Digital Fundamentals: Floyd

Digital Fundamentals
Floyd
Chapter 4
© 2009 Pearson Education

Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved
Summary
Boolean Addition
In Boolean algebra, a variable is a symbol used to represent

an action, a condition, or data. A single variable can only
have a value of 1 or 0.
The complement represents the inverse of a variable and is indicated
with an overbar. Thus, the complement of A is A.
A literal is a variable or its complement.
Addition is equivalent to the OR operation. The sum term is 1 if one or
more if the literals are 1. The sum term is zero only if each literal is 0.
Determine the values of A, B, and C that make the sum term
of the expression A + B + C = 0?
Each literal must = 0; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 1.
Summary
Boolean Multiplication
In Boolean algebra, multiplication is equivalent to the AND

operation. The product of literals forms a product term. The
product term will be 1 only if all of the literals are 1.
What are the values of the A, B and C if the

product term of A.B.C = 1?
Each literal must = 1; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 0.
Summary
Commutative Laws
The commutative laws are applied to addition and

multiplication. For addition, the commutative law states
In terms of the result, the order in which variables
are ORed makes no difference.
A+B=B+A
For multiplication, the commutative law states

In terms of the result, the order in which variables
are ANDed makes no difference.
AB = BA
Summary
Associative Laws
The associative laws are also applied to addition and

multiplication. For addition, the associative law states
When ORing more than two variables, the result is
the same regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A + (B +C) = (A + B) + C
For multiplication, the associative law states

When ANDing more than two variables, the result is
the same regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A(BC) = (AB)C
Summary
Distributive Law
The distributive law is the factoring law. A common

variable can be factored from an expression just as in
ordinary algebra. That is
AB + AC = A(B+ C)
The distributive law can be illustrated with equivalent
circuits:
A
AB
B B
B+ C
C X
X A
A AC
C
A(B+ C) AB + AC
Summary
Rules of Boolean Algebra
1. A + 0 = A 7. A . A = A
2. A + 1 = 1 8. A . A = 0
=
3. A . 0 = 0 9. A = A
4. A . 1 = A 10. A + AB = A
5. A + A = A 11. A + AB = A + B
6. A + A = 1 12. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC
Summary
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC, can
be proven by applying earlier rules as follows:
(A + B)(A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC
= A + AC + AB + BC
= A(1 + C + B) + BC
= A . 1 + BC
= A + BC
This rule is a little more complicated, but it can also be

shown with a Venn diagram, as given on the following
slide…
Summary
DeMorgan’s Theorem
DeMorgan’s 1st Theorem

The complement of a product of variables is
equal to the sum of the complemented variables.
AB = A + B
Applying DeMorgan’s first theorem to gates:
A A Inputs Output
AB A+B
B B
A B AB A + B
NAND Negative-OR 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
Summary
DeMorgan’s 2nd Theorem

The complement of a sum of variables is equal to
the product of the complemented variables.
A+B=A.B
Applying DeMorgan’s second theorem to gates:
A A Inputs Output
A+B AB
B B
A B A + B AB
NOR Negative-AND 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
Summary
Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to remove the

overbar covering both terms from the
expression X = C + D.
To apply DeMorgan’s theorem to the expression,

you can break the overbar covering both terms and
change the sign between the terms. This results in
=
X = C . D. Deleting the double bar gives X = C . D.
Summary
Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
Combinational logic circuits can be analyzed by writing

the expression for each gate and combining the
expressions according to the rules for Boolean algebra.
Apply Boolean algebra to derive the expression for X.
Write the expression for each gate:

A (A + B )
C (A + B )
B
C X = C (A + B )+ D
D
Applying DeMorgan’s theorem and the distribution law:

X = C (A B) + D = A B C + D
Summary
SOP and POS forms
Boolean expressions can be written in the sum-of-products

form (SOP) or in the product-of-sums form (POS). These
forms can simplify the implementation of combinational
logic. In both forms, an overbar cannot extend over more
than one variable.
An expression is in SOP form when two or more product terms are
summed as in the following examples:
ABC+AB ABC+CD CD+E
An expression is in POS form when two or more sum terms are
multiplied as in the following examples:
(A + B)(A + C) (A + B + C)(B + D) (A + B)C
Summary
SOP Standard form
In SOP standard form, every variable in the domain must

appear in each term. This form is useful for constructing
truth tables.
You can expand a nonstandard term to standard form by multiplying
the term by a term consisting of the sum of the missing variable and its
complement.
Convert X = A B + A B C to standard form.

The first term does not include the variable C. Therefore,
multiply it by the (C + C), which = 1:
X = A B (C + C) + A B C
=ABC+ABC+ABC
Summary
POS Standard form
In POS standard form, every variable in the domain must

appear in each sum term of the expression.
You can expand a nonstandard POS expression to standard form by
adding the product of the missing variable and its complement and
applying rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC.
Convert X = (A + B)(A + B + C) to standard form.
The first sum term does not include the variable C.

Therefore, add C C and expand the result by rule 12.
X = (A + B + C C)(A + B + C)
= (A +B + C )(A + B + C)(A + B + C)
Summary
Karnaugh maps
The Karnaugh map (K-map) is a tool for simplifying
combinational logic with 3 or 4 variables. For 3 variables,
8 cells are required (23).
The map shown is for three variables
labeled A, B, and C. Each cell ABC ABC
represents one possible product
term. ABC ABC
Each cell differs from an adjacent ABC ABC

cell by only one variable.
ABC ABC
Summary
Karnaugh maps
Cells are usually labeled using 0’s and 1’s to represent the
variable and its complement.
C The numbers are entered in gray
AB 0 1
code, to force adjacent cells to be
00 different by only one variable.
Gray 01 Ones are read as the true variable

code and zeros are read as the
11
complemented variable.
10
Summary
Karnaugh maps
Alternatively, cells can be labeled with the variable

letters. This makes it simple to read, but it takes more
time preparing the map.
CC CC
Read the terms for the AB
AB ABC ABC
yellow cells.
AB
AB ABC
ABC ABC
The cells are ABC and ABC. AB ABC

AB ABC
AB ABC
AB ABC
ABC
Summary
Karnaugh maps
K-maps can simplify combinational logic by grouping
cells and eliminating variables that change.
Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.
CC 00 11
AAB
B
11 1. Group the 1’s into two overlapping
00
00
B changes groups as indicated.
across this 01
01 11 11
2. Read each group by eliminating any
boundary variable that changes across a
11
boundary.
10
10 C changes 3. The vertical group is read AC.
across this 4. The horizontal group is read AB.
boundary
X = AC +AB
Summary
Karnaugh maps
A 4-variable map has an adjacent cell on each of its four
boundaries as shown.
Each cell is different only by
CD CD CD CD
one variable from an adjacent
AB
cell.
AB Grouping follows the rules
AB
given in the text.
The following slide shows an
AB
example of reading a four
variable map using binary
numbers for the variables…
Summary
Karnaugh maps
Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.
C changes across
outer boundary
CD
AB
00 01 11 10 1. Group the 1’s into two separate
00 1 1 groups as indicated.
B changes 2. Read each group by eliminating
01 1 1 any variable that changes across a
11 1 1
boundary.
B changes 3. The upper (yellow) group is read as
10 1 1 AD.
C changes
4. The lower (green) group is read as
AD.
X
X = AD +AD

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Digital Fundamentals

© 2009 Pearson Education

In Boolean algebra, a variable is a symbol used to represent

Each literal must = 0; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 1.

In Boolean algebra, multiplication is equivalent to the AND

What are the values of the A, B and C if the

The commutative laws are applied to addition and

For multiplication, the commutative law states

The associative laws are also applied to addition and

For multiplication, the associative law states

The distributive law is the factoring law. A common

This rule is a little more complicated, but it can also be

DeMorgan’s 1st Theorem

DeMorgan’s 2nd Theorem

Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to remove the

To apply DeMorgan’s theorem to the expression,

Combinational logic circuits can be analyzed by writing

Write the expression for each gate:

Applying DeMorgan’s theorem and the distribution law:

Boolean expressions can be written in the sum-of-products

In SOP standard form, every variable in the domain must

Convert X = A B + A B C to standard form.

In POS standard form, every variable in the domain must

Convert X = (A + B)(A + B + C) to standard form.

The first sum term does not include the variable C.

Each cell differs from an adjacent ABC ABC

Gray 01 Ones are read as the true variable

Alternatively, cells can be labeled with the variable

The cells are ABC and ABC. AB ABC

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