MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

MODULE – 2
LESSON CONTENTS:
Melting furnaces: Classification of furnaces, Gas fired pit furnace, Resistance furnace, Coreless
induction furnace, electric arc furnace, constructional features & working principle of cupola
furnace.
Casting using metal moulds: Gravity die casting, pressure die casting, centrifugal casting,
squeeze casting, slush casting, thixocasting, and continuous casting processes. Casting defects,
their causes and remedies
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PART B
CASTING USING METAL MOULDS
• Moulds can be prepared with sand or metal. There are various sand moulds and metallic
moulds in which castings are made.

Fig. Casting Using Metal Moulds

CASTING USING METAL MOULDS:
• Gravity die casting,
• Pressure die casting,
• Continuous casting
• Centrifugal casting,
• Squeeze casting,
• Slush casting,
• Thixocasting processes.

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GRAVITY DIE CASTING

• Gravity die casting or permanent* mould casting is a casting process in which the molten
metal is poured into a metallic mould called die under the influence of gravity. Hence the
name, gravity die casting.
• The mould or die is usually made from cast iron, tool steel, graphite, copper, or aluminum
alloys, and the choice for a particular material depends on the type of metal being cast.
• Gating and risering systems are machined either in one or both the mould halves.
• Figure 3.7(a) shows a permanent mould made in two halves which resembles a open book.
• The mould halves are hinged and can be clamped together to close the mould can be
prepared with sand or metal.

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Stepsinvolvedintheprocess
a) The mould is cleaned using wire brush or compressed air to remove dust and other
particles from it.
b) It is preheated to a temperature of 200- 280°C by gas or oil flame, and then the surface is
sprayed with a lubricant. The lubricant helps to control the temperature of the die thereby
increasing its life, and also assist in easy removal of the solidified casting.
c) The mould is closed tightly and the liquid metal of the desired composition is poured into
the mould under gravity.
d) After the metal cools and solidifies, the mould is opened and the casting is removed. Refer
figure 3.7(b). Gating and risering systems are separated from the cast part.
e) The mould is sprayed with lubricant and closed for the next casting. The mould need not
be preheated, since the heat in the previous cast is sufficient to maintain the temperature.

Advantages
• Good surface finish and close dimensional tolerances can be achieved .
• Suitable for mass production.
• Occupies less floor space.
• Thin sections can be easily cast.
• Eliminates skilled operators.
Disadvantages
• Initial cost for manufacturing moulds (dies) is high.
• Not suitable for steel, and high melting point metals/alloys.
• Un-economical for small productions.

PRESSURE DIE CASTING

• Pressure die casting, often called Die casting is a casting process in which the molten
metal is injected into a die under high pressure.
• The metal being cast must have a low melting point than the die material which is
usually made from steel and other alloys.
• Hence, this process is best suitable for casting non-ferrous materials, although a few
ferrous materials can also be cast.
The two basic methods of die casting include:
(a) Hot chamber die casting process
(b) Cold chamber die casting process.

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(a) HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING PROCESS

• Figure 3.8 shows a goose neck type of hot chamber die casting machine.
• In this process, the dies are made in two halves: one half called the fixed die or
stationary die, while the other half called movable die.
• The dies are aligned in positions by means of ejector pins which also help to eject the
solidified casting from the dies.

(b) COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING PROCESS.

• In hot chamber process, the charging unit (goose neck) rests in the melting chamber,
whereas in cold chamber process, the melting chamber is separate, and the molten
metal is charged into the cold chamber by means of ladles.
• Cold chamber process is employed for casting materials that are not possible by the
hot chamber process.
• For example, aluminum alloys react with the steel structure of the hot chamber
machine, and as a result there is a considerable iron pick-up by aluminum.
• This does not happen in cold chamber process, as the molten metal has a momentary
contact with the structure of the machine.
• Figure 3.9 shows the cold chamber die casting machine

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Stepsinvolvedintheprocess
a) A cylindrical shaped chamber called cold chamber (so called because, it is not a part of
melting or charging unit as is in the case of hot chamber process) is fitted with a freely
moving piston and is operated by means of hydraulic pressure.
b) A measured quantity of molten metal is poured into the cold chamber by means of ladles.
c) The plunger of the piston is activated, and progresses rapidly forcing the molten metal into
the die cavity. Pressure is maintained during the solidification process.
d) After the metal cools and solidifies, the plunger moves backward and the movable die half
opens by means of ejector pins forcing the casting from the die cavity.
• Cold chamber process is slightly slower when compared to the hot chamber process.

Advantages of Die casting process

• Process is economical for large production quantities.
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
• Thin sections can be easily cast.
• Near net shape can be achieved .
Disadvantages of Die casting process
• High cost of dies and equipment.
• Not economical for small production quantities.
• Process not preferable for ferrous metals .
• Part geometry must allow easy removal from die cavity.

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CONTINUOUS CASTING

• Continuous casting is a casting process in which the operation of pouring, solidification

and withdrawal of casting from an open mould are carried out continuously.
• Figure 3.10 shows a schematic Continuous casting process.

Stepsinvolvedintheprocess
a) The molten metal is continuously supplied from the ladle to the intermediate ladle called
tundish from where it is continuously poured into the mould at a controllable rate,
keeping the level at a constant position.
b) The mould, usually made of copper or graphite is open at the bottom and is water cooled
so as to extract the heat of the metal causing its solidification. The shape of the mould
corresponds to the shape of the desired casting.

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c) The process is started by placing a dummy bar at the bottom of the mould upon which the
first liquid metal falls.
d) The molten metal from the tundish enters the mould and takes the shape of the mould.
The water-cooled mould controls the cooling rate of the metal, so that it solidifies
before it leaves the mould
e) The metal after coming out of the mould is further cooled by direct water spray (or water
with air) for complete solidification to take place.
f) The solidified metal is continuously extracted (along with the dummy bar) by pinch rolls,
bent and fed horizontally, and finally cut to the desired length.

• Note: The dummy bar is initially placed at the bottom of the mould to receive the first
liquid metal (since the bottom of the mould is open). It is later disconnected from the
casting.
Advantages
• Sprue, runner, riser etc., are not used. Hence, no waste metal. This leads to 100 % casting
yield*.
• Capable of producing in single operation, rods, sections and tubes with varying sizes and
wall thickness.
• Process is automatic.
• Product has good consistent soundness.
• Mechanical properties are high and very reproducible.
Disadvantages
• Not suitable for small quantity production.
• Continuous and efficient cooling of moulds is required, else, center-line shrinkage
develops in the cast part
• Requires large floor space

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• Centrifugal casting is a process in which the molten metal is poured and allowed to solidify
in a revolving mould .
• The centrifugal force due to the revolving mould holds the molten metal against the mould
wall until it solidifies.
• The material used for preparing moulds may be cast iron steel, sand, or graphite (for non-
ferrous castings) .
• The process is used for making castings of hollow cylindrical shapes.
The various centrifugal casting techniques include:
(a) True centrifugal casting
(b) Semi-centrifugal casting, and
(c) Centrifuge casting.

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(a) TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

• True centrifugal casting is used to produce parts that are symmetrical about the axis,
like that of pipes, tubes, bushings, liners and rings.
• The outside shape of the casting can be round. octagonal, hexagonal etc., but the inside
shape is perfectly (theoretically) round due to radially symmetric forces .
• Hollow castings can be efficiently produced by this process without the need for cores.
• Figure 3.11 shows the true centrifugal process

Stepsinvolvedintheprocess
a) The mould of the desired shape is prepared with metal, and the walls are coated with a
refractory ceramic coating.
b) The mould is rotated about its axis at high speeds in the range of 300- 3000 rpm. A
measured quantity of molten metal is poured into the rotating mould.
c) The centrifugal force of the rotating mould throws the liquid metal towards the mould
wall and holds the molten metal until it solidifies.
d) The casting cools and solidifies from its outer surface towards the axis of rotation of the
mould thereby promoting directional solidification.
e) The thickness of the casting obtained can be controlled by the amount of liquid metal
being poured.
• An inherent quality of true centrifugal castings is based on the fact that, the non-metallic
impurities in castings being less dense than the metal are forced towards the inner
surface (towards the axis) of the casting due to the centrifugal forces.
• These impurities can be machined later by a suitable process (say boring operation).
Note:
• The mould may be rotated horizontally or vertically. When the mould is rotated about a
horizontal axis, a true cylindrical inside surface is produced; if rotated on a vertical axis,
a parabolic inside surface is produced.
• Cores and gating/risering systems are not required for this process.

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Advantages oftruecentrifugalcasting
• Non-metallic impurities being less dense are forced towards the center of rotation due to
centrifugal forces from where they can be easily machined to give a clean defect free
casting.
• No need for cores to produce hollow castings.
• Gating system is not required, hence high casting yield.
• Suitable for mass production .
• Shrinkage is not a problem when manufacturing by true centrifugal casting, since
material from the inner sections will constantly be forced to instantly fill any vacancies
that may occur in outer sections during solidification.
• Quality castings with good dimensional accuracy can be produced with this process.
Disadvantages oftruecentrifugalcasting
• Process is limited to hollow castings.
• Casting’s wall thickness is controlled by the exact amount of material added during the
pouring phase.
• Rotational rate of the mold during the manufacture of the casting need to be calculated
carefully based on the mold dimensions and the metal being cast.
• Requires skilled workers

(b) SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

• Semi-centrifugal casting process is used to produce solid castings, and hence requires
a core to produce hollow cavities.
• The process is used only for symmetrically shaped objects and the axis of rotation of the
mould is always vertical.
• Gear blanks, sheaves, wheels and pulley are commonly produced by this process. Figure
3.12 shows the process to produce a wheel shaped casting.

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Stepsinvolvedintheprocess
• The mould is prepared in the usual manner using cope and drag box.
• The mould cavity is prepared with its central axis being vertical and concentric with the
axis of rotation.
• The core is placed in position, and the mould is rotated at suitable speeds, usually less than
that used in true centrifugal casting process.
• The centrifugal force produced due to the rotation of the mould causes the molten metal to
fill the cavity to produce the desired shape.

Advantages ofsemi-centrifugalcasting
• Non-metallic impurities being less dense are forced towards the center of rotation due to
centrifugal forces from where they can be easily machined to give a clean defect free
casting.
• The high forces in the outer section that push the molten material against the mold wall
also ensure a great surface finish of cast parts manufactured by semi-centrifugal casting.
• Quality castings with good dimensional accuracy can be produced with this process.

Disadvantages ofsemi-centrifugalcasting
• Restricted to symmetrically shaped castings.
• Requires skilled workers.
• Density is greatest in the outer cast regions and decreases towards the center.
• Impurities such as inclusions and trapped air, tend to collect and solidify in the less dense
material closer to the center of the axis of rotation.
• Consumes more time.

(c) CENTRIFUGE CASTING OR CENTRIFUGING PROCESS

• In true and semi-centrifugal casting process , the axis of the mould/cavity coincides with
the axis of rotation; whereas in centrifuging process, the axis of the mould cavity does
not-coincide with the axis of rotation.
• The mould is designed with part cavities located away from the axis of rotation.
• Hence, this process is suitable for non-symmetrical castings.
• Figure 3.13 shows the principal views of centrifuging process.

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Stepsinvolvedintheprocess
• Several mould cavities are arranged in a circle and connected to a central down sprue
through gates.
• The axis of the down sprue is common to the axis -of rotation of the mould.
• As the mould is rotated, the liquid metal is poured down the sprue which feeds the metal
into the mould cavity under centrifugal force.
• The rotational speed depends on a number of factors such as, the moulding medium (sand
metal or ceramic), size of the casting, type of metal being poured , and the distance of the
cavity from the central axis (sprue axis).
Centrifuging is done only about a vertical axis.
Advantages ofcentrifugecasting

• The process need not have rotational symmetry. Hence, desired shapes can be
manufactured.
• Suitable for large quantity castings.
Disadvantages
• Centrifuging is done only about a vertical axis,
• Density is greatest in the outer cast regions and decreases towards the center.

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• Impurities such as inclusions and trapped air, tend to collect and solidify in the less dense
material close to the center of the axis of rotation.
• Requires skilled workers

SQUEEZE CASTING
• Squeeze casting or squeeze forming or liquid metal forging is a combination of casting
and forging process.
• Figure 3.14 shows the sequence of operations involved in the process.

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Stepsinvolvedintheprocess
• The process makes use of two dies: bottom die and top die, cast and machined in such a
way that upon mating leaves a cavity similar to the shape of the desired casting. Refer
figure 3.14(a).
• The bottom die is preheated to around 200- 250°C with the help of a torch , and sprayed
by a water based graphite lubricant to facilitate easy removal of the casting after
solidification. Refer figure 3.14(b).
• A measured quantity of molten metal is poured into the bottom die as shown in figure
3.14(c).
• As the metal starts solidifying, pressure is applied to the top die, causing it to move
rapidly towards the bottom die. This causes the molten metal to get squeezed and fill the
mould cavity. Refer figure 3.14(d).
• The squeezing pressure is applied until solidification is completed.
• The casting is ejected by operating the lift pin provided in the bottom die, and the die is
then made ready for the next cycle. Refer figure 3.14(e)
• Squeeze casting is commonly used for casting aluminum and magnesium alloys. Cores
can be used in this process to produce holes and recesses.
Advantages
• Metals which have poor fluidity characteristics can be cast by this process .
• Low shrinkage and gas porosity, due to the applied pressure during solidification.
• Enhanced mechanical properties because of fine grain structure caused by rapid
solidification.

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• Good surface finish.

• Suitable for large quantity castings.
Disadvantages
• Process is costlier. Manufacturing dies to accurate dimensions involves complex
processes.
• Accurate metering of molten metal is a slight difficult problem.
• Un-economical for small quantity production.

SLUSH CASTING
• Slush casting is a process in which hollow castings are produced without the use of cores.
• The process is not preferred to produce objects for engineering use, instead it is used to
make objects like statues, toys, lamp base, candle sticks and others, where only the external
features of the object are important. Refer figure 3.15(c).

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Stepsinvolvedintheprocess
• In this process, the molten metal is poured in a metallic mould and permitted to remain in
the mould for a short interval of time. Refer figure 3.15(a).
• Solidification begins at the mould walls, as ·they are relatively cool, and then progresses
inward.
• When a shell of desired thickness is formed, the mould is inverted, and the metal which is
still in the liquid state is drained off. Refer figure 3.15(b).
• The thickness of the shell obtained depends on the time for which the metal was allowed to
remain in the mould , and also the thermal conductivity of the mould.
• When the mould halves are separated, a hollow casting with good features on its external
• surfaces, but variable wall thickness is obtained as shown in figure 3.15(c).

Advantages
• Process is simple and inexpensive.
• Hollow castings can be made without using cores.
Disadvantages
• Process is used for art and decorative work only. Not suitable for engineering
applications.
• Only low melting point alloys with narrow freezing ranges can be used.
• Castings with uniform wall thickness is difficult to achieve.

THIXOCASTING (THIXOFORMING) PROCESS

• Thixocasting although similar to squeeze casting, is a more refined process in which the
casting material, for example, aluminum alloy is subjected to a heating treatment to
prepare a semi-molten material having solid and liquid phases co-existing therein.

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Stepsinvolvedintheprocess
• The semi-molten material is injected into a cavity whose shape resembles to the shape of
the desired product, and rapidly compressed at very high pressures.
• This is a high potential technology bringing together quality metallurgy, advanced
mechanical properties and excellent dimensional precision.
• The yield strength of the part made by thixocasting is around 220 MPa compared to a
maximum of 140 MPa, that obtained by a pressure die casting process.
• It is therefore used in the manufacture of light weight parts especially in automobiles that
are subjected to severe stresses.

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Advantages
• High quality with near net shape parts can be produced .
• Excellent mechanical properties of cast parts.
• Since the semi solid metal injected into the cavity is just above the solidification
temperature, there is a reduction in solidification and cycle times, resulting in increased
production.
• Shrinkage porosity is reduced due to lower super-heat involved.
Disadvantages
• Expensive due to the need for special billets for thixocasting.
• Process is restricted only to certain alloys.
• Scrap cannot be directly reduced.
• Not suitable for very thick parts.

FETILING / CLEANING OF CASTINGS

• Fettling and cleaning is carried out following the shakeout (removal of casting from sand
mould) and knockout (removal of sand core from casting) operations.
Fettling includesthefollowingsteps:
a) Removal of sand and other impurities
b) Removal of excess metal
c) Finishing of castings
a)Removalofsandand otherimpurities
• The rough casting removed from the mould consists of adhering moulding sand, core
sand, oxides and scale which has to be cleaned.
• This is achieved manually, mechanically or by chemical means.
• Wire brush, files and other tools are used in manual operations, while air blasting, hydro-
blasting, tumbling etc., are a few equipment's used in mechanical operations.
• Chemical cleaning methods utilize baths of molten caustic soda containing additional
reagents to react with and break the surface oxide layer. This loosens adhering sand also.
b)Removalofexcessmetal
• This step includes removing excess metal such as fins*, blisters, stumps of gates and
risers, and other unwanted projections from the castings.
• This is achieved by chipping, sawing, flame cutting. grinding and other operations.
c)Finishing ofcastings
• Finishing is carried out to smoothen parts of the casting where gates and risers were
attached, and also improve the surface finish and appearance of the casting.
• Different finishing operations like Grinding, Polishing, Buffing, etc., are used for the
purpose.

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CASTING DEFECTS
• Casting process involves a number of variables, and a loss of control in any of these
variables can cause defects under certain circumstances.
Someofthecommoncastingdefects,theirfeaturesandremediestopreventsuchdefectsare
discussedbelow.
a) Shrinkage defect
b) Porosity defect (Blow hole and Pin hole)
c) Misrun
d) Penetration
e) Mould shift
f) Cold shut
g) Hot tears

(a) Shrinkagedefect
• Shrinkage is a void on the surface of the castings resulting from contraction or
shrinkage of metal during solidification . Refer figure 2.16.
• Although a riser is used to over come the shrinkage effect, in some cases it fails to
feed the molten metal efficiently to the casting as it solidifies.

Remedies
• Use large sprue and riser to promote directional solidification.
• Locate risers and gating systems in correct positions.
• Gates to be cut as wide as possible.

(b) Porosity defect (Blow hole and Pin hole)

• Molten metal absorb gases from various sources such as fluxes, moisture in sand,
binders, additives and normal atmospheric gases like oxygen and nitrogen.
• If these gases are not allowed to escape, they get entrapped in the mould cavity
forming small balloon shaped voids or cavities leading to porosity defect in castings.

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Two types of gas related defects occur in castings. They are: blow hole and pin hole
defect.
• Blow holes occur below the surface of the castings and are not visible from the outside
surface. Refer figure 2.17 (a). On the other hand, pin holes are small gas cavities,
many in number at or slightly below the surface of the casting. Refer figure 2.17 (b).

Remedies
• Avoid excess ramming of mould .
• Provide proper vent holes.
• Avoid use of excess carbonaceous or other organic material in the sand/core binders,
because these materials react with the molten metal producing large amount of gases.
(c)Misrun
• Misrun occur when the mould cavity is not completely filled with molten metal.
• In other words, it is a defect wherein a casting solidifies before the molten metal
completely fills the cavity. Refer figure 2.18.

Remedies
• Fluidity of metal should be maintained suitably.
• Pouring rate and time should be controlled.
• Thin sections should be suitable designed.

(d) Penetration
• When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into the sand mould/core (into
the voids between the sand particles).

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• A fused aggregate of metal and sand appears on the surface of the casting leading to
defect. Refer figure 2.19.
•

Remedies
• Sand should be properly rammed .
• Moulding sand/core and should not he too coarse to promote metal penetration.
• Control proper metal temperature. (Fluidity of molten metal should be maintained
suitably)

(e) Mould shift

• It is a step produced in the cast product along the parting line due to the sidewise
relative displacement of cope and drag box . Refer figure 2.20.

Remedies
• Proper alignment of cope and drag box.
• Proper handling of assembled cope and drag box during operations.

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(f)Coldshut
• Two portions of metal flow together, but lack of fusion due to premature freezing
results in a defect known as cold shut. Refer figure 2.21.

Remedies
• Place gates and risers at proper locations
• Metal fluidity should be high.

(g) Hot tears

• A hot tear is an internal or external ragged discontinuity formed in the casting due to
the pulling action of the metal just after it has solidified. Refer figure 2.22.

Remedies
• Provide adequate fillets at sharp corners while designing the component.
• Proper metallurgical and pouring temperature to be maintained.
• Place gates and risers at suitable locations.

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PART –A

Melting furnaces: Classification of furnaces, Gas fired pit furnace, Resistance furnace, Coreless
induction furnace, electric arc furnace, constructional features & working principle of cupola
furnace.

CLASSIFICATION OF FURNACES
• A pre-requisite to casting is the use of metal in molten state.
• The transformation of metal from solid to molten liquid is accomplished in a variety of ways
through the use of various types of furnaces.
Thefurnacesusedformeltingmetal canbeclassifiedbasedonthefollowing:
a) the type of metal it can melt and
b) the source of heat required for melting.
(a)Basedonthetypeofmetal itcanmelt
(i)GrayCast Iron
• Cupola furnace
• Electric Arc furnace
• Air furnace or Reverberatory furnace.
(ii)Steel
• Open hearth furnace
• Electric Furnace
Arc furnace
High frequency Induction furnace.
(iii)Non-Ferrousmetals
• Crucible furnace
Pit type
Electrical resistance type.
• Reverberatory furnace (fuel fired)
• Rotary furnace.
• Induction furnace
Low frequency
High frequency.
• Electrical Arc furnace

(b)Basedonthesourceofheat
(i)Fuelfiredfurnace
• Gas fired furnace
• Oil fired furnace
• Coke fired furnace
• Air furnace (Reverberatory furnace)

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(ii)Electricalfurnace
• Reverberatory furnace
• Induction Furnace
• Arc furnace
Direct arc type
Indirect arc type.

GAS FIRED PIT FURNACE

• A gas fired pit furnace has a crucible* placed in a pit, below the ground level as shown in
figure 4.1.
(* Crucible -A vessel or pot, made of refractory substance or of a metal with a high melting
point, used for melting metals or other substances.)

Construction
• The furnace consists of an outer steel shell lined with refractory bricks around. The
refractory material resists heat shock, abrasion and erosion .
• At the bottom, a round base or pedestal block is placed upon which the crucible is
supported.
• The diameter of the block is the same as that of the crucible in order to provide proper
support.
• The crucible is usually made of clay, silicon carbide or graphite material.
• Towards the bottom of the steel shell, a small opening is made through which th gas (fuel) is
passed. For complete combustion of fuel, air is forced into the furnace along with the fuel
by means of a small blower.
• At the top of the furnace, a refractory lid with a small opening for the escape of hot gases is
provided.
• The lid is generally hinged, so that it can be swung out of the way for easy removal of the
crucible

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Working
• In operation, the lid is opened and the charge (metal) is fed directly into the crucible.
• The fuel (Natural gas or liquid propane) and air mixture is introduced into the furnace at
an angle which causes the flame to rise from the bottom of the furnace, swirl around the
crucible and finally pass out of the furnace as shown in figure 4.1.
• The furnace atmosphere can be made neutral, oxidizing or reducing by regulating the flow
of air from the blower.
• After the metal melts and attains the desired temperature, the lid of the furnace is opened
and the crucible is lifted with the help of tongs.
• The slag floating on the surface of the melt is removed, and the molten metal is poured
into the mould cavity.
• Gas fired pit furnace was used in olden days and is still preferred to melt non-ferrous
metal for casting small jobs
• In today’s foundry practice , these furnaces operate at floor level instead of pits.

RESISTANCE FURNACE or ELECTRIC RESISTANCE FURNACE

Figure 4.3 shows the indirect type of resistance furnace used for melting non-ferrous metals.

Construction
• The furnace consists of an outer steel shell lined with refractory bricks around. The
refractory material resists heat shock, abrasion and erosion.
• At the bottom, a round base or pedestal block is placed upon which a crucible is
supported.

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• The diameter of the block is the same as that of the crucible in order to provide proper
support.
• The crucible is usually made of Clay, silicon carbide or graphite.
• On the inside of the refractory lining, grooves are provided to accommodate resistors or
heating coils. The resistors are connected to an electric power supply.
• At the top of the furnace, a refractory lid with a small opening for the escape of hot gases
is provided.
Working
• The furnace works on the principle that, when electric current flows through a resistor or
heating coil, heat is generated due to the resistance offered by the material of the coil to
the flow of electric current.
• The heat generated in the coil is given by the equation:
H= I2RT
Where,
H = heat generated in Joules
I = flow of current in Amperes.
R = resistance of the coil in Ohms and
T = time of current flow in seconds.
• Heat transfer takes place through radiation and convection due to which the charge
(metal) inside the crucible is melted.
• The lid at the top of the furnace is opened and the crucible is lifted out with the help of
tongs.
• The slag floating on the surface of the melt is removed and the molten metal is poured
into the mould cavity.

CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

• A coreless induction furnace shown in figure4.4 is used for melting ferrous metals.
Construction
• The furnace consists of an outer cylindrical steel shell hinged at the bottom to facilitate
tilting of furnace during pouring.
• The inner surface of the shell is covered with an insulating material made of mica or
asbestos, while the bottom surface is covered with refractory bricks.
• A refractory crucible which contains the charge rests on the brick work and surrounded
by a helical coil made of copper tube.
• The copper tube being a heavy tube requires active cooling and this is achieved by
passing a flow of water through it.
• The space between the crucible and the shell is packed by a dry refractory mass that
provides the necessary insulation.

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WorkingPrinciple
• The furnace works on the principle of a transformer in which the copper coil acts as
primary, and the charge (steel scraps) as secondary.
• When a high frequency electric current is passed through the primary coil, a much
heavier secondary current is induced in the charge.
• Heat is generated due to the resistance of the metal causing it to melt.
• The liquid metal (melt) undergoes a stirring action due to the eddy currents induced by
the EMF (Electromagnetic Force) that is concentrated in the center of the circular
primary coil.
• This stirring action is beneficial in uniform distribution of temperature and alloy
chemistry in the melt.
• But on the other hand, if stirring action is excessive, dross or surface impurities is drawn
into the melt.
• When the molten metal has reached the desired temperature, the metal is deoxidized and
tapped into ladles for pouring into moulds.
• (Tapping - It is the operation of tilting the furnace to pour off molten metal.)
• (The purpose of deoxidation is to lower the dissolved oxygen content of steel to improve
its quality. This is accomplished by adding silicon and manganese shortly before the
metal is tapped and adding aluminum to the ladle during pouring.)

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ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE:

• An electric arc furnace utilizes the heat of the electric arc generated between two conducting
materials to melt the charge.
• It is used for melting cast iron and steels. High thermal efficiency, rapid heating, close
temperature control and strict atmospheric control are a few characteristics of the furnace that
lead to the production of good quality metal.
Arc furnace is of two types:
(a) Direct arc electric furnace
• In this furnace, the electrodes come in contact with the metal to create an arc.
(b) Indirect arc electric furnace
• In this type of furnace, the electrodes never touches the metal to create an arc, instead, arc
is struck between the electrodes.

DIRECT ARC ELECTRIC FURNACE

• Figure 4.5 shows the direct type of arc furnace used for melting steel and other non-
ferrous metals.

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Construction
• The furnace consists of a heavy steel cylindrical shell with a spherical bottom, lined with
refractory bricks. The furnace hearth and walls are lined with magnetite bricks.
• (Hearth - is the bottom portion of the furnace that supports the charge and
sometimes collects and holds the molten metal.)
• The furnace is built on a tilting platform that facilitates tilting of the furnace forward for
pouring molten metal into ladles.
• The furnace can also be tilted backwards for inspection, charging metal, flux,
deoxidizers etc., and for removal of slag through the slag door.
• The roof of the furnace is made of steel shell lined inside with refractory bricks and can be
clamped in position. Metal can also be charged from the furnace roof.
• The roof is provided with three circular holes through which non-consumable graphite
electrodes are inserted.
• The electrodes can be raised and lowered by means of guides, and are usually water
cooled to dissipate heat. They are connected to a 3-phase power supply as shown in the
figure.
WorkingPrinciple:
• Arc furnace works on the principle that, when an arc is struck between the electrode and
charge material, heat is generated due to the resistance of the metal charge.
• In operation, the furnace is charged with ingots, steel scrap, alloy metals and fluxing
agents through the charging door.
• The electrodes are lowered down. On supplying the necessary current and voltage, an arc
is produced between the electrodes and the charge material.
• The gap between the electrodes and the charge is maintained by regulating the movement
of electrodes, so that the arc remains between them and burns continuously melting the
charge materials.
• The flux melts and forms a slag that floats on the surface of the liquid metal. The slag
prevents oxidation, refines the metal and protects the furnace roof from excessive heat.
• After the liquid metal has achieved the desired temperature, the electrodes are raised to
extinguish the arc, and the furnace is tilted backwards to remove the slag.
• The furnace is then tilted forward to pour the liquid metal into ladles. Insulating powders
are thrown into ladles to prevent radiation loss of liquid metal. The metal from the ladle is
then poured into the moulds.

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INDIRECT ARC ELECTRIC FURNACE

• Figure 4.6 shows an indirect arc electric furnace used for melting small quantities of
ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Construction:
• The furnace consists of a cylindrical or barrel shaped steel shell lined with a refractory
material. The shell is mounted on rollers and can be tilted through 180°.
• This facilitates for easy pouring of liquid metal to the ladles. Also, the rollers provide
rocking action to the furnace that speeds the melting rate and stirs the molten metal.
• Two non-consumable carbon electrodes are mounted along the horizontal axis and can be
automatically adjusted for maintaining proper arc column.
• A charging door and pouring spout (partly shown in figure by a cut section) serve their
usual purpose.
Working:
• The ingot, steel scrap and alloy metals, and fluxing agents are charged into the furnace.
• On supplying the necessary current and voltage, an arc is struck between the two non-
consumable carbon electrodes. The electrodes are brought closer together and maintained,
so that the arc remains between them.
• The charge melts by radiation from the heat produced by the arc, and also by conduction
from the heat absorbed by the refractory lining.

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• Once the metal melts, the furnace is rotated (set to rock to and fro). This helps the
refractory lining to get heated up and also, the molten metal exposed to a larger area of the
heated lining. Also, rocking stirs the molten metal homogenously. When the liquid metal
reaches the desired temperature, the furnace is tilted mechanically and the liquid metal is
tapped in ladles and poured into the moulds.

CUPOLA FURNACE

• A cupola is a vertical cylindrical furnace used for melting only cast iron. Although other
furnaces are capable of melting cast iron, the largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in
cupola furnace. Figure 4.7 shows a cupola furnace.

CONSTRUCTION
• The cupola consists of a cylindrical steel shell lined with a refractory material like
firebrick and clay.
• The height of the furnace may range from 20 - 35 feet, while its diameter ranges from 10
- 50 inch.
• The furnace is open at both its top and bottom.
• At the bottom of the furnace, hinged insulated doors are provided, so that after melting is
completed, the contents left inside the cupola can be dropped down by opening the hinged
doors.
• The iron prop supports and helps in closing and opening of the hinged doors.
• A coarse refractory sand and clay are rammed slightly on the bottom doors. The sand is
rammed in a tapered manner to allow the flow of molten metal easily through the tapping
spout.
• Opposite to the tapping spout and little higher is a slag hole through which the slag is
removed.
• Slightly above the slag hole is the Wind box and tuyeres.
• The tuyeres are small openings (covered by wind box) through which air under pressure
is forced into the furnace from the wind box, via a pipe from the blowing equipment.
• At the top end of the shell, a charging door is provided through which the charge is fed
into the furnace.

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WORKING
a) Starting the cupola
b) Charging cupola
c) Melting
d) Tapping slag and molten metal
e) Dropping down the bottom

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a) Starting the cupola

• Initially, soft and dry wooden pieces are placed on the sand bottom after which coke is
charged up to the tuyere level.
• The wooden pieces are ignited through the tap hole and sufficient air is passed through
the tuyeres for proper combustion of coke.
b) Charging cupola
• The charge used in cupola consists of alternate layers of coke, flux and metal (iron).
These three components are continuously built into the furnace as shown in figure.
• The most commonly used iron-to-coke ratio is 8:1.
• The flux may be limestone (CaCO3), fluorspar, sodium carbonate or calcium carbide.
• Limestone is the commonly employed flux.
th
• The total weight of the flux will be approximately 1/5 the weight of the coke charge.
c) Melting

• Cupola works on the counter current principle. As the combustion takes place, the charge
materials (coke, flux and metal) will be descending downwards, while the hot gases due
to combustion will be ascending upwards.
• Heat exchange takes place between the rising hot gases and the descending charge
thereby melting the metal. The liquid metal drops down, while the coke floats up on top
of it.
• The flux also melts and reacts with the impurities of the molten metal forming a slag.
The slag floats on the surface of the molten metal thereby preventing oxidation of the
metal.
• Supply of air at suitable intervals accelerates the combustion process.
d) Tapping slag and molten metal
• When sufficient liquid metal is collected in the reservoir, the slag door is opened and the
slag floating on the surface of the molten metal is tapped and disposed off.
• Immediately the tapping spout which was closed with a bott (a clay plug) is opened and
the liquid metal is tapped into ladles.
• When the ladle is filled with liquid metal, the tapping spout is again closed with the bott.
• The liquid metal from the ladle is poured into the moulds.
e) Dropping down the bottom
• When melting is complete and no more liquid metal is required, the charging of cupola is
stopped.
• The prop under the bottom door is knocked down and the bottom door is swung out of
the way allowing the contents in the cupola to drop down.
• The un-melted charge is collected and used during the next melting.

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• Note: The operation of dropping down the bottom is very dangerous and has to be done
by a trained person.
ZONES OF CUPOLA
The various zones in a cupola are shown in figure and are as follows:
(a) Well zone
(b) Combustion zone
(c) Reducing zone
(d) Melting zone
(e) Preheating zone
(a) Well zone
• Well zone is the portion situated between the rammed sand bottom and just below the
bottom edge of the tuyeres.
• The molten metal is occupied in this zone.

• The temperature in this zone varies from 1550° C -1850°C.

(c) Reducing zone
• Reducing zone or protection zone is the portion located from the top of the combustion
zone to the top of the coke bed.
• In this zone, some of the hot CO2 gas moving upward through the hot coke gets reduced
to CO. In other words, reduction of CO2 to CO occurs in this zone. Due to the reducing
atmosphere, the charge is protected from oxidation.
• The reaction taking place in this zone is given by:
CO2 + C (coke) --> 2CO – heat
• Due to the reduction, the temperature reduces to around 1200°C in this zone.
(d) Melting zone
• The portion located just above the coke bed to the top of the metal (iron) is called the
melting zone.
• The metal starts melting in this zone and trickles down through the coke bed to the well
zone.
• The molten iron while passing down through the reducing zone picks up carbon and the
reaction is given by:
3Fe + 2CO ---> Fe 3C + CO 2

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(e) Preheating zone

• The portion occupied from the top surface of the melting zone to the charging door is
called preheating zone.
• The hot gases rising upwards from the combustion and reducing zone gives its heat to
charge before passing out of the furnace.
• Thus, the charge is preheated before descending downwards.

REFERENCES:

1. Ghosh, A. and Mallik, A. K., (2017), Manufacturing Science, East-West Press.

2. Parmar R. S., (2007), Welding Processes and Technology, Khanna Publishers.

3. Little R. L. – ‘Welding and Welding Technology’ – Tata McGraw Hill Publishing

Company Limited, New Delhi – 1989

4. Grong O. – ‘Metallurgical Modelling of Welding’ – The Institute of Materials – 1997 –

2nd Edition

5. Kou S. – ‘Welding Metallurgy’ – John Wiley Publications, New York – 2003 – 2nd
Edition.

6. Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid – ‘Manufacturing Engineering and

Technology’ – Prentice Hall – 2013 – 7th Edition

7. Principles of foundry technology, 4th edition, P L Jain, Tata McGraw Hill, 2006.

8. Advanced Welding Processes technology and process control, John Norrish, Wood Head
Publishing, 2006.

9. A text book of “Manufacturing Process-I” by Kestoor Praveen, Suggi Publishing

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