is called torch angle.

With variation of the Torch angle the flame density will get changed flame density
Heat energy sup plied J
Flame density=  2
Unit area of weldability mm
With increase of torch angle the exposing area of flame of weld bead will be decreased.
 Flame density increases.

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Factors effecting selection of torch angles:
1. Thickness of plates to be joined: As thickness of plate increases, heat required for
melting of plate is increases hence torch angle is to be increases.
2. M.P of metals plates to be joined: As melting point of plates increases heat required
for melting of plates also increases.
 Torch angle 
3. Thermal conductivity of plate: (k) As ‘k’ increases heat loss by conduction is also
increases. Net heat available at welding zone decreases. Torch angle is increases.
4. Place of welding: Irrespective of above 3 factors large torch angle is to be used on the
beginning of welding and small torch angle is used at the end of the welding.

Reason : On the beginning of welding the plates are at room temperature to raise the
temperature of plates above melting point temperature. Large amount heat required to be
supplied and hence large torch angles are to be used.
At the end of welding if large torch angle is used then the molten metal is out
flowing & produces crater defect. To avoid this we use small torch angle.

Fluxes: During gas welding operation, the welder is periodically removing the filler rod
from the welding zone and dipping into powder called as flux powder.
Function : 1. To deoxide the molten metal
2. To absorb gases present in weld zone
3. To provide the slag over the weld bead for protecting the weld bead from
atmospheric contamination.
Properties:-1. The density of flux must be less than density of parent material.
2. The melting point of the flux must be less than melting point of parent
material.
3. It should not produce any harmful gases.
Note: 1. During joining of carbon and Nickel alloys, no flux is to be used. [Presence of
carbon (or) Nickel itself is acting a deoxider]
2. Borax is the commonly used flux during gas welding of all other metals.

Filler Rod used in gas welding:

Function: 1. It supplies additional molten metal to the weld bead / plate.
a) Whenever the thickness of plates to be joined is less than 5 mm, we can use square joint.
So, no extra metal is to be required. No filler rod is used.
b) When t > 5 mm, same type of joints like O joints, V joints.

Because of joint preparation, some amount of gap is present between the joints and for this
additional metal need to be supplied.
Properties:-
1. The density of filler rod material must be nearly equal to density of parent material.
2. Melting point of filler rod material must be less than melting point of parent material.
3. The liquid molten metal of filler rod can be readily mixed with molten metal of parent
material.
4. The liquid molten metal of filler rod should be able to readily spread over the surface of
weld bead.
For this viscosity of molten metal of filler rod must be as low as possible.
Note:- Low carbon steel, Medium carbon steel, brass etc.

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Arc welding:
Whatever heat required for melting and joining of plates, is obtained due to electrical arc is
called arc welding.

When the power supply is given and optimum gap is maintained between cathode
and anode, the high velocity negative charged electrons are generated at the cathode,
attracted by the anode and moving towards the anode. When this very high velocity
electrons are impinging on the anode the K.E of electrons is converted into the heat energy.
Therefore heat energy is generated at the anode.
2. Simultaneously the high velocity positively charged ions will be generated at anodes
which are attracted by the cathode, moving towards the cathode. When these high velocity
ions are impinging on the cathode, the K.E of ions is converted into heat energy. Therefore
heat is generated at the cathode.

Note: 1. The amount of heat generated at the anode is much higher than the cathode
because of very high velocity of electrons.
2. The ratio of heat generated in Anode to Cathode is 2:1

Q. The temperature of a carburizing flame in gas welding that of a neutral (or)

oxidizing flame.
a) Lower than b) Higher than c) Equal to d) Unrelated to
Q. Penetration is increased by
a) Increasing welding current and welding speed
b) Increasing welding current and decreasing welding speed
c) Decreasing welding current and welding speed
d) Decreasing welding current and increasing welding current
Sol: (b)
Q Which one of the following is not a fusion welding process
a) Gas welding b) Arc welding c) Bronzing d) Resistance welding
Sol:- (c)
Q. The ratio between oxygen and Acetylene gases for neutral flame in gas
welding is
a) 2 : 1 b) 1 : 2 c) 1 : 1 d) 4 : 1
A. Oxidising flame is used in gas welding to join medium carbon steel having high
melting point.
R. In gas welding, oxidizing flame produces the maximum temperature compared
to Neutral and reducing flame.
Q. The advantage of welding process is
a) It relieves the joint from residual stresses
b) It helps in checking of distortion of work pieces
c) Large number of metals and alloys, both similar /dissimilar can be joined.
d) All of the above
Sol:- (c)
Q. The material used for coating the electrode is called
a) Binder b) Slag c) Deoxidizer d) Flux

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  DCSP / DCEN[ Direct Current Electrode Negative] If the work pieces is connected
to the positive terminal and electrode is connected to the negative terminal it is
called DCSP/ DCEN.
 DCRP/ DCEP[ Direct Current Electrode positive] If the work pieces is connected to
negative terminal and electrode is connected to positive terminal.
 ACHF [ Alternating Current High Frequency] Heat generation = 1:1 Here positive
and negative polarity changes continuously. So no fixed polarity.

Features of Arc welding:

1. In DCSP, the heat generated at the work piece is higher (67%). Therefore melting point
material and higher thickness plates can be easily welded and higher depth of penetration
is possible.
2. Because of lower heat generation at the electrodes, melting rate of electrode is lower,
deposition rate is lower. Hence only low welding speeds are possible.
3. In DCRP, because of lower heat generation at work piece (33%) only melting point
materials and lower thickness plates can be welded. Also depth of penetration is small.
4. Because of higher heat generation of electrode, the melting of electrode is higher
deposition rate is higher. Therefore high welding speeds are possible.
5. Because of equal amount of heat generation at the work piece and electrodes, the
medium melting point materials, medium thickness plates. Medium depth of penetration
and medium welding speeds are achieved.

Duty cycle: It is defined as percentage of time for which the Arc is on without overheating
the vital elements in welding equipments.
Arc on time
D.C  ,Total welding time = Arc on time + Rest time
Total welding time
Arc on time: - Time during which actual welding is done.
Rest time: - Welding equipment will be completely switched off.
Rate of heat generation during arc on time: -
Qg  I2 R s t During arc on time because of passage of current through the secondary of a
transformer heat generation will be taking place and simultaneously heat dissipation also
takes place. During rest time heat generation is zero because of no current passing and
heat dissipation will continue until the accumulated heat gets transferred Qd  hA  Ts  T  .
Case: - Qg  Qd Here heat accumulation occurs, the difference in heats  Q g  Q d  will get
accumulated in welding equipment and temperature of welding equipment may increases
and welding equipment may fail . So, in order to avoid this failure we are providing rest
time.
Design of weld bead: -
1. Number of electrode required
2. Number of passes required
3. Total welding time
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Crowning: - Crowning is 10 – 15% volume of weld bead.
Spatter: - During welding operation because of force of arc/ flame. The molten metal parties
are jumping from the weld pool and falling on other area of plate called as spatter.
Spatter is 5 – 10% of volume of weld bead.
Total volume of weld bead
1. Number of electrodes Required: - 
Volume / electrode
Total volume = volume of W.B+ crowing + spatter = 1.15 to 1.125 volume of weld bead.
=  A1  A 2  A3   Length of weld bead
 2
Volume of electrode = d  L e , L e = effective length of electrode.
4
Number of passes: - Let x = length of weld bead welded by using one electrode. This value
will be taken from welding data book corresponding to thickness of plate.
length of weld bead
Number of electrode required / pass 
x
total number of electrode required
No. of passes =
No.of electrode / pass
length of weld bead
Arc on time/pass =
Welding speed
Total A. OT = AOT pass  No.of passes
Total A.O.T
Total welding time =
Duty cycle
Heat transfer efficiency: - If ratio of total energy falling on the weld bead to the total energy
supplied by transformer [VI].
Melting efficiency: -
It is ratio of heat required for welding to the total energy falling on the weld bead.
Q. A weld is made using MIG welding process with following welding parameters.
Current: 200 A:
Voltage: 25V: Welding speed : 18 cm/min: Wire diameter : 1.2 mm; Wire feed ratio : 4
mm/min. Thermal efficiency of the process 65%.
a) The heat input per unit length of the weld in kJ/cm is
a) 0.18 b) 0.28 c) 10.83 d) 16.66
b) The area of cross – section of weld bead in mm is 2

a) 16.3 b) 25.1 c) 30.3 d) 38.6

VI   200  25  0.65
Sol: - a) Heat Input =   10.833kJ cm
speed 18 60 
 2
b) Volume of weld  d l , d = wire diameter, l = wire feed rate.
4

=  1.2 2  4000  4521.6 mm 3 min
4
4521.6 4521.6
Area of weld =   25.12 mm 2
speed 18 10

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6.4 ARC WELDING
6.4.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Fig 6.5: Welding using SMAW process

This is also called as stick electrode welding or coated electrode welding or manual
arc welding. If uses coated electrodes of 2.5 to 6.35 mm diameter and 300 to 450 mm length
held in an electrode holder. The power source used is constant current type. Initially the
arc is being created between wire electrode and work piece. Flux by taking energy from the
arc gets melted and a mixture of liquid metal and molten flux gets simultaneously settled
in the groove. Since the density of flux is lower, it comes over the surface of bead and
provides slag coating. It has following functions.
a) Since flux gives alloys to the bead material, bead becomes stronger than even the parent
metal. The region in the parent metal near the bead where the temparature has gone
beyond the recrystallization temparature is called heat affected zone and it is the weakest
portion in the weld metal
b) It provides the heat tratment to the bead and as a result of tat at the center of the bead
there will be coarse grains and in the outward direction grains become finer and finer.
c) It protects the bead from the attack of atmosphere gasses.

There are two movements of electrode holder

a) The rate at which electrode wire is getting consumed with the same rate the electrode
has to be fed towards the molten pool. It is because arc length decides the arc voltage and
arc current. If lower is the current settings, the temparature of the pool will be lower, as a
result of that the liquid flux (slag) trying to come out of material will be solidified and slag
will be trapped with in the bead. This defect is called slag inclusion. Also variable current
leads to improper bead geometry.
b) Movement of electrode along the longitudional direction of bead
If both these movements are controlled manually it is called manual welding. If first
movement is controlled by machine it is called semi-automatic arc welding and if both
movements are controlled by machine it is called automatic arc welding. The temparature
in the core ofhte arc ranges between 6000-70000C. SMAW can be performed both on AC and
DC source with drooping characteristics.

6.4.2 TRANSFORMER
Constant current type tranformer: In manual arc welding since arc length can not be
controlled, so arc current controlled by the transformer. A conventional arc weldig power
source is known as the constant current machine. It has the drooping volt-ampere
characteristic curve as shown in fig.

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 Fig 6.6: Characteristics of constant current type transformer
The constant current curve shows that the welding power source produces maximum
output voltage with no load and as as load increases, the output voltage decreases. As it
can be observed in Fig 6.6, for major change in arc voltage, there is insignficant change in
arc current.
Constant voltage transformer: A constant voltage welding power source has essentially
a flat volt ampere characteristics curve through usually with a slight drrop. The curve may
be shifted up or down to change the voltage. These characteristics are used only for
continuous electrode wire weldijng such as gas welding semiautomatic and automatic
welding processes.
If the load in the circuit changes, the power source automatically adjusts its current
output to satisfy the requirement and maintains essentially the same voltage across the
output terminals. The constant vol;tage welding power suystem has its gratest advantage
when the current density oh the electrode wire is high.

Fig 6.7: characteristics of voltage transformer

 OCV  I
V=(OCV)– 
 SCC 
This is for semi automatic arc welding.
OCV = Open circuit voltage, SCC = Short circuit current
For stable arc in constant voltage transformer Varc = Vtransformer
For stable arc in constant current transformer Iarc = Itransformer
Example: 6.1
The arc length voltage characteristic is given by expression V=24+4l(l=arc length in
mm). The volt ampere characteristic of a power source can be approximated by a straight
line with open circuit voltage 80 V and short circuit current is 600A. Determinate optimum
arc length for maximum power.
 80 
Sol: OCV = 80V, SCC 600A, V = 80–   I
 600 
Stable Vt = Va, I = F(l)
 80 
24+4l = 80–   I
 600 
 80  I  60 
 600  =80-24-4l  I=[56–4l]  8 
 60   60 
P=VI  (56-4l)   (24+4l) =   (56  24)+128l – 16 l2)
8 8
For maximum power dp/dl = 0  128–32l=0  l = 4mm

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6.4.3 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

Fig 6.16: (a) and (b) Welding using SAW process

This is semi-automatic version of SMAW process which process which can produce
long weld runs. In this type of welding electrode is in the form of spool of copper coated wire
and granular flux is used. Copper is coated to increase the conductivity of wire. Powdered
flux is initially poured into the welding area and arc is maintained within the pool of flux.
This minimizes the spatter of liquid metal and suppresses the intense ultra violet
radiation. Flux also acts a thermal insulator by deep penetration of heat into the work
piece. Flux is fed on weld zone by gravity through flow nozzle, a long continuous weld can
be performed. It is mainly used in the down hand welding position in a semi-automatic
welding process and the feeding of electrode towards the weld pool is controlled by
machine. The weld obtained by this process are stronger than, the base plate, if done
carefully.
The metals most widely welded through this process are low carbon steels, low alloy
steels, stainless steels and high alloy steels. It is extensively used in joints in thick plates
in pressure vessels, ships, bridges, structural work, welded pipes and nuclear reactors. It
can not be used to plates less than 5mm thick. The process is also used to make LPG
cylinders.
6.4.4 GAS Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)

Fig 6.17: Tungston inert gas welding (TIG)

In GTAW process the electrode is non consumable and the purpose of it is only to
certain an arc. A separate filter metal rod is used to deposit the material. This was
primarily invented to weld alloys of Aluminium and Magnesium. Aluminium is very
difficult to weld because as it is exposed to atmosphere it forms a layer over it. To weld
these materials work piece should be given negative polarity and electrode positive
polarity. As the electrons are coming out of the work piece, peels of the ceramic layer and
fresh Aluminium comes in contact with the arc. This phenomenon is called cathodic

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cleaning. Where ever electron bombards two-third heat will be generated, one-third heat is
generated at the negative electrode and in case of of GTAW when more heat is produced at
the tungsten electrode and in case of GTAW when more heat is produced at the tungsten
electrode it gets eroded and in case of GTAW when more heat is produced at the tungsten
electrode it gets particles mixes with the bead making it brittle.
A pool of inert gases like Helium and Argon provides the protective covering to the
molten metal. This reverse polarity is also used to weld very thin sheets because when the
development of heat over work piece materials is more, holes will be produced in the
material and there will not be any welding. The torches for carrying current beyond 100
amperes are usually water cooled. Arc initiation is normally done by touching for carrying
current beyond 100 amperes are usually water cooled. Arc initiation is normally done by
touching the electrode on a graphite block. The gas nozzle of a GTAW torch is its weakest
part and is fastened and is fastened to the torch body threaded connection. These nozzles
are generally made of ceramic material.
This process is used to weld in all positions and is extensively used for welding
aluminium, magnesium, stainless steels, copper, Nimonic alloys, Monel, inconel etc. It is
especially used in aircraft industry, chemical plant and nuclear plant.

Comparison of different Electrode polarities:

DC, electrode DC, electrode AC

positive negative
1. Penetration

Shallow Deep Intermediate

2. Heat generation 2/3rd at electrode, 11/3rd at electrode, 50% on both
1/3rd at work 2/3rd at work piece
piece
3. metal deposition High Low Intermediate
rate
4. Thickness of Thin sheets Thick sheets Intermediate
work
to be welded
5. stable smaller Easier Easier Difficult
arc
6. Arc blow Severe severe Insignificant
As the thickness of work decreases negative polarities should be given for work
otherwise due to development of excessive heat holes will develop in the sheet. To control
the metal deposition rate GTAW process is used. If the thickness further decreases, the
operating current should decrease
Electrode penetration in GTAW: If negative polarities should be given to electrode it
should be grinded to a point to increase the density of current which leads to deeper
penetration. If the electrode is given, positive polarity, diameter of tip is increased to
minimize the electrode erosion.

Fig 6.18: Shapes of tungsten electrodes

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 The selection of the electrode should be good to get the best results. The extension of
the cup should be approximately equal to the inside diameter of the cup or slightly more in
case of fillet welds. Otherwise the shielding effect will be reduced. Instead of (GTAW)
tungsten electrodes is replaced by a consumable electrode which is in the form of spool.

6.4.85 Arc Blow: Due to fixed polarity magnetic lines forms in the work piece material.
Upon welding at the center of the work magnetic lines will be equally distributed on both
sides. So arc will be straight. But while welding near the edges, since most of the magnetic
lines will be concentrated in the material, arc will be deflected towards the workpiece. This
phenomenon is called Arc Blow which results in severe spatter and improper bead
geometry.

Fig 6.19: Arc blow due to magnetic field

Arc Blow phenomenon will be more intensified while welding with DC with bare
electrodes. To avoid this phenomenon metal plates are kept at the entry and at the exit
called tab in and tab out. These plates also minimize the end defects. Arc blow phenomenon
may also appear when large piece of iron is present at the welding site.

6.4.6 Duty Cycle: It is the time span in successive 10 min interval during which current
can be drawn from the transformer, after that there should be a compulsory break
otherwise the temperature of its essential components will increase. Usually 60% duty
cycle is the standard industrial rating. A power source with such a rating can supply its
rated output for 6 minutes in every ten minute interval of its operation
I2D = Constant, where D= Duty cycle and I = current

6.4.7Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): Plasma is the pool ionized gas. Initially the arc is being
created between Tungsten electrode and the work piece, plasma gasses like ‘N’ by taking
energy from the spark converts into plasma. The temperature of plasma is around 500000C
but for the welding process it is restricted to 200000C. This high temperature arc when it
impinges upon the work piece results in reuniting of electrons and ions to form atomic and
then molecular gas, releasing heat in the process which is thus utilized for welding. Due to
increase source of heat penetration will through and without spreading the heat affected
zone it is called keyhole phenomenon, this phenomenon will ensure 100% penetration and
gives wine glass weld bead. More intense the source of heat, deeper will be the penetration
and maximum can be the welding speed and hence lesser will be the heat affected zone. A
separate filter rod is used to deposit the material. When plasma arc is concentrated
because it is fed through a small nozzle. The energy is obtained from a dc power source of
the constant current type having an open circuit voltage of 70-80 volts and duty cycle of
60%. There are two types plasma arc welding. In the transferred-arc method the work piece
is welded as part of the electrical circuit. The arc transfers from the electrode to the work
piece. In the non transferred type the arc occurs between the electrode and the nozzle and
the heat is carried to the work piece by plasma gas. The thermal transfer mechanism is
similar to that for Oxyfuel flame. The major application of the process is in welding
stainless steel, titanium, having very high melting points and super alloys. Commercially it
is used in-aeronautical industry, precision instrument industry and jet engine
manufacturing. This plasma arc welding has serious draw backs. For example the intense
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arc results in extensive ultra violet and infra-red radiation which can harm the skin.

Fig 6.20: (a) set up of plasma welding

Fig 6.20: (b) Wine glass bead structure in PAW

6.4.8 Electro slag/Electro gas Welding:

Initially the arc is being created between starting block and the copper coated
electrode wire followed by addition of flux. Welding progresses in the direction and due to
that temperature of the molten pool keeps on increasing. A pair of water cooled cu shoes is
being provided on the sides to avoid any spillage of liquid metal to the sides. Once the
temperature of the molten pool reaches a particular value arc switched off and the molten
pool is so that it starts consuming the wire without any arc. Temperature is controlled in
this fashion to minimize the heat affected zone. If the heat zone increases it may cause
distortion of the plate.
The point when molten metal is not able to consume more wire, arc restarted again.
Restarting the arc is easy on electro gas welding. In electro gs welding an inert gas is used
in place of slag or flux. The duty cycle of the transformer is 100% and electrode should be
given positive polarity. Both AC and DC power sources are used with a rating of 1000
amperes at an open circuit voltage of 55 volts and duty cycle of 100 percent.
The process is used to join two thick plates along the edges. The major application is
in ship building. Welding is done with joint in vertical position. It can be used for welding
plates of thickness 20mm to 40 mm. It is also used extensively in the heavy ferrous
industry. This finds extensive use in the construction of pressure vessels, press frames,
water turbine and heavy plate fabrication industries.
Welding current depends on welding voltage and electrode feed rate, it increases with
it. Increase in welding current increases the welding speed, but higher welding current
may cause cracking. Welding voltage affects the depth of penetration and stable operation
of the process. Excessive voltage cause overheating of the metal, gassing of the slag pool,
and even sparking.

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 Fig 6.21: Electro Slag Welding
6.5 RESISTANCE WELDING
Some of the important resistance welding processes are:
A. Spot B. Protection C. Seam D. HFRW/HFIW
E. Flash butt welding
The resistance welding is produced by means of electrical resistance across the two
components to be joined. The heat generated in this process is given by
H = I2RT, where H = Heat generated in joules I = Current in amperes
R = resistance in ohms t = time of current flow in seconds
The welds produced by resistance welding are normally without the addition of any air gap
between electrode and the sheet. Step down transformers are used in resistance welding, in
the secondary winding of which there is single turn. When a high current is passed through
conductors, maximum resistance will be there at the interface between the two sheets due
to presence of air gap. As a result of that material in both the sheets will be liquefied and a
spot (nugget) will be formed. Kickless cables are used to supply the current for the safety of
operator. Rocker arm type machines are used for smaller parts and press type are used for
larger work pieces.

Fig 6.22: (a) Resistance welding set up

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 Fig 6.22: (b) Spot welding nugget

The diameter of the nugget is dn = 6 t

Height of the nugget is hn = 2t–indentation
Spot welding is mainly used for lap welding of thin sheets particularly in the welding of
automobile and refrigerator bodies and high quality work in automobile engines

6.5.2 projection welding: To make number of spot welds in one set up projection welding
is used. These projections are made by EMBOSSING process by the flow of current. The
projection materials become soft and the pressure on the electrode is suddenly increased
and projections are allowed to collapse on the provided in the thicker sheet or the sheet
which has higher thermal conductivity. There are so many projections: round button or
dome type, rig type, elongated projection welding is similar to that for spot welding except
that the rod electrodes are replaced by flat copper plates. Projection welding reduces the
amount of current and pressure needed to achieve a good between the two pieces, with
consequential less chance of shrinkage and distortion in the areas around the weld zone.

Fig 6.23: Projection welding set up

6.5.3 Seam Welding: Seam welding is meant for making leak proof welds. To make
overlapping spot weld (Leak proof welding) electrodes are taken in the form of wheels. Such
weld is called Stitch Weld. To produce stitch welds at higher speeds seam welding is used.
In seam welding the electrodes used in the form of rollers or wheels, due to shunting of
current through the already made welds, the current required is higher than in normal
spot welding. Pressure is applied to fuse metal properly into the nugget as in spot welding.
Seam welding is a continuous process. Electrodes get overheated and hence need constant
cooling. It is done externally by the impinging water jets. Seam welding is capable of
welding thin materials of thickness between the ranges of 2.5 to 4.7 mm

Fig 6.24: Seam welding set up

Arc welding problems:
Q. In D.C welding, the straight polarity result in
a) Lower penetration b) Lower deposition rate
c) Less heating of work piece d) Smaller weld pool
Q. The electrodes used in arc welding are coated this not expected to
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 a) Stabilize the arc b) Provide protective atmosphere to weld
c) Add alloying elements d) Prevent electrode from contamination
Q. In arc welding process, the voltage and current are 25Vand 300A respectively, the
arc heat transfer efficiency is 0.85 and welding speed is 8 mm /sec. The net heat
Input in (J/mm) is
a) 64 b) 797 c) 1103 d) 79700
Sol: - Given data V = 25 V, I = 300 A,  =0.85 v = 8 mm /sec, heat Input = a =?
Q v

VI
0.85  25  300
Q  796.8 J / mm
8
Q. Which one among the following welding processes uses non – consumable electrode?
a) Gas metal arc welding b) Submerged arc welding
c) Gas tungsten arc welding d) Flux coated arc welding
Q. A 900 mm long steel plate is welded by manual metal arc welding process. Using
welding current of 150A, Arc voltage of 20V and welding speed of 300 mm/min. If the
process efficiency of is 0.8 and surface resistance is 36 micro-ohm, the heat input will
be
a) 600 J /mm b) 480 J/min c) 146 kJ d) 116 kJ
Sol: - Given data: Length = 90 mm, I = current = 150 A, voltage V = 20 V
Page no: 30
Speed = 300 mm/min. If the process efficiency of is 0.8 (k) and surface resistance is
(R) = 36  10 6 ohm
Welding length 900 mm
Welding time =   3 min  180 sec
Welding speed 300 mm / min
Heat input
Process efficiency (or) Melting efficiency (k) =
Heat generated
2
Heat Input = kI Rt = 116.64 kJ.
Q. In which of the following welding process flux is used in the form of granules?
a) AC arc welding b) Submerged arc welding
c) Argon arc welding d) DC arc welding
Q. In arc welding d.c. reverse polarity is used to bear greater advantage in
a) Overhead welding b) Flat welding of Lap joint
c) Edge welding d) Flat welding of butt joint
Q. Arc blow is more common in
a) A.C welding b) D.C. welding with straight polarity
c) D.C. welding with bare electrodes d) A.C. welding with bare electrodes
Q. In an Inert gas welding process, the commonly used gas is
a) Hydrogen b) Oxygen c) Helium (or) Argon d) Krypton
Q. During plasma arc welding of aluminium, improved removal of the surface oxide
from the box metal is obtained with typical polarity of
a) DC straight b) DC reverse
c) AC potential d) Reverse polarity of the phase of AC potential
Page no: 31
Q. In resistance welding, heat is generated due to the resistance between
a) Electrode and work piece b) Asperities between touching plates
c) Two dissimilar metals being is contact d) Inter atomic forces
Q. Resistance spot welding is performed on two plates of 1.5 mm thickness with 6 mm
diameter electrode, using 1500 A current for time duration of 0.25 sec. Assuming

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 the interface resistance to be 0.0001Ω. The heat generated to form the weld is

a) 5625 W-sec b) 8437 W – sec c) 22500 W – sec d) 33750 W – sec

Sol: - Given solution, Thickness of plate (T) = 1.5 mm
Diameter of electrode = d = 6 mm
Current I = 1500 A, time t = 0.25 sec, R = 0.0001Ω
Heat generated in resistance welding = I2RT = (15000)2× 0.0001×0.25= 5625 W sec
Q. Spot welding of two 1 mm thick sheets of steel [density = 8000 kg/m3] is carried out
successfully by passing a certain amount of current for 0.1 second through the
electrodes. The resultant weld nugget formed is 5 mm in diameter and 1.5 mm thick.
If the latent heat of fusion of steel is 1400 kJ/kg and effective resistance in the
welding operation is 200  , the current passing through the electrode is
approximately
a) 1480 A b) 3300 c) 4060 d) 9400
Sol: - Given data Thickness sheet = 1mm, density =  = 8000 kg/m 3

Time = 0.1 second

Diameter of nugget = 5 mm
Thickness of nugget = 1.5 mm
Resistance = R = 200  10 6 
Latent heat of fusion = Q = 1400 kJ/kg

Mass = density × volume of nugget =  252  1.5  1000  10 9  2.356  10 4 kg
4
kJ
Latent heat of fusion in terms of Joules = Q  mass   kg = 1400  1000  2.356  10 4
kg
Q = 329.8 J
Q  I2 Rt
329.8
A  4060 Amp
200  10 6  0.1
Q. Seam welding is
a) Multi-spot welding spot b) Continuous spot welding process
c) Used to form metals d) Used for welding cylindrical objects
Q. Projection welding is
a) Multi- spot welding process b) Continuous spot welding process
c) Used to form mesh d) Used to make cantilevers
Q. Two sheets of 1.5 mm thickness are to be spot welded by passing a current of
10,000 A for 0.1 sec the maximum radiation allowed is 10% of sheet thickness. The
density of spot weld nugget is 8 gm/cm3. If 1380 Joules are required to melt 1 gm of
steel. Calculate the efficiency resistance to be 200 micro ohm.
Sol: - Given data, Current (I) = 10,000 A
Resistance = 200  10 6  = R
Time = t = 0.1 sec
Density of nugget = 8 gm cm3
Maximum indentation allowed = 10% of sheet thickness = hn
Q = 1380 J gm
Total heat supplied H s  I 2 Rt  10, 000 2  200  106  0.1  2000J
We know, diameter of nugget = dn = 6  t = 7.34 mm
Height of nugget = hn = 2   thickness  indentation 

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  10  15 
 2  1.5 
 100 
= 2. 7 mm

Volume of Nugget = Vn = d 2n  h n = 114.24 mm3  114.24 103 cm3
4
Mass of nugget= density  volume = 8 114.24 103  0.913 gm
So that heat required to melt = 1380  0.913 = 1261.28 Joules
heat required to melt 1261.8
Efficiency =  100 =  100  63.06%
heat sup plied to melt 2000
Q. Spot welding of two 1 mm thick sheets of steel (density = 8000 kg m3 ) is carried out
successfully by passing a certain amount of current 0.1 second through the
electrodes. The resultant weld nugget formed is 5 mm in diameter and 1.5 mm thick.
If the latent heat of fusion of steel is 1400 kJ kg and the effective resistance in the
welding operation is 200  .What is the current passing through the electrode?
Sol: - I = 4061.2 Amp
Example: 6.17
In spot welding (pulsed laser) of aluminum plates (density =2700 kg/m3, specific heat
(c) = 896 J/kg k, melting temperature = 933 k, latent heat of melting = 398 kJ/kg) at a
temperature of 300C, a pulse with energy of 0.5 J is focused onto an area of 0.05 mm2. If the
entire energy is coupled into the material. What will be the depth of weld? Assume the
cross-section area of the weld circular and is uniform throughout its depth and only heat
conduction in the direction of penetration
Sol: Given, density of plate = 2700 kg/m3
Specific heat (c) 896 J/kg k
Melting temperature (TMP) = 933 k
Ambient temperature (tamb) = 273+30=303 k
kJ J
Latent heat of melting (L) = 398 = 398  1000
kg kg
Let depth of spot = dmm
As nugget formed has circular cross-section throughout its depth i.e. it is cylindrical
Volume of Nugget = (Cross-section area)  depth
Volume of Nugget = (0.05 d) mm3
Mass of nugget = density  volume = 2700  0.05 d  10–9 = 135 d  10–9 kg
Amount of heat required to melt is the sum of total heat required to increase temperature
of metal from ambient temperature to melting point and required to melt.
 Heat required to melt = mC  T+mL = m{C(TMP -Tamb)+L}
=135 d  10–9{896(933–303)+398  1000}
Heat required to melt = 0.1299 dJ
Now Heat required to melt = Heat energy supplied
0.1299 d = 0.5
D = 3.849 mm
 Depth of weld = 3.849mm Ans

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6.5.4 High Frequency Resistance welding (HFRM)

Fig 6.3.2: high frequency resistance welding process of tube making

Initially the steel is cut into the strips and is it approaches towards the concave rolls the
sheet will bend in the form of a pipe. Mandrel is placed at the center so that sheet bends
exactly in a cylindrical fashion. A pair of conductors is kept on both sides of edges and a
high frequency current is passed. Due to skin effect current flows through low inductance
rather than low resistance i.e. through air gap. This result in the hating of edges and when
the pressure is applied by the rolls there will be a continuous welding. Since rubbing takes
place between the blocks and work piece material, after welding some kilometers of people
the blocks should be replaced. This process used to make iron pipes

6.5.5 Flash Butt Welding: Two work pieces are held together with the help of electrodes
as show in figure 6.33 and a very high current around 100000 a is passed through these
conductor. By the production of flash, oxide layer from the ends will be removed and
material will also become soft. Current is stopped and axial pressure is increased to make a
joint. Weld is formed through plastic deformation. In this two clamps will be present to
hold the work pieces, one is fixed and the other is movable so that they can adjust, after
applying high force weld is achieved and metal is expelled forming a rough fin or flash
around the joint. This can be removed by machining. The process is extensively used for
welding mild steels, medium carbon steels and alloy steels as well as non ferrous metals
like aluminium alloys and titanium. This process is suitable for end to end or edge to edge
joining of sheets of similar or dissimilar metals 0.2 mm to 25 mm thick.
6.6 SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESS
6.6.1 Friction welding:

Fig 6.34: steps in friction welding

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The principle of this operation is changing mechanical energy into heat energy into heat
energy. Two samples are joined tighter along their axis by this process. One part is held in
the chuck and the other is in the tail stock and the spindle is rotated at very high speed
(around 5900 r.p.m). Both pieces are allowed to rub against each other and as a result of
that heat will be produced. The material near edges will become softer and once it reaches
particular temperature, breaks are applied and axial pressure is increased to cause the
forging action and hence welding. No joint preparation I required for most of the non
ferrous metals, since the rotating action is self cleansing. For some non ferrous metals,
preparatory cleansing of the joint faces is important.

The weld zone is usually confined to a narrow region whose size depends upon
 The amount of heat generated
 The thermal conductivity of the materials and
 The mechanical properties of the materials at elevated temperatures.
The shape of the weld joint depends upon the rotational speed and on the axial
pressure applied. Friction welding is the high speed process suited to production welding.
When the interfaces are first brought into contact, maximum power is required for
breaking up the surface film. The power required then falls and remains nearly constant
while the joint is raised to welding temperature.
Base of dissimilar metals and varying cross sections can be joined by this process.
The major application of the process is in welding drill to the shank, welding engine valves
to stem, axle to its hub etc.
6.6.2 Ultrasonic Welding:
Heat affected zone is minimum in ultrasonic welding. High frequency vibrations are
being produced by a transducer in the range of 20 to 60 KHz and are transported to the
work with the help of sonotrode. Load is applied on the sonotrode tip with the help of
pneumatic, hydraulic or a spring actuated device. Higher the frequency of vibration higher
I the rate at which energy is transmitted. Due to ultrasonic energy oxide layer at the
interface will be broken and there will be a fresh metal contact between the two work
pieces. The temperature generated in the weld zone is usually 30-50% of the melting point
of base metal.

Fig 6.35: components of Ultrasonic welding machine

Ultrasonic welding equipment consists of two main parts, power source and a
transducer. The power source converts the 50Hz mains supply to a high frequency electric
power and that is converted by the transducer to magnetic flux and then the kinetic motion
which is applied through a velocity transformer. This set up can be used for spot and seam
welds the major application of process is in armature winding, aluminum wire connection
transducers and diodes
- 43 -
6.6.3 Explosive Welding: Two plates can be jointed tighter along the surface by this
process. Two plates to be welded are placed at an inclination to each other, the angle vary
from 10-100. The thicker plate is called the target plate and the thinner plate is called flyer
plate has a buffer plate of PVC or rubber, between it and the explosive. The charge is
exploded by a detonator placed at one end of flyer plate. When the charge explodes, the
flyer plate moves towards the target plate. Because of the movement with higher velocity
pressure is produced at the interface. Under such high velocity and pressure the metal
flows ahead of the joining front acting like a fluid jet resulting in a bond of the interlocking
type. This interlocking is an essential aspect of an explosion welding and cause of strength.
Flyer plate is kept at an angle to give direction to the weld and objective of buffer plate is to
protect the flyer plate from explosive.

Fig 6.36: Schematic of explosive welding

The impact velocity depends on the ratio of the explosive to that of the weight of the
layer plate and also on the contact angle. The maximum velocity can be decided by the
sound in the target plate material because at supersonic velocities the wave in the target
cannot propagate ahead of the bonding front. Minimum velocity is decided by magnitude at
which the projected material becomes sufficiency plastic on impact to from a divided jet.
The application of this process is in tube seet joints in heat exchangers, weld to pipe joints,
blocking of leaking tubes in boilers, also when two plates are to be joined along the surface
etc. this also used for cladding a plate or slab with dissimilar metal.

6.8 THERMIT WELDING PROCESS

BAl+3Fe3O4  4Al2O3+9Fe+Heat
(Ratio of Al and Fe according to atomic weight is 1 : 3)

Fig 6.39: Thermit welding process

Thermit is a mixture of aluminum powder and metal oxide. If this is placed in a
crucible and ignited by means of a fire cracker, the action started continuous throughout
- 44 -
the mass of the mixture, giving out great heat because reaction is exothermic. The
aluminium is a strong reducing agent, and combines with the oxygen from the iron oxide,
the iron oxide being reduced to iron and intense heat will be released. The aluminium oxide
floats to the top of the molten metal as a slag which are contained in the mould. The high
temperature of the iron results in excellent fusion taking place with the parts to be welded.
A small percentage of additions like manganese or other alloying elements is done to
increase the strength of joint.
Thermit welding involves aligning the parts to be joined, but with a gap between them is
usually filled with wax, around which a sand ceramic mold is built. If the parts are thick
the mold cavity may be preheated to improve welding and dry the mold. Drying the mould
is very important; otherwise superheated steam trapped in the mold can cause explosions.
This process is used for joining tracks on site. This is also used in welding cable conductors,
reinforcing bars and for heavy repairs such as those broken necks and ship sterns.
6.9 ALLIED PROCESSES
If the parent material cannot withstand high temperature, or the parts to be joined
are delicate or intricate or metals with different properties, thickness etc. then to weld with
those processes is difficult, so to weld those, allied processes are introduced. In this
additional metal is deposited on a substrate either by spraying or by by some welding
process are used .
1. Soldering (flux in Zncl2)
2. Brazing ( flux is Borax)
3. Adhesive bonding ( Thermosetting plastic)
Soldering: The two surfaces are cleaned and a flux is applied over them. This flux
dissolves whatever amount of oxide is remaining on the surface and also protects the
surface from further oxidation.

After the application of the flux the pieces are heated and the solder is then applied on the
gap. The material flows into the interface of mating surface by capillary action. On cooling,
it solidifies and provides a joint of adequate strength. Soldering is done by thoroughly
cleaning the pieces with the help of wire brush, emery cloth, file or even steel wool. On
cooling, the joint is cleaned by hot water to avoid corrosive action of the flux residue.
Soldering of lead pipe is known as wiping.
Soldering is used extensively in the electronics industry. Solders are not used for load
bearing members because of the low strength than brazing. This process is used to join
Copper with such precious metals such as silver and gold.
Brazing: The process is performed above 4500C but below solidus temperature of the base
metal. The surface to be joined are grinded and then cleaned by applying some chemicals
like Carbon Tetrachloride. A brazing flux( borex) is then applied over the surface to
dissolve any remaining metal oxide. A brazing material like brass is poured at the joint.
The molten metal fills by capillary action. Upon cooling and solidification of the filler metal,
a strong joint is obtained . Joints to be brazed are made with small clearance, so that
brazing flux is applied , to dissolve solid metal oxide which is still present and to prevent
further oxidation. Brazing fluxes are generally borax, boric acid, borates, fluorides and
chlorides. Surfaces to be brazed must be clean in order to obtain proper wetting and
spreading characteristics of the molten filler metal in the joint and to develop maximum
bond strength. Residual flux left on the brazed joint can be removed by washing with hot
water followed by air drying. It is used to braze dissimilar metals with good joint strength.

- 45 -
Intricate, light weight shapes can be joined rapidly and with little distortion. Brazing can
be automated and used for mass production.

Q. The strength of a brazed if

a) Decrease with increases in gap between the two joining surface
b) Increase with increases in gap between the two joining surface
c) Increases upto certain gap between the two joining surfaces beyond which it
decreases.
Q. In braze welding the filler metal
a) Distributed by capillary action
b) Melted and deposited at point where the weld is to be made
c) a & b
d) None
Q. The commonly used flux for brazing is
a) Resin b) NH4Cl c) Borax d) Soft iron
Q. In thermit welding, the iron oxide and aluminum are mixed in the proportion of
a) 1 : 1 b) 3 : 1
c) 1 : 3 d) Mixture is of different oxides
Q. Continuous rails for Indian railways are welded by --------- welding process.
a) Projection welding b) MIG welding
c) Thermit welding d) Friction welding
Q. Which of the following powders should be feed for effective oxy fuel cutting of
stainless steel
a) Steel b) Aluminium c) Copper d) Ceramic
Q. In arc welding, temperature of the following order may be generated.
a) 1000C b) 1500C c) 5500C d) 8000C
Q. The main criterion for selection of electrode diameter in arc welding is
a) Material to be welded b) Thickness of material
c) Voltage used d) Current used
Page no : 41
Q. Which one of the following welding processes consists of minimum heat affected zone
a) Shielded metal arc welding b) Laser beam welding
c) Ultrasonic welding d) Metal inert gas welding
Q. Which of the following are the Major characteristics of submerged arc welding
1. High welding speeds 2. High deposition rate
3. Low penetration 4. Low cleanliness
a) 2 & 3 b) 1, 2 & 3 c) 3 &4 d) 1 &2
Q. A. Spatter 1. Damp electrode
B. Distortion 2. Arc blow
C. Slag Inclusion 3. Improper cleaning in multi pass welding
D. Porosity 4. Poor joint selection
A B C D A B C D
a) 4 2 3 1 b) 4 2 1 3
c) 2 4 1 3 d) 2 4 3 1
Sol: - ( D)
Q. A. Mild steel 1. MIG welding
B. Bronze 2. Soldering
C. Brass 3. Brazing
D. Lead and tin alloy 4. Thermit welding
5. Braze welding
A B C D A B C D
- 46 -
 a) 1 5 3 2 b) 4 3 2 5
c) 4 3 5 2 d) 1 3 5 4
Sol: - (A)
Q. Which pair amount of following solid state welding processes uses heat from an
external source
P. Diffusion welding Q. Friction welding R. Ultrasonic welding
S. Forge welding
a) P and R b) R and S c) Q and S d) P and S
Q. The metal powder used in thermit welding of steel is
a) Al b) Cu c) Pb d) W
Q. Welding process Heat source
A. Thermit welding 1. Electric arc
B. Projection welding 2. Mechanical work
C. MIG welding 3. Exothermic chemical reaction
D. Friction welding 4. Ohmic resistances
A B C D A B C D
a) 3 4 1 2 b) 3 4 2 1
c) 1 2 3 4 d) 2 1 3 4

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