Casting Processes

Fundamental principles, production techniques, characteristics and its applications.

• Investment Casting • Stir casting

• Squeeze casting
• Centrifugal casting
• Plaster Mould casting
• Die-casting
• Pressure Casting
• Shell moulding
Investment Casting
 Investment Casting cont.

• One (or) more master patterns of steel (or) brass are first prepared

• These patterns are replica of part to be cast

• Using these patterns, a bismuth-alloy (or) lead-alloy split mould is cast

• The mould is properly finished and gated

• Mould is then ready for use in forming the wax patterns

 Investment Casting cont.

• The mould is held in a water cooled ice, and heated wax (or) thermoplastic
polystyrene resin injected into it under considerable pressure

• Upon solidification wax patterns are removed from the mould

• Several patterns are usually assembled with necessary gates and risers by
wax welding

• The pattern tree is dipped (or) sprayed with a fine refractory silica flour
mixture (liquid slurry) to insure a smooth surface on the casting
 Investment Casting cont.

• Then the coated pattern will be dipped / sprayed with the coarser refractory mixture

• Upon drying, the mould is placed upside down and heated (90°C-175°C) in an oven for
several hours to melt out the wax and to dry the mould

• This mould is then fired to 650°C-1050°C for about 4hrs, depending on the metal to be cast

• During firing, Water of crystallization (chemically bonded water) and any residual wax can
be burn off

• After the metal has been poured and has solidified, the mould is broken up and casting is
removed
 Investment Casting cont.
Advantages
• Intricate forms having undercuts can be cast

• An excellent details and a very smooth surface finish on casting is obtained with no disfiguring
parting line as found on castings made by cope and drag methods

• Dimensional accuracy is good

• Certain unmachinable parts can be cast to preplanned shape

• It may be used to replace die casting where short runs are involved

Disadvantages
• The process is expensive
• It is limited to small castings
• It presents some difficulties where cores are involved
 Centrifugal Casting

• It is the process of rotating a mould while the metal solidifies, so as to utilize

centrifugal force for positioning the metal in the mould.

• The metal is forced against the walls of the mould with much greater pressure than
that obtained by static pressure in ordinary sand casting.

• Greater detail on the surface of the casting is obtained, and the dense metal
structure has superior physical properties.

• This method is particularly suited to castings of symmetrical shape.

 Types of Centrifugal casting
• True centrifugal casting

• Semi centrifugal casting

• Centrifuging
 True centrifugal casting
• Molten metal is poured into a rotating
mould

• The axis of rotation is usually horizontal

but can be vertical for short work piece

• Moulds are made of Steel, iron (or)

graphite, and may be coated with a
refractory lining to increase mould life
 True centrifugal casting cont.

• The moulds can have various polygonal shapes as outer surface while
the inner is a cylindrical in shape.

• Cylindrical parts ranging from 13mm - 3mm inner diameter and 16m long
can cast centrifugally with wall thickness ranging from 6mm - 125mm.

• The pressure generated by the centrifugal force is high, as much as 150

g’s, and such high pressure is necessary for casting thick walled parts.
 Characteristics of Centrifugal Casting

• The casting is relatively free from defects.

• Non-metallic impurities which segregate toward the bore can be machined off.

• Less loss of metal compared to that in gating and risering in conventional sand casting.

• Better mechanical properties.

• Production rate is high.

• Can be employed to manufacture bimetallic pipes.

• Can be used for fabricating functionally gradient metal matrix composite material.
 Semi centrifugal casting

• It is similar to true centrifugal casting;

however rotational is symmetry such as a
wheel with spokes.

• The rotational speed is lower than true

centrifugal process.

• This process produces dense structure at the outer circumference where it is needed,
while the centre metal is machined out.
 Centrifuging
• Several casting cavities are located around the outer
portion of a mould.

• Metal is fed to these cavities by radial gates from the

centre of the mould.

• Mould cavities are filled under pressure from the

centrifugal force of the meal as the mould is rotated.

• Either single (or) stack moulds can be used.

• This method is not limited to symmetrical objects.

• It can produce castings of irregular shape.

Advantages of centrifugal casting
• It is more economical than other methods.

• Cores in cylindrical shapes and risers (or) feed heads are eliminated.

• Castings have a dense metal structure with all impurities forced back to the centre where
frequently they can be machined out.

• Because of the pressure exerted on the metal, thinner sections can be cast than static casting.

• Any metal can be cast by this process.

Disadvantages
• All castings cannot be made centrifugally since there are definite size and shape limitations.
 Die casting

• Die (or) pressure die casting is a permanent

mould manufacturing process.

• The molten metal is forced into the die

cavity at pressure ranging from 0.7MPa to

700MPa.
 Die Casting cont.

• This pressure is accountable for the tremendously intricate surface detail and thin walls that
are often observed in metal castings manufactured by this technique.

• Once the mould has been filled with molten metal, the pressure is maintained until the
casting has hardened/solidified.

• The mould is then opened and the casting is removed (or) Ejector pins built into the mould
assist in the removal of the metal casting.

• In most manufacturing operations, the internal surfaces of the mould are sprayed with a
lubricant before every cycle.
 Die Casting cont.

• The lubricant will assist in cooling down the dies as well as preventing the metal casting
from sticking to the mould.

• Typically the mould will have 1000 times the mass of the metal casting.

• The weight of most castings ranges from 90g to 25kg.

• Due to the extreme pressures and the continuous exposure to thermal gradients from the
molten metal, wearing of the die can be a problem.

• However in a well maintained manufacturing process, a die can last hundreds of thousands
of cycles before needing to be replaced.
 Die Casting cont.

• There two types of die-casting machines: Hot-chamber and Cold-chamber.

• In addition to the opening and closing of the mould to prepare for and remove castings, it
is very important that there is enough force that can be applied to hold the two halves
of the mould together during the injection of the molten metal.

• Flow of molten metal under such pressures will create a tremendous force acting to
separate the die halves during the process.

• Die casting machines are large and strong, designed to hold the mould together against
such forces.
 Hot-chamber (die) casting process

• The hot chamber process involves the use of a piston, which traps a certain volume of
molten metal and forces it into the die cavity through a gooseneck and nozzle.
 Hot-chamber (die) casting process

• Pressure ranges up to 35MPa, the metal is held under pressure until it solidifies in the die.

• To improve die life and to aid in rapid metal cooling for reducing cycle time, dies are
usually cooled by circulating water or oil through various passageways in the die block.

• Cycle time usually ranges up to 200-300 shots per hour for zinc, for very small components
like zipper teeth can be cast at 18000 shots per hour.

• Low melting point alloys such as Zinc, Magnesium, Tin and Lead are commonly cast using
this process.
 Cold Chamber Die Casting

• Cold chamber die casting is also a permanent mould metal casting process.

• A metal shot chamber, (cold-chamber), is located

at the entrance of the mould. A piston is
connected to this chamber, which in turn is
connected to a power cylinder.

• At the start of the manufacturing cycle the correct amount of molten material for a single shot is
poured into the shot chamber from an external source holding the material for the metal casting.
 Cold-chamber (die) casting cont.

• It is most likely machined precisely from two steel blocks.

• Large robust machines are used to exert the great clamping force necessary to
hold the two halves of the mould together against the tremendous pressures
exerted during the manufacturing process.

• The power cylinder forces the piston forward in the chamber, cutting off
the intake port.
 Cold-chamber (die) casting cont.

• The power cylinder moving the piston forward forces the molten material into the

mould with great pressure.

• Pressure causes the liquid metal to fill in even thin sections of the metal casting

and press the mould walls for great surface detail.

• The pressure is maintained sometime after the injection phase of die casting

manufacture.
Shell Moulding
 Shell Moulding
• Shell mould casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and
molten metal.

• Shell mould casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured
into an expendable mould.

• However, in shell mould casting, the mould is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin
mixture around a pattern.

• The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell moulds.

• A reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the disposable moulds enable complex
geometries to be cast.
 Shell Moulding

• Shell mould casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most
commonly using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminium
alloys, and copper alloys.

• Typical parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear
housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.
The shell mould casting process consists of the following steps

• Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the

desired part, typically from iron or steel.

• Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminium for low volume
production or graphite for casting reactive materials.

• Mould creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370°C (350-700°F) and
coated with a lubricant to facilitate removal.
 Mould creation Cont.

• The heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which contains a mixture of sand
and a resin binder.

• The dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-resin mixture to coat the pattern.

• The heated pattern partially cures the mixture, which now forms a shell around
the pattern.

• Each pattern half and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven and
then the shell is ejected from the pattern.
• Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped

to form the complete shell mould.

• If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to closing the mould.

• The shell mould is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.

• Pouring - The mould is securely clamped together while the molten metal is
poured from a ladle into the gating system and fills the mould cavity.
• Cooling - After the mould has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and
solidify into the shape of the final casting.

• Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mould can be broken and
the casting removed.

• Trimming and cleaning processes are required to remove any excess metal from the
feed system and any sand from the mould.
Shell Moulding Applications
• A sizable amount of the casting in the steel industry are made by shell moulding process, that
ensures better profitability.

• Carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, low alloys, aluminium alloys, copper, are all cast using shell
moulding process.

• Casting that require thin section and excellent dimensional accuracy are cast using this process.

• Body panes, truck hoods, small size boats, bath tubs, shells of drums, connecting rods, gear

housings, lever arms, etc. are cast using croning process.

Advantages of Shell Mould Casting (Shell Moulding)

Thin sections, complex parts and intricate designs can be cast

• Excellent surface finish and goal size tolerances.

• Less machining required for the castings.

• Near net shape castings, almost 'as cast' quality

• Simplified process that can be handled by semi skilled operators.

• Full mechanized and automated casting process.

• Less foundry space required.

Stir casting
 MMC composite Al-SiC
• Series Primary Alloying Element • The addition of silicon to aluminum
• 1xxx Aluminum - 99.00% or Greater reduces melting temperature and
• 2xxx Copper improves fluidity.
• 3xxx Manganese • Silicon alone in aluminum produces a
• 4xxx Silicon non heat-treatable alloy; however, in
• 5xxx Magnesium combination with magnesium it
• 6xxx Magnesium and Silicon produces a precipitation hardening heat-
• 7xxx Zinc treatable alloy.
The addition of magnesium to aluminum
increases strength through solid solution
strengthening and improves their Al-Mg:
strain hardening ability.
 Pressure Casting
• Also called low pressure casting, is the principle of pressing
the molten metal through
• a refractory tube into the mold from below using an
overpressure by gas of about 0.08 to 0.1 MPa (12 to 15 psi).
• The volume of the circulating material is widely reduced.
Supported by the pressurization of the holding crucible, the
molten metal is forced into the cavity from beneath so that
the flow is upward, with low turbulence, a regulated casting
pressure, and a controlled casting speed
 Pressure Casting

• The pressurization chamber with the crucible and the mold make one unit, connected by
the refractory tube as illustrated
• in above Fig. Most crucibles are induction heated to keep the metal warm, but not to melt
it.
 Pressure Casting
• The advantages of low pressure casting are good fillability for thin-walled
and large area parts and a close structure for pressurized parts.
• By maintaining several casting parameters, a very high constant quality
in the serial production and process safety can be realized.
• The overpressure during the casting process and the following adjustable
holding time acts in opposition to the mold shrinkage by the cooling
down.
• The low pressure casting process is a cost-effective production process
(for medium-run series) that provides excellent mechanical properties of
casting.
 Squeeze Casting
• Molten metal is poured into a metallic mold
or die cavity with one-half of the die
squeezing the molten metal to fill in the
intended cavity under pressure.
 Squeeze casting

• Fiber reinforced casting with SiC or Al2O3 fibers mixed in metal matrix have been
successfully squeeze cast and commercially used to produce automobile pistons.
However, squeeze casting is limited only to shallow part or part with smaller
dimensions.
• Squeeze casting consists of entering liquid metal into a preheated, lubricated die and
forging the metal while it solidifies.

• The load is applied shortly after the metal begins to freeze and is maintained until
the entire casting has solidified.

• Also known as liquid-metal forging, combination of casting and forging

 Squeeze casting

• Near net shape process - the initial production of the item is very close to
the final (net) shape, reducing the need for surface finishing.

• Squeeze casting is simple and economical, efficient in its use of raw

material.

• The process generates the highest mechanical properties attainable in a

cast product.

• The process was introduced in the United States in 1960 and has since
gained widespread acceptance
 Squeeze casting Cont.

• The squeeze casting process uses an accurately measured or metered quantity of

molten metal which is poured into a heated mould via a launder.

• The mould is closed to produce an internal cavity in the shape of the required
component.

• The mould is coated with a suitable release agent and for squeeze casting it is usually
in the form of a graphite coating.

• Pressure continues to be applied to the molten metal until it has solidified and forms
the required component.

• The press is then withdrawn and the component is ejected.

 Squeeze casting Cont.

• The high pressure (50 - 140MPa ) applied during solidification,

porosities caused by both gas and shrinkage can be prevented or
eliminated.

• The cooling rate of the casting can be increased by applying high

pressure during solidification, since that contact between the casting
and the die is improved by pressurization, which results in the
foundation of fine-grained structures.
 Plaster Casting

• The ratio of ingredients is 70–80% Gypsum and 20–30% additives.

• The pattern is usually made from metal, however rubber moulds may be used for
complex geometry; these moulds are called Rubber plaster moulds.

• First, the plaster is mixed and the pattern is sprayed with a thin film of parting
compound to prevent the plaster from sticking to the pattern.

• The plaster is then poured over the pattern and the unit shaken so that the plaster fills
any small features.
 Plaster Casting Cont.

• The plaster sets, usually in about 15 minutes, and the pattern is removed.

• The mould is then baked, between 120 °C and 260 °C, to remove any excess
water.

• The dried mould is then assembled, preheated, and the metal poured.

• Finally, after the metal has solidified, the plaster is broken from the cast part.

• The used plaster cannot be reused.

 Plaster Casting Cont.

• Plaster mould casting is used when an excellent surface finish and good
dimensional accuracy is required.

• Because the plaster has a low thermal conductivity and heat capacity, the metal
cools more slowly than in a sand mould, which allows the metal to fill thin cross-
sections; the minimum possible cross-section is 0.6 mm.

• This results in a near net shape casting, which can be a cost advantage on
complex parts. It also produces minimal scrap material.
 Plaster Casting Cont.

• The major disadvantage of the process is that it can only be used with lower
melting temperature non-ferrous materials, such as aluminium, copper,
magnesium, and zinc.

• The most commonly used materials are aluminium and copper.

• The maximum working temperature of plaster is 1,200 °C (2,200 °F), so higher

melting temperature materials would melt the plaster mould.

• Also, the sulfur in the gypsum reacts with iron, making it unsuitable for casting
ferrous materials.
 Plaster Casting Cont.

• Another disadvantage is that its long cooling times restrict production volume.

• Plaster is not as stable as sand, so it is dependent on several factors, including

the consistency of the plaster composition, pouring procedures, and curing
techniques.

• If these factors are not closely monitored the mould can be distorted, shrink
upon drying, have a poor surface finish, or fail completely.