Digital

Fundamentals
Tenth Edition

Floyd

Chapter 4

© 2008 Pearson Education

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Boolean Addition
In Boolean algebra, a variable is a symbol used to represent
an action, a condition, or data. A single variable can only
have a value of 1 or 0.
The complement represents the inverse of a variable and is indicated
with an overbar. Thus, the complement of A is A.
A literal is a variable or its complement.
Addition is equivalent to the OR operation. The sum term is 1 if one or
more if the literals are 1. The sum term is zero only if each literal is 0.
Determine the values of A, B, and C that make the sum term
Example of the expression A + B + C = 0?

Solution Each literal must = 0; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 1.

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Boolean Multiplication
In Boolean algebra, multiplication is equivalent to the AND
operation. The product of literals forms a product term. The
product term will be 1 only if all of the literals are 1.

Example What are the values

. .
of the A, B and C if the
product term of A B C = 1?
Solution Each literal must = 1; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 0.

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Commutative Laws
The commutative laws are applied to addition and
multiplication. For addition, the commutative law states
In terms of the result, the order in which variables
are ORed makes no difference.
A+B=B+A

For multiplication, the commutative law states

In terms of the result, the order in which variables
are ANDed makes no difference.
AB = BA

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Associative Laws
The associative laws are also applied to addition and
multiplication. For addition, the associative law states
When ORing more than two variables, the result is
the same regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A + (B +C) = (A + B) + C

For multiplication, the associative law states

When ANDing more than two variables, the result is
the same regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A(BC) = (AB)C

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Distributive Law
The distributive law is the factoring law. A common
variable can be factored from an expression just as in
ordinary algebra. That is
AB + AC = A(B+ C)
The distributive law can be illustrated with equivalent
circuits:
A
AB
B B
B+ C
C X
X A
A AC
C
A(B+ C) AB + AC

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Rules of Boolean Algebra

1. A + 0 = A 7. A . A = A
2. A + 1 = 1 8. A . A = 0
=
3. A . 0 = 0 9. A = A
4. A . 1 = A 10. A + AB = A
5. A + A = A 11. A + AB = A + B
6. A + A = 1 12. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rules of Boolean algebra can be illustrated with Venn
diagrams. The variable A is shown as an area.
The rule A + AB = A can be illustrated easily with a diagram. Add
an overlapping area to represent the variable B.
The overlap region between A and B represents AB.

A B A
AB =

The diagram visually shows that A + AB = A. Other rules can be

illustrated with the diagrams as well.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Rules of Boolean Algebra

Example Illustrate the rule A + AB = A + B with a Venn

diagram.
Solution
This time, A is represented by the blue area and B
again by the red circle. The intersection represents
AB. Notice that A + AB = A + B

A
A BA
AB

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC, can
be proven by applying earlier rules as follows:
(A + B)(A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC
= A + AC + AB + BC
= A(1 + C + B) + BC
= A . 1 + BC
= A + BC

This rule is a little more complicated, but it can also be

shown with a Venn diagram, as given on the following
slide…

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Three areas represent the variables A, B, and C.
The area representing A + B is shown in yellow.
The area representing A + C is shown in red.
The overlap of red and yellow is shown in orange.

The overlapping area between B and C represents BC.

ORing with A gives the same area as before.

A B A B
A+B
A+C = BC
C C
(A + B)(A + C) A + BC
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
DeMorgan’s Theorem
DeMorgan’s 1st Theorem
The complement of a product of variables is
equal to the sum of the complemented variables.
AB = A + B
Applying DeMorgan’s first theorem to gates:
A A
AB A+B Inputs Output
B B
A B AB A + B
NAND Negative-OR 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
DeMorgan’s Theorem
DeMorgan’s 2nd Theorem
The complement of a sum of variables is equal to
the product of the complemented variables.
A+B=A.B
Applying DeMorgan’s second theorem to gates:
A A Inputs Output
A+B AB
B B
A B A + B AB
NOR Negative-AND 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
DeMorgan’s Theorem

Example Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to remove the

overbar covering both terms from the
expression X = C + D.

Solution To apply DeMorgan’s theorem to the expression,

you can break the overbar covering both terms and
change the sign between the terms. This results in
=
X = C . D. Deleting the double bar gives X = C . D.

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits

Combinational logic circuits can be analyzed by writing

the expression for each gate and combining the
expressions according to the rules for Boolean algebra.
Example Apply Boolean algebra to derive the expression for X.

Solution Write the expression for each gate:

A (A + B )
C (A + B )
B
C X = C (A + B )+ D
D

Applying DeMorgan’s theorem and the distribution law:

X = C (A B) + D = A B C + D
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
SOP and POS forms
Boolean expressions can be written in the sum-of-products
form (SOP) or in the product-of-sums form (POS). These
forms can simplify the implementation of combinational
logic, particularly with PLDs. In both forms, an overbar
cannot extend over more than one variable.
An expression is in SOP form when two or more product terms are
summed as in the following examples:
ABC+AB ABC+CD CD+E
An expression is in POS form when two or more sum terms are
multiplied as in the following examples:
(A + B)(A + C) (A + B + C)(B + D) (A + B)C

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
SOP Standard form
In SOP standard form, every variable in the domain must
appear in each term. This form is useful for constructing
truth tables or for implementing logic in PLDs.
You can expand a nonstandard term to standard form by multiplying the
term by a term consisting of the sum of the missing variable and its
complement.

Example Convert X = A B + A B C to standard form.

Solution The first term does not include the variable C. Therefore,
multiply it by the (C + C), which = 1:
X = A B (C + C) + A B C
=ABC+ABC+ABC

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
POS Standard form
In POS standard form, every variable in the domain must
appear in each sum term of the expression.
You can expand a nonstandard POS expression to standard form by
adding the product of the missing variable and its complement and
applying rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC.

Example Convert X = (A + B)(A + B + C) to standard form.

Solution The first sum term does not include the variable C.
Therefore, add C C and expand the result by rule 12.
X = (A + B + C C)(A + B + C)
= (A +B + C )(A + B + C)(A + B + C)

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
BOOLEAN SIMPLIFICATION
 BOOLEAN SIMPLIFICATION: (WHY NEED OF)

•
 BOOLEAN SIMPLIFICATION (EXAMPLES)

F1 = A (A + AB)
(EXAMPLE #1)

• F1 = A (A + AB)
= A. A + A.(AB)

= A + A.A.B
= A + 0.B
=A + 0
=A
F1 (TRUTH TABLE)

A B A AB A +AB F1 FS = A

0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0

1
0 1 1 1 1 0
1

1 0 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 1
(EXAMPLE #2)

• F2 = X (X + Y)
F2 = X (X + Y)
= X. X + XY
= 0 + XY
= 0 + XY
= XY
F2 (TRUTH TABLE):

ORIGINAL SIMPLIFIED
X Y X X+Y X (X + Y) X Y XY

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
(EXAMPLE #3)

• F3 = (A + B) (A + B)
F3 = (A + B) (A + B)
= A (A + B) + B (A + B)
= A. A + AB + AB + B.B
= A + AB + AB + 0
= A + AB +AB = A (1 + B + B)
= A.(1)
=A
F3 (TRUTH TABLE)

A B B A+B A+B (A +B)(A+B)

0 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1
(EXAMPLE #4)

• F4 = AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)
= AB + AB + AC + B.B + BC
= AB + AC+ B + BC

= AB + B + BC + AC
= B(A + 1 + C) + AC
= B(1) + AC
= B + AC
 F4 (TRUTH TABLE)

ORIGINAL SIMPLIFIED
A B C AB B+C A(B+C) B(B+C) F4 A B C AC B+AC

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(EXAMPLE #5)

• F5 = ABC + AB + ABC
= ABC + ABC + AB
= AB (C + C) + AB
= AB(1) + AB
= AB + AB
= B(A + A)
= B(1)
=B
F5 (TRUTH TABLE)

A B C A C AB ABC ABC F5

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
(EXAMPLE #6)
• F6 = (A + C) (A + C) (A + B + CD)
= [(A + C)(A + C)] (A + B +CD)
= [ A (A + C) + C(A + C)] (A + B + CD)
= [A.A + A.C + AC + C.C] (A+ B + CD)
= [A + A.C + AC + 0] (A + B +CD)
= [A (1 + C + C)] (A + B +CD)
= A (1) (A + B + CD)
= A (A + B + CD)
= A.A + AB + ACD
= 0 + AB +ACD
= AB + ACD = A(B + CD)
 F6 (TRUTH TABLE ORIGINAL)
A B C D A C D CD A+C A+C A+B+CD F6
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
 F6 (SIMPLIFIED TRUTH TABLE)
A B C D A D CD B+CD A(B+CD)

0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
 Summary
Karnaugh maps
The Karnaugh map (K-map) is a tool for simplifying
combinational logic with 3 or 4 variables. For 3 variables,
8 cells are required (23).
The map shown is for three variables
labeled A, B, and C. Each cell ABC ABC
represents one possible product
ABC ABC
term.
Each cell differs from an adjacent ABC ABC
cell by only one variable.
ABC ABC

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Karnaugh maps
Cells are usually labeled using 0’s and 1’s to represent the
variable and its complement.
C The numbers are entered in gray
AB 0 1
code, to force adjacent cells to be
00 different by only one variable.

Gray 01 Ones are read as the true variable

code and zeros are read as the
11
complemented variable.
10

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Karnaugh maps
Alternatively, cells can be labeled with the variable letters.
This makes it simple to read, but it takes more time
preparing the map.
CC CC
Example Read the terms for the AB ABC
AB ABC
yellow cells.
AB ABC
ABC ABC
Solution
AB

The cells are ABC and ABC. AB ABC

AB ABC

AB ABC
AB ABC
ABC

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Karnaugh maps
K-maps can simplify combinational logic by grouping
cells and eliminating variables that change.
Example Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.
C 0 1 Solution
AB
1 1. Group the 1’s into two overlapping
00
B changes groups as indicated.
across this 01 1 1 2. Read each group by eliminating any
boundary variable that changes across a
11
boundary.
10 C changes 3. The vertical group is read AC.
across this 4. The horizontal group is read AB.
boundary
X = AC +AB
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Karnaugh maps
A 4-variable map has an adjacent cell on each of its four
boundaries as shown.
Each cell is different only by
CD CD CD CD
one variable from an adjacent
AB
cell.
AB Grouping follows the rules
AB
given in the text.
The following slide shows an
AB
example of reading a four
variable map using binary
numbers for the variables…

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
 Summary
Karnaugh maps
Example Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.

Solution
C changes across
outer boundary
CD
AB
00 01 11 10 1. Group the 1’s into two separate
00 1 1 groups as indicated.
B changes 2. Read each group by eliminating
01 1 1 any variable that changes across a
11 1 1
boundary.
B changes 3. The upper (yellow) group is read as
10 1 1 AD.
C changes
4. The lower (green) group is read as
AD.
X
X = AD +AD
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10 th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved