Anatomy: A brief introduction

 Gross anatomy

 Microscopic anatomy

 Histopathology

 Studying anatomy

Anatomy is the identification and description of the structures of living things. It is a branch of biology
and medicine. People who study anatomy study the body, how it is made up, and how it works.

The study of anatomy dates back more than 2,000 yearsTrusted Source, to the Ancient Greeks. There are
three broad areas:

 human anatomy

 animal anatomy — zootomy

 plant anatomy — phytotomy

Human anatomy is the study of the structures of the human body. An understanding of anatomy is key to
the practice of medicine and other areas of health.

The word “anatomy” comes from the Greek words “ana,” meaning “up,” and “tome,” meaning “a
cutting.” Traditionally, studies of anatomy have involved cutting up, or dissecting, organisms.

Now, however, imaging technology can show us much about how the inside of a body works, reducing
the need for dissection.

Below, learn about the two main approaches: microscopic anatomy and gross, or macroscopic, anatomy.

Gross anatomy
Share on PinterestImage credit: BraunS/istock .

In medicine, gross, macro, or topographical anatomy refers to the study of the biological structures that
the eye can see. In other words, a person does not need a microscope to see these features.

The study of gross anatomy may involve dissection or noninvasive methods. The aim is to collect data
about the larger structures of organs and organ systems.

In dissection, a scientist cuts open an organism — a plant or the body of a human or another animal —
and examines what they discover inside.

Endoscopy is a tool for diagnosing illness, but it can also play a role in researchTrusted Source. It involves
a scientist or doctor inserting a long, thin tube with a camera at the end into different parts of the body.
By passing it through the mouth or rectum, for example, they can examine the inside of the
gastrointestinal tract.

There are also less invasive methods of investigation. For example, to study the blood vessels of living
animals or humans, a scientist or doctor may inject an opaque dye, then use imaging technology, such as
angiography, to see the vessels that contain the dye. This reveals how the circulatory system is working
and whether there are any blockages.

MRI scans, CT scans, PET scans, X-rays, ultrasounds, and other types of imaging can also show what is
happening inside a living body.
Medical and dental students also perform dissection as part of their practical work during their studies.
They may dissect human corpses.

Human body systems

Students of gross anatomy learn about the major systems of the body.

There are 11 organ systems in the human body:

 the skeletal system

 the muscular system

 the lymphatic system

 the respiratory system

 the digestive system

 the nervous system, including the central and autonomic systems

 the endocrine system, which regulates hormone production

 the cardiovascular system, including the heart

 the urinary system

 the reproductive system

 the integumentary system, which includes the skin, hair, and nails, among other areas

These systems all work together and depend on each other to function.

Microscopic anatomy

Microscopic anatomy, also known as histology, is the study of cells and tissues of animals, humans, and
plants. These subjects are too small to see without a microscope.

Through microscopic anatomy, people can learn about the structure of cells and how they relate to each
other.

For example, if a person has cancer, examining the tissue under the microscope will reveal how the
cancerous cells are acting and how they affect healthy tissue.

A researcher may apply histological techniques such as sectioning and staining to tissues and cells. They
may then examine them under an electron or light microscope.

Sectioning involves cutting tissue into very thin slices for close examination.
The aim of staining tissues and cells is to add or enhance color. This makes it easier to identify the
specific tissues under investigation.

Histology is vital for the understanding and advancement of medicine, veterinary medicine, biology, and
other aspects of life science.

Scientists use histology for:

Teaching

In teaching labs, histology slides can help students learn about the microstructures of biological tissues.

Diagnosis

Doctors take tissue samples, or biopsies, from people who may have cancer or other illnesses and send
the samples to a lab, where a histologist can analyze them.

Forensic investigations

If a person dies unexpectedly, the microscopic study of specific biological tissues can help experts
discover the cause.

Autopsies

As in forensic investigations, experts study tissues from deceased people and animals to understand the
causes of death.

Archeology

Biological samples from archeological sites can provide useful data about what was happening
thousands of years ago.

Histopathology

People who work in histology laboratories are called histotechnicans, histotechnologists, or histology
technicians. These people prepare the samples for analysis. Histopathologists, also known as
pathologists, study and analyze the samples.

The technician will use special skills to process samples of biological tissues. The tissues may come from:

 patients seeking a diagnosis

 suspects in a crime, if it is a forensic lab

 the body of a person who has died

The process involves:

1. trimming samples and applying solutions to preserve them

 2. removing any water, replacing it with paraffin wax, and putting the sample in a wax block to
make it easier to slice

3. slicing the tissue thinly and mounting the slices on slides

4. applying stains to make specific parts visible

Next, a histopathologist examines the cells and tissues and interprets what they see. Others can use the
histopathologist’s findings to decide on the best course of treatment or help determine how a death,
illness, or crime occurred.

To become a histotechnologist in the United States, a person needs certification from the American
Society for Clinical Pathology. They can start by taking a degree that includes math, biology, and
chemistry, then getting onsite experience. Or, a person can attend an accredited histology program.
Higher qualifications are also available.

To become a pathologist, a person usually needs a degree from a medical school, which takes 4 years to
complete, plus 3–7 years of internship and residency programs.

Studying anatomy

Most people working in healthcare have had training in gross anatomy and histology.

Paramedics, nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, medical doctors, prosthetists, and
biological scientists all need a knowledge of anatomy.

Last medically reviewed on March 7, 2017

 Biology / Biochemistry

 Medical Devices / Diagnostics

 Medical Practice Management

 Medical Students / Training

How we reviewed this article:

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Medically reviewed by University of Illinois — Written by Yvette Brazier — Updated on April 25, 2023

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A brief introduction to physiology

 What is physiology?

 History

 Biological systems

 Branches

 Physiology or anatomy?

Physiology is the study of normal function within living creatures. It is a sub-section of biology, covering a
range of topics that include organs, anatomy, and biological compounds, among others.

From ancient theories to molecular laboratory techniques, physiological research has shaped our
understanding of the components of our body, how they communicate, and how they keep us alive.
Merrian-Webster defines physiology as:

“[A] branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of life or of living matter (such as
organs, tissues, or cells) and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved.”

Fast facts on physiology

 Physiology can be considered a study of the functions and processes that create life.

 The study of physiology can be traced back to at least 420 BC.

 The study of physiology is split into many disciplines covering topics as different as exercise,
evolution, and defense.

What is physiology?

Share on PinterestPhysiology covers a multitude of disciplines within human biology and beyond.

The study of physiology is, in a sense, the study of life. It asks questions about the internal workings of
organisms and how they interact with the world around them.

Physiology tests how organs and systems within the body work, how they communicate, and how they
combine their efforts to make conditions favorable for survival.
Human physiology, specifically, is often separated into subcategories; these topics cover a vast amount of
information.

Researchers in the field can focus on anything from microscopic organelles in cell physiology up to more
wide-ranging topics, such as ecophysiology, which looks at whole organisms and how they adapt to
environments.

The most relevant arm of physiological research to Medical News Today is applied human physiology;
this field investigates biological systems at the level of the cell, organ, system, anatomy, organism, and
everywhere in between.

In this article, we will visit some of the subsections of physiology, developing a brief overview of this
huge subject. Firstly, we will run through a short history of physiology.

History
 Share on
PinterestHippocrates is considered by many to be the “father of medicine.”

The study of physiology traces its roots back to ancient India and Egypt.

As a medical discipline, it goes back at least as far as the time of Hippocrates, the famous “father of
medicine” – around 420 BC.
Hippocrates coined the theory of the four humors, stating that the body contains four distinct bodily
fluids: black bile, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile. Any disturbance in their ratios, as the theory goes,
causes ill health.

Claudius Galenus (c.130-200 AD), also known as Galen, modified Hippocrates’ theory and was the first to
use experimentation to derive information about the systems of the body. He is widely referred to as the
founder of experimental physiology.

It was Jean Fernel (1497-1558), a French physician, who first introduced the term “physiology,” from
Ancient Greek, meaning “study of nature, origins.”

Fernel was also the first to describe the spinal canal (the space in the spine where the spinal cord passes
through). He has a crater on the moon named after him for his efforts – it is called Fernelius.

Another leap forward in physiological knowledge came with the publication of William Harvey’s book
titled An Anatomical Dissertation Upon the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals in 1628.

Harvey was the first to describe systemic circulation and blood’s journey through the brain and body,
propelled by the heart.

Perhaps surprisingly, much medical practice was based on the four humors until well into the 1800s
(bloodletting, for instance). In 1838, a shift in thought occurred when the cell theory of Matthias
Schleiden and Theodor Schwann arrived on the scene, theorizing that the body was made up of tiny
individual cells.

From here on in, the field of physiology opened up, and progress was made quickly:

 Joseph Lister, 1858 – initially studied coagulation and inflammation following injury, he went on
to discover and utilize lifesaving antiseptics.

 Ivan Pavlov, 1891 – conditioned physiological responses in dogs.

 August Krogh, 1910 – won the Nobel Prize for discovering how blood flow is regulated in
capillaries.

 Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin, 1952 – discovered the ionic mechanism by which nerve
impulses are transmitted.

 Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, 1954 – made advances in the study of muscles with the
discovery of sliding filaments in skeletal muscle.

Biological systems

The major systems covered in the study of human physiology are as follows:

 Circulatory system – including the heart, the blood vessels, properties of the blood, and how
circulation works in sickness and health.
  Digestive/excretory system – charting the movement of solids from the mouth to the anus; this
includes study of the spleen, liver, and pancreas, the conversion of food into fuel and its final exit
from the body.

 Endocrine system – the study of endocrine hormones that carry signals throughout the
organism, helping it to respond in concert. The principal endocrine glands – the pituitary,
thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads – are a major focus, but nearly all organs
release endocrine hormones.

 Immune system – the body’s natural defense system is comprised of white blood cells, the
thymus, and lymph systems. A complex array of receptors and molecules combine to protect the
host from attacks by pathogens. Molecules such as antibodies and cytokines feature heavily.

 Integumentary system – the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands (secreting an
oily or waxy substance).

 Musculoskeletal system – the skeleton and muscles, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. Bone
marrow – where red blood cells are made – and how bones store calcium and phosphate are
included.

 Nervous system – the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous
system. Study of the nervous system includes research into the senses, memory, emotion,
movement, and thought.

 Renal/urinary system – including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, this system removes
water from the blood, produces urine, and carries away waste.

 Reproductive system – consisting of the gonads and the sex organs. Study of this system also
includes investigating the way a fetus is created and nurtured for 9 months.

 Respiratory system – consisting of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. This system brings
in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide and water.

Branches
 Share on PinterestDefense physiology
investigates nature’s natural defensive reactions.

There are a great number of disciplines that use the word physiology in their title. Below are some
examples:

 Cell physiology – studying the way cells work and interact; cell physiology mostly concentrates
on membrane transport and neuron transmission.

 Systems physiology – this focuses on the computational and mathematical modeling of complex
biological systems. It tries to describe the way individual cells or components of a system
converge to respond as a whole. They often investigate metabolic networks and cell signaling.

 Evolutionary physiology – studying the way systems, or parts of systems, have adapted and
changed over multiple generations. Research topics cover a lot of ground including the role of
behavior in evolution, sexual selection, and physiological changes in relation to geographic
variation.

 Defense physiology – changes that occur as a reaction to a potential threat, such as preparation
for the fight-or-flight response.

 Exercise physiology – as the name suggests, this is the study of the physiology of physical
exercise. This includes research into bioenergetics, biochemistry, cardiopulmonary function,
biomechanics, hematology, skeletal muscle physiology, neuroendocrine function, and nervous
system function.

The topics mentioned above are just a small selection of the available physiologies. The field of
physiology is as essential as it is vast.
Physiology or anatomy?

Anatomy is closely related to physiology. Anatomy refers to the study of the structure of body parts, but
physiology focuses on how these parts work and relate to each other.

Last medically reviewed on October 13, 2017

 Biology / Biochemistry

How we reviewed this article:

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Medically reviewed by Deborah Weatherspoon, Ph.D., MSN — Written by Tim Newman on October 13,
2017

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Bones: All you need to know

 The structure of bones

 Bone cells

 Function

 Types of bone

 Bone remodeling

 What is osteoporosis?

 Recent research

 FAQs

 Summary
Bones form the scaffolding that hold the body together and allow it to move. They also help protect vital
organs, store minerals, and provide an environment for creating bone marrow. By adulthood, humans
have 206-213 bones.

Bones are living, active tissues that the body is constantly remodeling.

Their functions include supporting body structure, protecting key organs, and enabling the body to
move. Also, it is in the bones that the body produces bone marrow and, from there, blood cells.
Moveover, they act as a storage area for minerals, particularly calcium.

The skeleton accounts for around 15%Trusted Source of body weight. At birth, humans have
around 270Trusted Source soft bones. As they grow, some fuse.

By adulthood, people have between 206 and 213 bones. The reason for the difference is that some
people have more or fewer bones in their ribs, vertebrae, fingers, and toes.

The largest bone in the human body is the thighbone, or femur, and the smallest is the stapes in the
middle ear, at around 3 millimetersTrusted Source long.

Bones consist mostly of the protein collagen, which forms a soft framework. The mineral calcium
phosphate hardens this framework, giving it strength. The bones contain 99% of the body’s calcium.

Bones have an internal structure similar to a honeycomb, which makes them rigid yet relatively light.

In this article, we explain their function, what they consist of, and the types of cells they involve.

The structure of bones

Share on PinterestTridsanu Thophet/EyeEm/Getty Images

Bones are composed of two typesTrusted Source of tissue.

Compact (cortical) bone is a hard outer layer that is dense, strong, and durable. It makes up
around 80% of adult bone mass and forms the outer layer of bone.

Cancellous (trabecular or spongy) bone makes up the remaining 20% of bone and consists of a network
of trabeculae, or rod-like, structures. It is lighter, less dense, and more flexible than compact bone.

Bones also contain:

 osteoblasts and osteocytes, responsible for creating bone

 osteoclasts, or bone-resorbing cells

 osteoid, a mix of collagen and other proteins

 inorganic mineral salts within the matrix

 nerves and blood vessels

 bone marrow

 cartilage

 membranes, including the endosteum and periosteum

Below is a 3D map of the skeletal system. Click to explore.

Bone cells

Bones are not static tissue but need constant maintenance and remodeling. There are threeTrusted
Source main cell types involved in this process.

 Osteoblasts are responsible for generating and repairing bone. They produce a protein mixture
that doctors call osteoid, which is mineralized and becomes bone.

 Osteocytes are inactive osteoblasts that are mineralized and remain within the bone they have
created. They communicate with other bone cells and help support metabolic functions within
the bone.

 Osteoclasts are large cells with more than one nucleus. They useTrusted Source acids resulting
from certain reactions to break down used bone. This process is called resorption. Osteoclasts
help remodel injured bones and create pathways for nerves and blood vessels to travel through.

Bone marrow

Bone marrow is present in almost all bones where cancellous, or spongy, bone is present.

Bone marrow produces blood cells, including:

 red blood cells, which deliver oxygen to cells

 white blood cells, essential for the body’s immune system

 platelets, which the body uses for clotting

The marrow produces around 2 million red blood cells every second. It also produces lymphocytes, or
the white blood cells involved in the immune response.

Extracellular matrix

Bones are essentially living cells embedded in a mineral-based organic matrix. This extracellular matrix
consists of organic components (mostly type 1 collagen) and inorganic components, including
hydroxyapatite and other salts, such as calcium and phosphate.

Collagen gives bone its tensile strength, namely resistance to pulling apart. Hydroxyapatite gives the
bones compressive strength, or resistance to compression.

What do bones do?

Bones serve various functions that affect the whole body. StudiesTrusted Source show that, in addition
to structure and movement, bones support energy metabolism, the production of blood cells, the
immune system, and brain function.

Mechanics
Bones provide a frame to support the body. Muscles, tendons, and ligaments attach to bones. Without
anchoring to bones, muscles could not move the body.

Protection

Some bones protect the body’s internal organs. For instance, the skull protects the brain, and the ribs
protect the heart and lungs.

Synthesis

Cancellous bone is a vital reservoir for developing red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells. Also,
the body destroys defective and old red blood cells in bone marrow.

Metabolism

The metabolic functions of bone includeTrusted Source:

 Storage: Bones act as a reserve for minerals, particularly calcium and phosphorous. Bone
marrow adipose tissue can also store fatty acids.

 Endocrine function: Bones produce the precursors to various hormones, including those
involved in growth, insulin production, and brain development. They release hormones that act
on the kidneys and influence blood sugar regulation and fat deposition.

 Calcium balance: Bones can raise or reduce calcium in the blood by forming bone, or breaking it
down in a process called resorption.

 pH balance: Some researchTrusted Source has suggested bones can release or absorb alkaline
salts, helping blood to stay at the right pH level, but scientists need more studies to confirm this.

 Detoxification: Bones can absorbTrusted Source heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and arsenic
from the blood.

Types of bone

There are five types of bones in the human body:

 Long bones: These are mostly compacted bones with little marrow and include most of the
bones in the limbs. They tend to support weight and help movement.

 Short bones: These have a squat, cubed shape and include bones of the wrist and ankle.

 Flat bones: These have a flat, broad surface. They consist of two outer layers of compact bone
and an inner layer of spongy bone. The bones of the skull, breastbone, ribs, and shoulder blades
are flat bones. They tend to have a protective role.

 Sesamoid bones: These are embeddedTrusted Source in muscles and tendons near the surfaces
of joints. They include the patella or kneecap. They protect tendons from wear and stress.
  Irregular bones: These bones do not fit into the first four categories and have an unusual shape.
They include the bones of the spine and pelvis. They often protect organs or tissues.

The bones of the skeleton belong to two groups: The appendicular and axial skeletons.

The appendicular skeleton comprises 126Trusted Source bones, including those of the limbs, shoulders,
and pelvic girdle. It provides structure and support to other parts of the body.

The axial skeleton has less range of motion than the appendicular skeleton. It comprises the bones of the
skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.

Bone remodeling

Share on PinterestElectron microscope image of trabecular bone (x100 magnification).

Image credit: Sbertazzo

The body is always remodeling bone. This allows the body to fix damaged bone, reshape the skeleton
during growth, and regulate calcium levels.

Remodeling is a two-part process. During formation, the body lays down new bone tissue. In resorption,
osteoclasts break down and remove bone.
If one part of the skeleton comes under increased stress over time — for instance, during exercise — the
sections of bone under most pressure will become thicker in response.

Osteocytes, osteoclasts, and osteoblasts play key rolesTrusted Source, but other elements also
contribute. These include parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, estrogen, and testosterone.

What is osteoporosis?

Osteoporosis is a bone disease that involves a reductionTrusted Source in bone mineral density. This
increases the risk of fractures.

It most commonly occurs in females after menopause. However, it can affect males too, and it can start
before menopause.

Osteoporosis occurs either when removal or resorption of bone happens too quickly, new bone forms
too slowly, or for both reasons.

Risk factors include:

 low calcium levels

 vitamin D deficiency

 smoking tobacco

 using corticosteroids

 a high alcohol intake

Screening can help prevent or slow the progression of osteoporosis. Tests can show that osteopenia, the
early stage of osteoporosis, is present. At this point, a doctor may recommend dietary measures or
supplements.

As bone deterioration worsens, medications are available to slow its progression.

What other bone diseases are there?

Recent research

Currently, researchers are looking into ways to regenerate bone. This could help people with
osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, and other conditions. It could also help mend broken bones.

Bone regeneration is a complex process. ScientistsTrusted Source are currently looking at various
aspects, including ways to:

 speed up mineral production for the generation of new bone

 use natural or synthetic grafts to enhance bone healing

  scaffold new bone and allow growth to occur

 use artificial biomaterials to achieve bone regeneration

 stimulate nerve pathways to encourage authentic bone production

 regenerate bones with surfaces that allow for nutrient absorption

 use stem cells to encourageTrusted Source bone to regenerate

Frequently asked questions

Here are some answers to questions people often ask about bones:

Why are bones important for overall health?

Bones support the body’s structure and protect vital organs, but they also play a key role in blood cell
production, the immune system, the storage of calcium, the release of essential hormones, and many
other functions.

What things are important for bone health?

Following a varied diet with plenty of calcium, getting enough vitamin D, and exercising are important for
bone health. Avoiding smoking and limiting alcohol intake can also help prevent osteoporosis.

How do you know if your bones are unhealthy?

Various health problems can affectTrusted Source the bones. Signs of osteoporosis include a loss of
height, an increasingly stooped posture, and fractures that happen often or easily. A screening test can
show if a person has reduced bone density.

Bone pain can be a sign of bone damage, infection, or bone cancer. Bones can become soft if there is a
vitamin D deficiency. This can lead to bent shins in children, known as rickets. In adults, doctors call
this osteomalacia.

A nontraumatic bone fracture in adults over 50 years old may also be an early sign of undiagnosed
cancer, such as metastatic breast or lung cancer or multiple myeloma.

Summary

Bones play an essential role in the structure and function of the human body.

As well as enabling movement, they maintain appropriate levels of many compounds. They regulate
hormonal pathways, contribute to metabolism, support the immune system, and more.

Last medically reviewed on August 19, 2022

 Bones / Orthopedics