Module 2

Melting Technology
• Melting furnaces for ferrous and non-ferrous foundries
• Electric, Fuel Fired and Induction Furnaces
• Electromagnetic Stirring
• Power supplies
• Recent developments in energy considerations
Melting practice
• Ferrous, non-ferrous metals & alloys and composites
• Fluxing, inoculation
• Degassing and Grain refinement treatments
• Control of pouring temperature, Heat treatments of castings
• Shop floor melt quality tests
 Melting Furnaces
The melting furnaces commonly used in foundries are,

• Cupolas

• Direct fuel-fired furnaces

• Electric arc furnaces

• Induction furnaces

• Crucible furnace
 1. Electric arc furnace

• Charge is melted by heat generated from

an electric arc

• High power consumption, but electric-arc

furnaces can be designed for high melting

capacity

• Used primarily for melting steel

 1. Electric arc furnace
These furnaces are used extensively in foundries and
have such advantages,

• High rate of melting

• Much less pollution

• The ability to hold the molten metal at a

constant temperature for a period of time for
alloying purposes
 2. Induction furnace

• Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal

• Induced current causes rapid heating and melting

• Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal

• Since metal does not contact heating elements, the environment can be closely
controlled, which results in molten metals of high quality and purity

• Melting Steel, Cast Iron, and Aluminium Alloys are common applications in foundry
work.
 2. Induction furnace
• Used in small foundries and produce smaller composition of controlled melts

• Coreless induction furnace consists of a crucible completely surrounded with a

water cooled copper coil through which high frequency current passes

• Because there is a strong electromagnetic

stirring action during induction heating, this

type of furnace has excellent mixing

characteristics for alloying and adding new

charge of metal
 Levitation melting

An induction coil simultaneously heats a solid billet and stirs

and confines the melt, eliminating the need for a crucible
which could be a source of contamination with oxide
inclusions

The molten metal flows downward into an investment

casting mould placed directly below the coil

Experiments indicated that investment castings made with

this method are free of refractory inclusions and of gas
porosity and have uniform fine grained structure
 3. Crucible furnaces
• Metal is melted without direct contact with burning
fuel mixture

• Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces

• Container (Crucible) is made of refractory material

(or) High-Temperature Steel alloy

• Used for non-ferrous metals such as Bronze, Brass

and alloys of Zinc and Aluminium.
 3. Crucible furnaces

Which have been used extensively throughout history are heated with
various fuels, such as commercial gases, fuel oil, fossil fuel, as well as
electricity

Many ferrous and non-ferrous metals are melted

Three types used in foundries: Lift-Out type, Stationary, Tilting

 3. Crucible furnaces

(a) lift-out crucible, (b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must
be ladled, and (c) tilting-pot furnace
 4. Core or Channel furnace

Core or Channel furnace uses low frequency and

has a coil that surrounds only a small portion of the
unit

It is commonly used in nonferrous foundries and is

particularly suitable for superheating (heating
above normal casting temperature to improve
fluidity), holding (for die casting applications), and
duplexing (using furnaces for melting and storing).
 5. Cupolas
Cupolas are in essence refractory lined vertical
steel vessels charged with alternating layers of
metal, coke and flux

Although they require major investments and

are being replaced by induction furnaces,
cupolas operate continuously have high
melting rates and produce large amounts of
molten metal.
 5. Cupolas furnace

• Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping spout near base

• Used only for cast irons, and although other furnaces are also used, largest

tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas

• The “charge” consisting of iron, coke, flux and possible alloying elements, is

loaded through a charging door located less than halfway up height of

cupola
 6. Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces

• Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by natural gas fuel burners

located on side of furnace

• Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting flame down against

charge

• At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal

• Generally used for non-ferrous metals such as copper base alloys & Al.
 Furnace Selection
Selection of furnace requires consideration of several factors that can
significantly influence the quality of castings, as well as the economics of
casting operations and selection of a furnace generally depends on the
following factors:
• Economic considerations, such as initial cost and operating and maintenance
costs.
• The composition and melting point of the alloy to be cast as well as the case
of controlling its chemistry
• Control of the furnace atmosphere to avoid contamination of the metal
 Furnace Selection Cont.

• Capacity and the rate of melting required.

• Environmental considerations, such as air pollution and noise.

• Power supply and its availability and cost of fuels.

• Ease of superheating of metals.

• Type of charge material that can be used.

 Principle of Electromagnetic Stirring
• It is well known that an alternating magnetic field (B) applied to a conductor, whether
solid or fluid, will induce electric current (j) in the conductor, and hence there is a force
(F = j x B) known as Lorentz force.

• Due to the Lorentz force there is a generation of a torque that gives the liquid steel a
rotational movement.
 Principle of electromagnetic stirring Cont.

The generated torque depends on the following factors.

• Intensity of supply current

• Number of windings forming a coil

• Frequency

• System geometry

These parameters change depending on the stirrer type.

 Principle of electromagnetic stirring Cont.

• Thus the magnetic field acts as a non-intrusive stirring device and it can,

in principle, be engineered to provide any desired pattern of stirring.

• The stirrer design, size and position etc. depend on the continuous

casting machine data, the steel grades to bea produced and the casting

parameters.
 Principle of Electro Magnetic Stirring (EMS) Cont.

• Electromagnetic melt stirring systems create a rotating magnetic induction field

with an induction of ‘B’, which induces eddy current ‘j’ in a direction
perpendicular to ‘B’, whose velocity is ‘v’.
• Induction B and current j create the electromagnetic force, which works on every
unit of volume of steel and bring about a stirring motion in the liquid steel.
• The vector product (v x B) demonstrate a connection between the
electromagnetic field and the flow of the liquid steel.
• The speeds of the liquid steel caused by the EMS is somewhere in the range of 0.1
m/s - 1.0 m/s.
 Types of Electro Magnetic Stirring (EMS)

There are three possible EMS applications in a continuous casting machine according to the
position and the required effects on the cast products.

These places are,

• Mould (M-EMS)

• Secondary cooling zone

(S-EMS)

• Final solidification zone

(F-EMS).
 Melting practices
• Melting practice is an important aspect of casting operations because it has a

direct bearing on the quality of castings

• Furnaces are charged with melting stock consisting of metal, alloying

elements and various other materials such as flux and slag-forming

constituents
• Fluxes are inorganic compounds that refine the molten metal by removing

dissolved gas and various impurities

 Treatment of molten metal
• Removal of slag/impurities or gas from the molten
metal.
• Adding alloying metal to change the chemical
composition.
• Modification of solidifying pattern.
 Fluxing the Melt
• In metallurgical circles, “flux” is defined as “a substance that can be added to

a molten alloy to entrain impurities in a fusible mass, making them easy to

remove”.

• When we dig up an ore out of the ground and process it, there are invariably

problematic impurities carried along with it.

• The nature of these impurities will vary from ore to ore, but the general

concept of using a flux to combine with these impurities to form a fusible

• The use of a flux to purify metals is a simple, brute force
chemical separation.
• As with any separation process, fluxes can be alkaline
(e.g. calcium carbonate), acidic (e.g. silica) or neutral
(e.g. calcium fluoride).
• What kind of flux gets used depends on the nature of
the ore, its impurities and the requirements for the
separation.
• Fluxes can also be oxidizing (or) reducing, and can be used to selectively

remove a targeted impurity by oxidizing it (or) reducing it.

• Oxidizing fluxes include the various peroxides (lead, manganese and

sodium are the most common), and nitrates (sodium and potassium) which

are used in refining precious metals.

 Melting practices Cont. Removal of slag/impurities or gas

• Fluxes have several functions, depending on the metal

• For example, for aluminium alloys,

– Cover fluxes (to form a barrier to oxidation)

– Cleaning fluxes

– Drossing fluxes

– Rafining fluxes

– Wall-cleaning fluxes

• Fluxes may be added manually (or) can be injected automatically into the

molten metal
Cover fluxes (to form a barrier to oxidation)
• Designed to be used primarily with smaller (pot, crucible) furnaces to provide a

physical barrier to oxidation of the melt or to serve as a cleanser for alloys, scrap

foundry returns, or fresh ingot being charged.

Cleaning fluxes
• Usually higher in chloride salt compound content and usually contain fluorides to

facilitate wetting of the oxide inclusions for easier separation from the melt.
 Drossing fluxes
• Designed to promote separation of the aluminum oxide (Al2O3) dross layer
that forms on the surface of the melt from the molten metal.
• Drosses and liquid or solid metal are usually intermingled in the dross layer.
• The drossing fluxes are designed to react with Al2O3 in the slag or dross
layer and to recover metal.
• The fluorides wet and dissolve thin oxide films according to the general
reaction.
6Na2SiF6 + 2Al2O3 → 4Na3AlF6 + 3SiO2 + 3SiF4
• With sufficient mechanical agitation through rabbling with a rake, these
films will be broken long enough to release entrapped metal.
• Drossing fluxes are used to great advantage in the aluminum industry
to reduce the rich metallic content of the dross.
• Untreated dross may contain 60 to 85% free metal, which, if allowed to
burn or thermite, will convert to unrecoverable Al2O3.
• Wall-cleaning fluxes contain compounds that help soften the oxide
buildup that occurs on furnace walls. These fluxes can often be applied
with a typical refractory gunning device.
 Rafination/cleaning fluxes
To remove non-metallics from the melt by trapping the oxide particles as they float out!
• They help the oxides in suspension float, employed continuously in refination units located in
transfer systems or in melting (or holding) furnaces
Typical ingredients:
NaCl + KCl (carrier) + Floride compounds (upto %20 Na3AlF6, CaF2, Na2SiF6)
• They penetrate between the oxide particles owing to their low solubility and help to physically
seperate the oxide particles from the molten metal.
• They strip the oxide films on the molten metal droplets and improve the metal recovery.
• metal – oxide interface energy is reduced and the oxides are wet by the melt  oxides in suspension
are removed from the melt while the aluminium metal entrapped by the oxides return back to the
melt; aluminium and oxides are thus seperated dry dross is skimmed off.
 Melting practices Cont.

• Fluxes for aluminium consist of chlorides, fluorides and borates of

aluminium, calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium

• For cast iron include sodium carbonate and calcium fluoride

• To protect the surface of the molten metal against atmosphere reaction

and contamination and to refine the melt, the metal must be insulated

against heat loss.

 INOCULATION
• Inoculation is a means to control and improve the microstructure and
mechanical properties of cast iron.
• The main purpose of inoculation is to achieve best mechanical properties
and optimum machinability characteristics
• The inoculation process will provide sufficient nucleation sites for the
dissolved carbon to precipitate as graphite rather than iron carbides
(cementite).
• The most common inoculant is a ferrosilicon based alloy with small and
defined quantities of either Calcium, Zirconium, rare earth’s and Al. (Ba, Sr)
INOCULATION
 INOCULATION

• Consequently, the effects of grey and ductile iron

inoculation are improved machinability, increased
strength and ductility, reduced hardness and section
sensitivity and a more homogeneous microstructure.
• Typically, inoculation also reduces the tendency for
solidification shrinkage formation.
INOCULATION
 INOCULATION
• The grey iron
microstructure is normally
determined by the
• base iron,
• composition,
• Solidification cooling rate &
Fig shows different grey iron microstructures • inoculation process.
as a function of solidification undercooling.
 INOCULATION
• The required addition rate
of an inoculant to liquid
iron is very much
depending on where and
when it is to be
introduced.
Fig Schematic representation of different methods for
inoculant addition to the transfer ladle, pouring ladle or
mould
 INOCULATION
In order to obtain a sound and reproducible iron production process
some critical inoculation factors will have to be controlled properly.
For grey iron one should pay special attention to the following factors:
• The Mn : S ratio should be maintained at the same level every time and
sulphur should preferentially be kept at minimum 0.05%.
• Aluminium is found to be an important part of the nucleus core and
should be adjusted and kept at controlled levels every time.
• Recommended residual Al level in grey iron is 0.005% - 0.01% for
optimum inoculation effectiveness.
 INOCULATION

• There should be a certain oxygen level in the base iron from

fresh metal processing.

• The use of some rusty raw materials may assist in providing a

good oxygen potential.

• Pouring time after inoculation should be minimized in order to

keep fading losses under control.

• Use an inoculant with defined chemical composition and sizing.
 INOCULATION
For ductile iron, the following factors must be controlled:

1) The magnesium treatment process reactivity should be

controlled and minimized. A violent treatment process will
provide less potential nucleation sites and more difficult
conditions for powerful inoculation effectiveness.
2) There should be a certain oxygen level in the base iron from
fresh metal processing. The use of some rusty raw materials
may assist in providing a good oxygen potential.
 INOCULATION
For ductile iron, the following factors must be controlled Cont.

3) The sulphur content should be kept low and constant. Preferential

range for ductile iron is 0.005 to 0.015% base iron sulphur content.

4) Pouring time after inoculation should be minimized in order to keep

fading losses under control.

5) Use an inoculant with defined chemical composition and sizing.

 Degassing
Degassing of molten Aluminum is used to remove dissolved hydrogen and

impurity particles prior to casting

 by physical entrapment during the casting process or
 by chemical reaction in the cast material
• The most common method, rotary degassing, gives a small bubble size
and distributes the bubbles throughout the melt by means of vigorous
stirring
• This is an efficient method for hydrogen removal, the purge gas may also
inadvertently remove grain refining particles and thus reduce
refinement efficiency
 Degassing
• During degassing, particle removal occurs by physical
attachment to the degassing bubbles and flotation, by
turbulent transport due to the flow field generated by
stirring, (or) by sedimentation
• Chlorine, nitrogen, helium and argon are often used to degas
non-ferrous metals
• Carbon monoxide is typically used for iron and steel
 Degassing

RPT (Rapid Prototype Technology)

• The degassing process in the treatment of aluminium melts are

typically carried out to decrease the hydrogen content of the
melt.
• It is expected to obtain minimised porosity in cast parts.
Degassing
 Grain refinement treatments
• Typically, it has been aimed to obtain finer grain structure by addition of
grain refiners.
• It has been shown that the level of impurity decrease with increased area
of grain boundary and decreased grain size.
• For Al-Si alloys, Al-Ti-B grain refiners can be added to alter the coarse α-Al
to finer dendrites without changing the morphology of eutectic Si.
• when a grain refiner is added to the melt, the globular and homogeneous
dendritic structure will results in faster growth and bifilms may not find the
time open; thus porosity will not form.
The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram
• In their simplest form, steels are alloys of Iron (Fe) and Carbon (C).
• The Fe-C phase diagram is a fairly complex one, but we will only consider the steel part
of the diagram, up to
around 7% Carbon.

• Phases present
 a-ferrite,
 g-ferrite,
 d-ferrite,
 Fe3C (iron

carbide or
cementite)
 Fe-C liquid
solution School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 48
Invariant Reactions in Fe–Fe3C System

• In binary phase diagrams, a horizontal line always indicates an invariant reaction.

• Three invariant reactions are present in Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe 3C) Phase Diagram.

1. Peritectic reaction

  1493 °C

2. Eutectic reaction

1150 °C

3. Eutectoid reaction

727 °C

School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 49

Metal Classification

50
Based on composition of carbon
Steels

1) Ultra-low carbon steels : 0.03% C and low levels of Si & Mn

2) Low carbon steels : 0.04 to 0.15%C - Car bodies and other applications
3) Mild steel : 0.15 – 0.3%C - Buildings, bridges and pipes
4) Medium carbon steel : 0.3 – 0.6% C - Machinery, tractors & mining
equipment etc.
5) High carbon steel : 0.6 - 1.5%C - Springs, railroads, car wheels etc.

51
Carbon Steels and Their Uses

52
Problems associated with plain carbon steels
• Cannot be strengthened above 690 MN/m2 without loss of ductility and impact
resistance.
• Not very hardenable i.e. the depth of hardening is limited.
• Low corrosion and oxidation resistance.
• Must be quenched very rapidly to obtain a fully martensitic structure, leading to
the possibility of quench distortion and cracking.
• Have poor impact resistance at low temperatures .

53
 Alloy Steels
• Alloy steels are designed to improve the existing properties of the steel

Alloying elements are added intentionally:

• To toughen and strengthen the steel by dissolving in ferrite These
elements are used in the constructional steels include Ni, Mn and
smaller amounts of Mo and Cr
• To react chemically with some of the carbon in the steel and to form
carbides which are much harder than Cementite (Fe3C) - The elements
used are mainly in the tool and die steels which include Cr, W, Mo, V,
Ti, Ta, Nb etc.

Stabilizing Elements
• Ni, Mn, Cu and Co - Austenite Stabilizer (restricts the separation of
carbide)
• Cr, Si, Mo, W, V - Ferrite Stabilizer
54
 Categories of Alloy steels
Constructional Steels
Specialty steels
Nickel steels
Chromium steels Maraging steels
Nickel-Chromium Dual phase steels
steels
TRIP steels
Ni-Cr-Mo steels
Manganese steels Interstitial free steels

HSLA / Micro-alloyed steels

Boron steels
Stainless Steels

Tool and Die Steels Ferritic stainless steels

Die steels Martensitic stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels (PH
Steels)
55
Duplex stainless steels
Cast Irons
• Cast irons are a family of Ferrous alloys with a wide range of properties
• Cast irons typically contain > 2 - 4 wt% of carbon with a high silicon concentrations and a
greater concentration of impurities than steels
• Cast irons make excellent casting alloys since they are easily melted
• Cast irons have a wide range of strengths and hardness. It has high abrasion to wear,
low impact resistance

School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 56

Gray Cast Iron (GCI)

• Composition:C : 2.5 – 4.0%; Si : 1.0 -3.0%; Mn: 0.25 – 1.0%; S: 0.02 -0.05%; P: 0.05 -
0.1%
• GCI in which most or all the carbon is uncombined in the form of graphitic flakes
• Gray cast iron is formed when the carbon in the alloy exceeds the amount that can
dissolve in austenite and precipitates as graphitic flakes
• When a piece of solidified gray iron is fractured, the fracture surface appears gray
because of the exposed graphite
• Silicon is a graphite stabilizing element in Cast irons; high silicon content promotes the
formation of graphite
• Sulphur in cast irons is known to favour the formation of graphite flakes.
• The graphite flakes, which are rosettes in three dimensions, have a low density and
compensate for the freezing contraction, thus giving good castings free from porosity.
• Solidification rates are also affecting the type of matrix that is formed
• Moderate cooling rates favor the pearlitic matrix and slow cooling rates favor for the
ferritic matrix School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 57
Gray Cast Iron (GCI)

Properties of Gray Cast Iron Advantages of Gray Cast Iron

• Lowest MP amongst the ferrous alloys • Graphite acts as a chip breaker and a
tool lubricant
• Good Machinability
• Very high damping capacity
• Good resistance to sliding wear & • Good dry bearing qualities due to
thermal fatigue graphite.
• After formation of protective scales, it
• Good thermal conductivity & Vibration
resists corrosion in many common
damping engineering environments.
• Low ductility and low impact strength
Disadvantages
• Possesses excellent casting qualities
• Brittle (low impact strength), which
Applications severely limits use for critical
– Machine tool structures applications
• Graphite acts as a void and reduces
– Piston rings
strength
– Frames for electric motors • Higher strength gray cast irons are
– Manhole covers more expensive to produce.
– Cylinder blocks for IC engines

School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 58

 Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron
• Otherwise known as Ductile Iron, Nodular cast iron and Spherulitic iron where the
graphite is present as the tiny balls or spheroids
• C- 3.0 -4.0%; Si – 1.8 to 2.8%; S-0.03%; P-0.1%
• The graphite can be induced to precipitate in a spheroidal shape by removing the sulphur
from the melt using a small quantity of calcium carbide.
• This is followed by a minute addition of magnesium or cerium, which poisons the preferred
growth directions and hence leads to isotropic growth resulting in spheroids of graphite.
• Ductile iron has good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability and good wear resistance
• Agricultural tractor and implement parts. Spheroidal graphite cast iron has excellent
toughness and is used widely, for example in crankshafts.
• Other applications include the Pistons and cylinder heads, Motor frames, Elevator
buckets, chuck bodies, clamp frames, furnace doors, drive pulleys, flywheels and
wrenches etc. are manufactured with nodular or ductile or spheroidal graphite cast iron.

School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 59

White Cast Iron
• White cast iron is unique in that it is the only member of the cast iron family in which
carbon is present only as carbide
• Due to the absence of graphite, it has a light appearance.
• The presence of different carbides, depending on the alloy content, makes white cast
irons extremely hard and abrasion resistant but very brittle. WCI is a hard, brittle alloy
containing massive amounts of Fe3C.

• A fractured surface of this material appears white, hence the name derived
• WCI consists of 2.4-3.6% C, 0.5-2.0%Si, 0.2-0.8% Mn, 0.18%P, 0.18% S + Ni , Cr and/or
Mo - Cr prevents the formation of graphite
• Cementite is hard, brittle interstitial compound and WCI contains relatively large amount
of Cementite as continuous inter-dendritic network, it makes the WCI to be hard and
wear resistant
• Typical Applications: brake shoes, shot blasting nozzles, mill liners, crushers, pump
impellers and other abrasion resistant parts.

School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 60

Malleable Cast Iron

• This white cast iron is reheated to about 920 °C for long

periods of time in the presence of materials containing
oxygen, such as iron oxide.

• At the elevated temperatures, Cementite (Fe3C)

decomposes into ferrite and free carbon.
• Upon cooling, the combined carbon further decomposes to
small compact particles of graphite (instead of flake-like
graphite seen in gray cast iron).
• If the cooling is very slow, more free carbon is released.
This free carbon is referred to as temper carbon, and the
process is called Malleableization

School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 61

Compacted Graphite Iron
• As with gray, ductile, and malleable irons, carbon exists as graphite, whose formation is
promoted by the presence of silicon. Silicon content ranges between 1.7 and 3.0 wt%,
whereas carbon concentration is normally between 3.1 and 4.0 wt%.
• Microstructurally, the graphite in CGI alloys has a wormlike (or vermicular) shape; a
typical CGI microstructure is shown in the optical micrograph of Figure.
• The chemistries of CGIs are more complex than for the
other cast iron types; compositions of magnesium,
cerium, and other additives must be controlled so as to
produce a microstructure that consists of the wormlike
graphite particles, while at the same time limiting the
degree of graphite nodularity, and preventing the
formation of graphite flakes. Furthermore, depending on
heat treatment, the matrix phase will be pearlite and/or
ferrite.
• The mechanical properties of CGIs are related to
microstructure:
• Compacted graphite iron applications: Including diesel engine blocks, exhaust
manifolds, gearbox housings, brake discs for high-speed trains, and flywheels
School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 62
 Strengthening Mechanisms
• The ability of a metal to deform depends on the ability of dislocations to move
• Restricting dislocation motion makes the material stronger. i.e., Strengthening of
a metal consist hindering dislocation motion. Dislocation motion can be hindered
in many ways, thus are strengthening mechanisms in metals

• Mechanisms of strengthening:
 grain-size reduction
 solid-solution alloying
 strain hardening
 Precipitation hardening

• The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the ability of dislocations

to move.
• Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on this simple principle: “Restricting or
Hindering dislocation motion renders a material harder and stronger”
 Precipitation Strengthening
Schematic temperature-versus-time plot
• Precipitation hardening is accomplished by the following showing both solution and precipitation heat
different heat treatments. treatments for precipitation hardening.
• The first is a solution heat treatment in which all solute
atoms are dissolved to form a single phase solid solution
at a relatively high temperature (T0).
• Rapid cooling or quenching usually to room temperature
(T1) to obtain supersaturated solid solution (SSSS).
Equilibrium structure is α+β, but limited diffusion does
not allow β to form.
• Finally, precipitation heat treatment, the SSSS is
ordinarily heated to an intermediate temperature T2 (Fig
b) within the two-phase region, at which temperature
diffusion rates become appreciable resulting in finely
dispersed particles rich in element B start forming : aging