Processes, Uses, Properties, Methods

Metals form the largest group in the periodic table and they are also defined according to their position in the
periodic table. They are grouped as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, heavy metals and rare
earth metals. On the basis of hardness, metals are also distinguished as used metals and non-metals. Usually
metals are extracted from their ores in the process called refining.

Different uses of Metals

Metals are usually very strong, most durable and highly resistant to everyday wear and tear. As such, they have
been used since ancient times for a lot of things. And even today with advances in technology and a lot of other
things the uses of metals have broadened greatly. Metals even play a key role in the economy. Let’s look at some
of the important and popular metals uses.

In the Construction Industry

Metals are the main component in the construction industry. Metals like iron, steel amongst others are the main
materials used in construction of buildings and even homes

In Electronics

Another important application of metals are in electronics. As metals are good conductors of electricity, they are
used to make wires and parts for equipment and gadgets that function on electrical current. Popular examples
include, TV, mobiles, fridge, iron, computers etc.
• Metal Physical Properties:

• Lustrous (shiny)

• Good conductors of heat and electricity.

• High melting point.

• High density (heavy for their size)

• Malleable (can be hammered)

• Ductile (can be drawn into wires)

• Usually solid at room temperature (an exception is mercury)

• Opaque as a thin sheet (can't see through metals)

A. Casting
An object made by pouring molten metal or other material into a mold.
A1. Cupola Furnace
The cupolas is one of the only methods of melting which is continuous in its
operation High melt rates Relatively low operating cost Ease of operation.
In more recent times the use of cupola has declined in favor of electric
induction melting, which offers more precise control of melt chemistry and
temperature, and much lower levels of emissions.
The construction of a conventional cupola consist of a vertical steel shell
which Is lined with a refractory brick. The charge is introduced into the
furnace body by means of an opening approximately shaft. The charge
consist of alternate layers of the metal to be melted, coke fuel and
limestone flux. The fuel is brunt in air which is introduced through tuyeres
positioned above the hearth. The hot gases generated in the lower art of
the shaft ascend and preheat the descending charge.
A2. Electric arc furnace
Electric arc furnace (or arc furnace) are high-temperature furnace
that use high-voltage electric currents as their primary heating
element. Invented in france in 1907, these furnaces are a crucial part
of iron and steel recycling operations. they’re featured in “mini mills”
that recycle iron scrap for reuse. Arc furnace are also used in the
production of steels. The design o these furnaces makes them simple
enough to be built at home by hobbyist, as well.
A3. Crucible Melting
A crucible is a ceramic or metal container in which metals or other
substances may be melted or subjected to very high temperatures.
While crucibles historically were usually made from clay, they can be
made from any materials that withstands temperatures high enough to
melt or otherwise alter its contents.
A4. Reverberatory Furnace
Is a metallurgical or process furnace that isolates the material being
processed from contact with the fuel, but not from contact with
combustion gases. The term reverberation is used here in a generic
sense of rebounding or reflecting, not in the acoustic sense of
echoing.
A5. Induction furnace
Is an electrical furnace in which the heat is applied by induction
heating of metal. Induction furnace capacities range from less than
one kilogram to one hundred tonnes, and are used to melt iron and
steel, copper, aluminum, and precious metals.
The advantage of the induction furnace is a clean, energy-efficient
and well-controllable melting process compared to most other means
of metal melting
A6. Open Hearth Furnace
Are one of a number of kinds of furnace where excess carbon and
other impurities are burnt out of pig iron to produce steels. Since steels
is difficult to manufacture due to its high melting point, normal fuels
and furnaces were insufficient and the open hearth furnace was
developed to overcome this difficulty. Compared to Bessemer steel,
which it displaced, its main advantages were that it did not expose
the steel to excessive nitrogen (which would cause the steel to
become brittle), was easier to control, and it permitted the melting
and refining of large amounts of scrap iron and steel.
A7. Pouring
To make a substance flow from a container, especially into another
container, by raising just one side of the container that the substance
is in.
FURNACE
A furnace is a device used for high-temperature heating. The name
derives from latin word fornax, which means oven. The heat energy to
fuel a furnace may be supplied directly by fuel combustion, by
electricity such as the electric arc furnace, or through induction
heating in induction furnaces.

B. Sand Mold Casting

the most widely used casting process, utilisizes expendable sand molds
to form complex metal parts that can be made or nearly any alloy.
Because the sand mold must be destroyed in order to remove the part
called the casting, sand casting typically has a low production rate.
• Can produce very large parts • Poor material strength
• Can form complex shape • High porosity possible
• Many materials option • Poor surface finish and tolerance
• Low tooling and equipment cost • Secondary machining often
required
• Scrap can be recycled
• Short lead time possible
• Low production rate
• High labor cost
• Mold making
• Clamping
• Pouring
• Cooling
• Removal
• Trimming
A. Hot and warm forming methods
Metals are normally (but not always) undergoing in this kind of operation.
Metals that are to be formed are heated to make it more malleable for the
operation.
The material is heated above their recrystallization temperature, one that varies
with each material but it is normally about 0.6 time of the melting temperature
on the kelvin (absolute temperature) scale.

Ex. HOT WARM COLD

Steel 1800F(980C) 30-60% below 30%
of melting temp. of melting temp.
A1. Hot Rolling
Commonly applied to convert steels ingot to blooms, billets, or slabs
to make these shape into salable forms.
Heated metal will pass between two rollers whose spacing is less than
the thick of the metal.
The number of passes is depend on the desired thickness of the metal
and also the thickness of the metal being process.
A2. Hot Drawing or Cupping
Is a process of making cup shape of some depth and thick and
seamless tubes and cylinders from blooms, flat plate, or sheets.
Same with cold drawing but material is more thin during the operation
whereas in deep drawing the material flows into the die and tends to
thicken.
A3. Extrusion
It is a non cutting process where metal is forced through a die opening
that gives it a uniform cross-sectional shape. A heated metal that is in a
state of its plastic range is inserted in a chamber called “container”. The
heated metal will push/pull by a ram that is hydraulically powered to a
die opening. Then the metal will takes the shape of the die that is used in
the process. These are the common materials that under goes extrusion
processes: aluminum, copper, magnesium, tin, lead and alloys. This
method is commonly use on product that has constant cross section,
and this products are like: tubes, door and window frames.
A3a. Indirect Extrusion
In this process, the ram is hollow and the metal is forced backward
through a die and into the ram. Since the heated metal is not touching
the chamber the friction of the forced is reduced but the disadvantage
of this kind of process is that it is difficult to remove.
A3b. Sejournet Process
It is just like the other process but differs by adding some glass as
coat of the metal. Also the steel billet to be extruded is heated to
the recrystallization temperature range.
A3c. Other Types of Extrusion
Impact extrusion process
Tube extrusion process
A4. Forging
A process where a metal undergoes plastic deformation into a useful
shape, usually at an elevated temperature. This process can improve the
metals inner structure and make it refine because of repeated or
extended pressure applied in the heated metal to shape it.
Most of machine components/parts that require high strength are
produce by this process. In. air craft landing gear and engine.
Metals commonly forged includes: steel, aluminum, magnesium, brass,
bronze, copper, stainless and alloy steels.
A4a. Open Die-Hammer Forging (hammer, Flat-Die, or Smith
Forging)
Involves repeated blows with a powered Flat-faced hammer or
tools of simple shape. The operation can be computer controlled
to reduce dependency on operator skill and to ensure more
accurate workpiece dimension.
A4b. Impression Die Forging (Closed Die Forging)
Differs from hammer or smith forging in that the dies are closed.
There are two die halves
Repeated press strokes or heavy hydraulic or mechanical pressure cause the
workpiece metal to flow into the die cavities, taking their shape.
A4b1. Drop Forging
Uses drop hammer
A drop hammer is a machine that uses gravity, air, or steam
pressure to make repeated blows against a workpiece. The press
action is repeated until the workpiece has attained the desired
shape.
A4b2. Precision Forging
Is a variation of impression die forging with a closely-controlled,
more extensive forging process, accurately controlled blank sizes,
and carefully designed die, so that the forgings produced are
close to the net shape required.
The precision forging process is often used to produce forges gear
blanks.
Aluminum is the commonly used in this process.
A4b3. Flashless Forging
Is characterized by an absence of the excess metal (flash) that normally
escape between the die halves in closed-die forging. Excess metal is
often necessary to insure proper filling of all portions of the die cavity,
particularly when the operation requires high deformation of the forging
billet.
A4c. Press Forging
Differs from drop forging in that the forging action result from a slow
squeezing action rather than a hammer like impact.
Produces deformation more uniform.
The presses are usually hydraulic.
Suitable for complex shapes.
A4d. Upset Forging
An operation that increases the diameter of a work piece while
shortening it length. The workpiece material is normally in form of a
bar, on which a head or larger diameter portion is produced by
the process.
One die is holding the bar and forcing it to the axially, causing a
metal to fill the other die with cavity.
A4e. Roll Forging
in this operation the diameter of a workpiece reduced and its
length is increased.
A heated metal will flow in a two special roller. The roller has
cavities.
A4f. Isothermal Forging
The workpiece temperature is remains constant.
The dies and metal is heated at the same temperature. It will allow
to be forged with very slow strain rates. Like precision forging this
method has a purpose of producing forgings closer to the net
shape of the finished parts.
A4g. Swaging
Is normally cold forming operation. The surface finish then is inferior
to that achieved in cold swaging but some work honorable
materials peform better when swaged hot.
A4h. Ring Rolling (mandrel forging)
Is a process for making ring-shaped parts of particular cross
sections by rolling a sing-shaped blank between rollers that control
the diameter, width, height, and shape.
A5. Piercing
Manufacturing seamless tubes.
The heated bar is pushed forward against a pointed mandrel,
allowing to have a crack where the mandrel enter and while the
roller is rolling the mandrel will make a hole that will be bigger and
bigger until the bar looks like a tube.
A6. Pipe welding
Involves making pipe from heated strip (called “skelp” in this
process) by roll forming it into cylindrical shape and pressing the
heated edges together with enough force so that they fuse
together to form a butt weld.
A7. Hot Spinning
Two common application are the closing of the ends of tubing or
cylindrical containers and the spinning of heavy plate stock.
A8. Creep Forming
B. Primary Cold-Working Operation
B1. Rolling
B2. Cold Drawing
C. Sheet Metal Cutting Operations
C1. Shearing
Often refers to the cutting of sheet metal in a straight line without the
generation of chips and without melting or oxidation.
C1a. Squaring Shears
Are machines that perform the shearing
operation.

C1b. Alligator Shears

historically known as a lever shear and
sometimes
as a crocodile shear, is a metal-cutting
shear
with a hinged jaw, powered by a flywheel
or hydraulic cylinder.
C1c. Rotary Shears
Use two opposed and canted rollers, ground at
an angle, that roll across sheet or plate and
produce a shearing action

C2. Nibbling
Is a sheet metal operation in which a long cut is
made by punching a series of over-lapping
holes or slits in the workpiece.
C3. Slitting
Is a shearing operation that divides sheet or
coiled sheet metal into narrower widths.

C4. Blanking
involves cutting of sheet metal along a
closed outline in a single step to separate the
piece from the surrounding stock.
C4a. steel rule die blanking
A steel rule blade where the cutting edge is
centered in the middle of the thickness of
the die blade. Steel rule in a die to cut up
scrap in smaller pieces.

C4b. Dinking
Is similar to steel rule die blanking in that the
cutting is performed by a knife-like edge that
can bear against a flat surface.
C4c. Cutoff
A stamping operation to serve a part from a sheet or strip of stock,
normally with a single line cut.
C4d. Parting
Involves cutting a sheet metal strip by a punch with two cutting edge
that match the opposite side of the blank.
It is less efficient than cut-off in the sense that it result in some wasted
material.
C5. Punching
Often called Piercing, is a press working
operation used to produce holes in sheet
materials.
C6. Trimming
is a process in which the outer perimeter of a formed or flat part is
cut away to give the piece part its finished or partially finished profile.
The excess material, commonly called addendum or offal, often is
recovered, collected, and resold as scrap.
C7. Shaving
Is a secondary operation performed on sheet
metal workpieces after blanking or piercing.
Its purpose is to refine the edge finish or the
dimensions of the blank.
C8. Lancing
Is a sheet metal operation that makes a slit or
cut that is not long enough to produce a
separate piece.

C9. Fineblanking
A typical fine-blanking tool is a single-station
compound tool for producing a finished part
in one press.
C9a. Semi-piercing
Is piercing with a shortened punch stroke so that the piece that would
otherwise be removed from the part is offset rather than severed.
D. Press Bending and Forming Operations of Sheet Metal
D1. Bending
Is a manufacturing process that produces a v-shape, u-shape, or
channel shape along a straight axis in ductile materials, most
commonly sheet metal.
D1a. Press Break Bending
Is a machine pressing tool for bending sheet and plate material, most
commonly sheet metal.
D1b. V-die Bending
The most important die bending process is bending in a V-shaped.
D1c. Air Bending
(also known as Free Bending) is the most common way for bending
sheet metal because of its flexibility.
D1d. Punch Press (Bending Die) Bending
Follow the shape of an object.
D2. Forming
Bring together parts or combine to create something.
D3. Forming with Rubber Tooling
D3a. Rubber tooling Forming (Rubber Pad Forming)
Is a metalworking process where sheet metal is pressed between a
die and a rubber block, made of polyurethane.
D3b. Guerin Process
Is a sheet metal forming process that uses a rubber die that flexes to
force the sheet metal to take the shape of a form block (punch).
D3c. Rubber Diaphragm Forming
Also refferes to as a flexible forming process, employs a rubber material
and rigid die to form sheet metal into the desired final product.
D3d. Verson Wheelon
These presses use an inflatable bladder or fluid cell, to shape metal
parts.
D4. Drop Hammer Forming
Involves deep drawing forming or stamping using a pneumatic drop
hammer.
D5. Drawing (Sheet Metal Parts)
D5a&b. Shallow Drawing
Used to describe the process where the depth of draw is less than the
smallest dimension of the opening; otherwise, it is considered Deep
Drawing leads to wrinkling and puckering at the edge where the sheet
metal is clamped,. This is usually removed by a separate trimming
operation.
D5c. Redrawing Direct and Reverse
In Redrawing process cups drawn by conventional deep drawing are
utilized. In Direct Redrawing, punch is always in contact with the same
side of the cup. In Reverse Redrawing, the inner side of the original cup
becomes the outer side of the redrawn cup and vice versa.
D6. Coining
D6a. Drop Hammer Coining
A power hammer raised and then released to drop.
D7. Embossing
Are the processes of creating either raised or recessed relief images
and designs in paper and other materials.
D9. Beading
Form any design in a sheet of metal.
D10. Hemming and Seaming
Are two similar metalworking processes in which a sheet metal sheet
edge is rolled over onto itself.
D11. Edge Curling
Curling sheet metal is the process of adding a hollow, circular roll to
the edge of the sheet. The curled edge provides strength to the edge
and makes it safe for handling.
D12. Swaging
Is a process that is used to reduce or increase the diameter of tubes.
D13. Sizing
Is performed in an open die and only the surface where the die and
workpiece touch will be sized.
E. Multiple die stamping operations
E1. Progressive Die Operation
progressive die stamping, a coil of metal is fed through a machine that
consists of a series of stamping stations that perform simultaneous
operations. The metal strip moves through the drawing process, with
each progressive die station altering the configuration on the metal
from the previous station. Once the metal has gone through the entire
machine and all the stamping stations, the piece will be complete.
E2. Transfer Die (transfer press) Operations
a mechanical transport system transfers the part from station to station.
The transfer die can be a single die or part of several dies lined up in a
row. Transfer die stamping is used to perform operations on the part
free from the strip.
E3. Compound Die Operations
Compound Die Stamping is the process where the die separates or
blanks the part from a steel strip in one stroke. A Compound Die will
perform multiple cuts or punches in one stroke, as compared to multiple
strokes. This is a very cost effective method for stamping medium to high
volume parts while keeping labor and die costs down. Compound Dies
are often used to stamp simpler flat parts such as washers.
F. Sheet Metal Operations Performed on Equipment other than
presses.
F1. Rotary Swaging
also formerly known as swaging, is a process for precision forming of
tubes, bars and other cylindrical workpieces.
is a process for precision forming of tubes, bars or wires. lt belongs to the
group of net-shape-forming processes, of which one of the
characteristics is that the finished shape of the formed workpieces is
obtained without, or with only a minimum amount of further final
processing by machining.
F1a. Stationary Die Swaging
-is a variation in rotary swaging used when the workpiece does not have
a round cross section.
-The operation is the same as rotary swaging except that the dies do not
rotate and are configured to conform to a non-round workpiece shape.
F3. STRETCH FORMING
Stretch forming is a metal forming process in which a piece of sheet
metal is stretched and bent simultaneously over a die in order to form
large contoured parts. Stretching is achieved with two or more pairs of
gripping jaws equipped to provide a tension in the metal sheet.
F3a. STRETCH FORMING
Is stretch forming when a mating female die also engage the workpiece
on the form block.
F3b. Stretch Wrapping
Uses the stretch principle and a rotary table to make stretch-formed
parts without scuff marks on the workpiece surface.
F3c. Compression Forming
Is one of the family of stretch forming operation, but the force, instead of
being used to stretch the material, it is used to press it against the
forming block.
F3d. Radial-Draw Forming
It is similar to compression forming except that the workpiece is kept on
tension.
F4. Roll Coining
Similar to rotary embossing, in that the work is fed between two opposed
rollers that have the desired surface shape but normally it is done to
small parts produced in large quantities from metals of lower yield
strength.
F5. ROTARY EMBOSSING
It is a press operation, can also be performed by passing the work
material through a pair of opposed rollers that have a desired surface
shape.
F6. METAL SPINNING
Is an operation that forms a disc of sheet metal into various seamless
circular shaped by pressing it against a form while it rotates.
F6a. MANUAL SPINNING
Metal spinning performed manually as long as the metal used is thin and
ductile enough to respond to manually applied pressure.
F6b. POWER SPINNING, “FLOW TURNING” OR “SHEAR SPINNING”
Refer to a variety of methods that apply powered forming pressure to the
spinning process.
F7.ROLL FORMING
is a continuous bending operation in which a long strip of metal
(typically coiled steel) is passed through consecutive sets of rolls, or
stands, each performing only an incremental part of the bend until the
desired cross-section profile is obtained.
F7a. ROLL FORMING OF TUBING AND PIPE
Typically, 10 pairs of rollers are required to bend, finish and size the
tubing.
When tubing and pipe are made by roll forming, a welding unit is
incorporated in the process. The metal strip, as it moves through the
machine it is formed into a circular cross section.
G. WIRE FORMING OPERATIONS
G1.WIRE FORMING
Wire forming is a term that incorporates many shapes, textures and dimensions.
The forms are engineered in two or three dimensions and commonly generated
from metal wire and sometimes from tube. ... A wire form may be defined as
any length of wire that has had some force applied to it that changes the
shape of the wire.
H. TUBING AND SECTION OPERATON
H1. Tube Spinning
Tube spinning is performed on cylindrical parts. Tube spinning is
similar to shear spinning in that metal flow occurs within the
work. This metal flow acts to reduce the thickness of the metal.
While using tube spinning to reduce the thickness of the tube’s
length will be increased.
H1a. Forward Tube Spinning
sometimes called tube stretching, is a means for
increasing the depth of cooking pots or the length of
cylindrical parts of tubing.
H1b. Backward Tube Spinning
is the same as forward tube spinning except that the
forming tool moves in the direction opposite to that
of the expansion of the workpiece. Ie., its moves
toward the headstock of the spinning lathe and the
workpiece metal flows away from the headstock as
shown in Fig. 2H1b.
 H2. Tube and Section Bending

H2a. Draw bending

is used in bending tubing, sections and bars.
H2b. Compression Bending
is similar to draw bending, but the forming block and clam do not
rotate.
H2c. Ram and Press Bending
The tube or pipe is held at two ends and the ram advances on the
central axis to bend the pipe.
H2d. Stretch Bending
Stretch bending technology is suitable for tubes and (extruded) profiles
in aluminum, steel and stainless steel.
H2e. Wrinkle Bending
is a process where wrinkles are introduced in a steel pipe during
construction to obtain pipeline alignment.
H2f. Roll Bending
is a mean of putting gentle bends in tubing, pipe, bars, rolled or
extruded shapes, plate and sheets.
H2g. Roll Extrusion Bending
is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A
material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-section.

H2h. Bulging, Mechanical

is a operation that expands a portion of a tubular or cylindrical part.
H2i. Bulging Hydraulic
expands tubing, pipe, or a cylindrical part by applying internal force,
with a pressurized liquid or an elastomer (low-dorometer rubber
polyurethane) punch.
I. Non-sheet Forming Operation
I1. Shearing of bars and other non-flat shapes.
I2. Cold Heading
Is a metalworking process which incorporates the forging, extruding
and upsetting process.
I3. Thread Rolling
Is a metal rolling process used extensively in manufacturing industry
to produce screws, bolts and other fasteners.
I4. Impact/Cold Extrusion
I4a.
I4b.
I4c.
J. High-energy-rate forming methods
Explosive Gas Forming
the metal sheet is clamped over an evacuated die and the whole
assembly is kept in a tank confined within a fluid medium (e.g. water). A
shock wave in the fluid medium is generated by detonating an
explosive charge placed at a certain distance from the workpiece in
the confined space. Typical explosives include trinitrotoluene (TNT) and
dynamite for higher energy, and gun powder for lower energy. The
pressure of the shock is sufficiently high to form the metal into the die
cavity. There is a greater hazard of die failure in the confined operation
due to the inevitable lack of control in explosives forming.
Electromagnetic Forming
In electro-magnetic forming, electrical energy is first stored in a
capacitor bank. It is then discharged through a magnetic coil by closing
the switch. The coil produces a magnetic field whose intensity depends
on the value of the current. Since the metallic workpiece is in this
dynamic magnetic field, a current is included in the job which sets up its
magnetic field through eddy currents. The forces produced by the two
magnetic fields result in a net repelling force between the coil and
sheet, which forms the workpiece into the die. The workpiece in the
process has to be electrically conductive but need not be magnetic.
Electrohydraulic Forming
Electric discharge in the form of sparks, instead of explosives, can also
be used to generate a shock wave in a fluid. An operation using this
principle of generating a shock wave is called electro-hydraulic forming.
The process is also called underwater spark or electric-discharge
forming. In this process, a capacitor bank is charged through the
charging circuit; subsequently, the switch is closed, resulting in a spark
within the electrode gap to discharge the capacitors.
K. STRAIGHTENING
K1. MANUAL STRAIGHTENING
Typically the workpiece is clamped at one end or where there is no
deformation, and the deformed portion is moved in the opposite of the
distortion.

K2. PRESS STRAIGHTENING

Uses an hydraulic press to make the corrective bends.
Heat may also be applied to the area of deformation
K3.PARALLEL ROLL STRAIGHTENING
It is used in sheet, rod or wire.
A series of parallel rollers on opposite sides of the workpiece subjects the
workpiece to progressively decreasing reverse bend as it passes through
the rollers.
K4. ROTARY STRAIGHTENING
Is a method for straightening round rods and bars. It uses two or more
rollers with axes at an angle to each other and the rollers has a concave
shape while the other is cylindrical.
K5. EPICYCLIC STRAIGHTENING

K6. STRETCH STRAIGTENING

The workpiece is gripped and stretched in a straight line beyond the
yield point. Twist deformation can also be corrected, when this is
needed.
L. Metal Powders Processes
Direct reduction (sponge iron), liquid atomization, gas atomization,
and centrifugal atomization are all processes that are presently today.
Direct Reduction
Purified iro oxide ore, blended with a carbon source like coke, is
heated to high temperature in a rotary kiln. The product is sponge iron
which is remoed from surplus solid carbon, ground, annealed (in order
to remove extra oxygen and carbon) and finally reground for final
use for manufactured parts.
Gas Atomization
A molten metal, which can be alloyed or pure metals, passes via an
orifice under high pressure into a gas filled chamber where it cools
and then solidifies as it falls via the chamber, the powder is collected
and then annealed for subsequent parts manufacture.
Liquid Atomization
Similar to gas atomization, but the metal stream is hit by a high pressure
liquid spray which cools and then solidifies the droplets in a more rapid
manner, resulting in less porous, smaller, cleaner particles with a wider
size distribution compared to gas atomized powders. The product is
finally annealed.
Centrifugal Atomization
A rod of the metal to be powdered is sent inside a chamber into a
rotating spindle, an electric arc across the gap melts the end of the rod
from which melted droplets are thrown into the neighbouring chamber
and solidified. This method can develop a much narrower size
distribution than either atomization method.
Powder Metallurgy Parts Manufacturing
Powered metal components are produced from powered metal using
a wide range of manufacturing techniques. These techniques
comprise of pressing and sintering, hot isostatic pressing, powder
forging, electric current assisted sintering, selective laser melting, and
metal injection molding.
Pressing and sintering
The part is first compressed by die compaction at room temperature.
In a few cases, this is enough to develop a finished part, in most cases,
die compaction (pressing) is followed by sintering, at high enough
temperatures for the particles to coalesce of diffuse together, not melt
completely. The final part has some porosity to it, unlike a molten cast
part. If the final strength and hardness is higher, the porosity of the final
part will be lower.
Powder forging
A pressed and sintered part is heated to high temperatures and hot-
forged. The final part has properties near those of wrought parts.
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
Powder fills a mold which is evacuated and then heated to high
temperatures while it is subjected to external gas pressure up to
15000 psi. The final part has near wrought density and strength.
Electric Current Assisted Sintering (ECAS)
Similar to HIP except the heat is electrical localized and massive
resistive heat, sometimes complemented by electric currents which
can trigger othe mechanisms such as surface oxide removal. The
massive heat concentrates at particle surfaces, and the localized
heat improves plastic deformation during sintering.
, and
Metal Injection Molding (MIM)
MIM can develop more complex parts, since a mixture of the
powder with a binder gives it fluid properties which can pass into
small passages and spaces, the mixture gets compacted into a
“green” part, after which the binder is removed, either chemically
or thermally, to produce a “brown” part, which is sintered and
shrinks to provide a complex part with 97-99% density.
Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
SLM is the latest, and considered by most to be the most
enhanced, PD process technology. It employs a rotating mirror,
which, by following a CAD pattern, directs a laser beam onto the
top powder layer, melting the powder layer on top of the earlier
layer of the part. All particles not melted onto the part are scraped
off while the next layer is loaded. Attempts have been performed
to successfully re-use the un-melted particles for as many cycles as
possible before it gives out too much wear in order to meet shape
and size criteria. It can take 10 pounds of metal powder to
produce a 1-pound part if the left-behind powder cannot be
recycled.
Quality Control for Metal Powders
Metal powders will have to meet quality specifications of both the
powder metallurgy parts manufacturers (incoming inspection) and
the powder manufacturers (outgoing inspections). Basic powder
morphology (shapes and sizes) is a specification in itself and
influences all other specifications, depicted in the chart below.