4.4 Electromagnetic Effects

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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Physics CIE 
4.4 Electromagnetic Effects
CONTENTS
4.4.1 Electromagnetic Induction
4.4.2 Demonstrating Induction
4.4.3 The A.C. Generator
4.4.4 Magnetic Effect of a Current
4.4.5 Investigating the Field Around a Wire
4.4.6 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
4.4.7 Electric Motors
4.4.8 Transformers
4.4.9 Transformer Calculations
Page 1 of 54
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4.4.1 Electromagnetic Induction YOUR NOTES


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Induced EMF YOUR NOTES

An EMF will be induced in a conductor if there is relative movement between the conductor 
and the magnetic field
It will also be induced if the conductor is stationary in a changing magnetic field
For an electrical conductor moving in a fixed magnetic field
The conductor (e.g wire) cuts through the fields lines
This induces an EMF in the wire
Moving an electrical conductor in a magnetic field to induce an EMF
When the magnet enters the coil, the field lines cut through the turns, inducing an EMF
For a fixed conductor in a changing magnetic filed
As the magnet moved through the conductor (e.g. a coil), the field lines cut through the
turns on the conductor (each individual wire)
This induces an EMF in the coil
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YOUR NOTES

A magnet moved towards a wire creates a changing magnetic field and induces a current in
the wire
A sensitive voltmeter can be used to measure the size of the induced EMF
If the conductor is part of a complete circuit then a current is induced in the conductor
This can be detected by an ammeter
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A coil of wire is connected to a sensitive voltmeter. When a magnet is pushed into
the coil the needle on the voltmeter will deflect to the right as shown in the diagram
below.
What will happen to the pointer on the voltmeter when the magnet is stationary in
the centre of the coil?
A The needle will deflect to the left
B The needle will deflect to the right
C There will be no deflection of the needle
D The needle will deflect to the left and then to the right
ANSWER: C
C is correct because there the magnet is stationary
This means there is no relative movement between the coil and the magnetic field,
therefore there are no magnetic field lines being cut
If the magnetic field lines are not being cut then there will not be a potential difference
induced
A, B & D are incorrect because a deflection on the voltmeter would indicate that a
potential difference has been induced
This could only happen if there was relative movement between the coil and the
magnetic field
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Lenz's Law YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
Lenz Law states:
The direction of an induced potential difference always opposes the change that
produces it
This means that any magnetic field created by the potential difference will act so that it tries
to stop the wire or magnet from moving
Demonstrating Lenz's Law
If a magnet is pushed north end first into a coil of wire then the end of the coil closest to the
magnet will become a north pole
Explanation
Due to the generator effect, a potential difference will be induced in the coil
The induced potential difference always opposes the change that produces it
The coil will apply a force to oppose the magnet being pushed into the coil
Therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet will become a north pole
This means it will repel the north pole of the magnet
Magnet being pushed into a coil of wire

If a magnet is now pulled away from the coil of wire then the end of the coil closest to the
magnet will become a south pole
Explanation:
Due to the generator effect, a potential difference will be induced in the coil
The induced potential difference always opposes the change that produces it
The coil will apply a force to oppose the magnet being pulled away from the coil
Therefore, the end of the coil closest to the magnet will become a south pole
This means it will attract the north pole of the magnet
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YOUR NOTES

Magnet being pulled away from a coil of wire
Page 7 of 54
Right-Hand Dynamo Rule YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
When moving a wire through a magnetic field, the direction of the induced EMF can be
worked out by using the Right-Hand Dynamo rule
The Right-Hand Dynamo rule can be used to deduce the direction of the induced EMF
To use the rule:

First Finger = Field:
Start by pointing the first finger (on the right hand) in the direction of the field
ThuMb = Motion:
Next, point the thumb in the direction that the wire is moving in
SeCond = Current:
The Second finger will now be pointing in the direction of the current (or, strictly
speaking, the EMF)
The direction of the induced EMF always opposes the change that produces it
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This means that any magnetic field created by the EMF will act so that it tries to stop YOUR NOTES
the wire or magnet from moving 
 Exam Tip
Remember that current is always in the direction of positive charge carriers.
Therefore, current flows from the positive to the negative terminal of the battery.
Page 9 of 54
4.4.2 Demonstrating Induction YOUR NOTES


Demonstrating Induction
An EMF can be induced either when:
A conductor, such as a wire, cuts through a magnetic field
The direction of a magnetic field through a coil changes
Electromagnetic induction is used in:
Electrical generators which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
Transformers which are used in electrical power transmission
This phenomenon can easily be demonstrated with a magnet and a coil
Experiment 1: Moving a magnet through a coil
When a coil is connected to a sensitive voltmeter, a bar magnet can be moved in and out of
the coil to induce an EMF
A bar magnet is moved through a coil connected to a voltmeter to induce an EMF

The expected results are:
When the bar magnet is not moving, the voltmeter shows a zero reading
When the bar magnet is held still inside, or outside, the coil, there is no cutting of
magnetic field lines, so, there is no EMF induced
When the bar magnet begins to move inside the coil, there is a reading on the voltmeter
As the bar magnet moves, its magnetic field lines ‘cut through’ the coil
This induces an EMF within the coil, shown momentarily by the reading on the
voltmeter
When the bar magnet is taken back out of the coil, an e.m.f is induced in the opposite
direction (a result of Lenz's law)
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As the magnet changes direction, the direction of the current changes YOUR NOTES
The voltmeter will momentarily show a reading with the opposite sign 
Increasing the speed of the magnet induces an e.m.f with a higher magnitude
The direction of the electric current, and e.m.f, induced in the conductor is such that it
opposes the change that produces it
This is Lenz's law
An e.m.f is induced only when the bar magnet is moving through the coil
Factors that will increase the induced EMF are:
Moving the magnet faster through the coil
Adding more turns to the coil
Increasing the strength of the bar magnet
Experiment 2: Moving a wire through a magnet
When a long wire is connected to a voltmeter and moved between two magnets, an EMF is
induced
The pattern of a magnetic field in a wire can be investigated using this set up
Note: there is no current flowing through the wire to start with
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YOUR NOTES

A wire is moved between two magnets connected to a voltmeter to induce an EMF

The expected results are:
When the wire is not moving, the voltmeter shows a zero reading
When the wire is held still inside, or outside, the magnets, the rate of change of flux is
zero, so, there is no EMF induced
As the wire is moved through between the magnets, an EMF is induced within the wire,
shown momentarily by the reading on the voltmeter
As the wire moves, it ‘cuts through’ the magnetic field lines of the magnet, generating a
change in magnetic flux
When the wire is taken back out of the magnet, an EMF is induced in the opposite direction
As the wire changes direction, the direction of the current changes
The voltmeter will momentarily show a reading with the opposite sign
As before, the direction of the electric current, and e.m.f, induced in the conductor is such
that it opposes the change that produces it
Factors that will increase the induced e.m.f are:
Increasing the length of the wire
Moving the wire between the magnets faster
Increasing the strength of the magnets
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Factors Affecting EM Induction YOUR NOTES

The magnitude (size) of the induced EMF is determined by: 
The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved
The number of turns on the coils of wire
The size of the coils
The strength of the magnetic field
The direction of the induced potential difference is determined by:
The orientation of the poles of the magnet
1. The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:
Increasing the speed will increase the rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut
This will increase the induced potential difference
2. The number of turns on the coils in the wire:
Increasing the number of turns on the coils in the wire will increase the potential
difference induced
This is because each coil will cut through the magnetic field lines and the total potential
difference induced will be the result of all of the coils cutting the magnetic field lines
3. The size of the coils:
Increasing the area of the coils will increase the potential difference induced
This is because there will be more wire to cut through the magnetic field lines
4. The strength of the magnetic field:
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field will increase the potential difference
induced
5. The orientation of the poles of the magnet:
Reversing the direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved
 Exam Tip
When discussing factors affecting the induced potential difference:
Make sure you state:
“Add more turns to the coil” instead of “Add more coils”
This is because these statements do not mean the same thing
Likewise, when referring to the magnet, use the phrase:
“A stronger magnet instead of “A bigger magnet”
This is because larger magnets are not necessarily stronger
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4.4.3 The A.C. Generator YOUR NOTES


Page 14 of 54
Simple A.C Generators YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
The generator effect can be used to generate a.c in an alternator
A simple alternator is a type of generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy in the form of alternating current
An alternator is a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to slip rings

A rectangular coil that is forced to spin in a uniform magnetic field
The coil is connected to a centre-reading meter by metal brushes that press on two metal
slip rings
The slip rings and brushes provide a connection between the coil and the meter
When the coil turns in one direction:
The pointer defects first one way, then the opposite way, and then back again
This is because the coil cuts through the magnetic field lines and an EMF, and
therefore current, is induced in the coil
The pointer deflects in both directions because the current in the circuit repeatedly
changes direction as the coil spins
This is because the induced EMF in the coil repeatedly changes its direction
This continues on as long as the coil keeps turning in the same direction
The induced EMF and the current alternate because they repeatedly change direction
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Motors and generators look very similar, but they do very different things.

When tackling a question on either of them, make sure you are writing about the right
one! A motor takes in electricity and turns it into motion. A generator takes in motion
and generates electricity.
You might be expected to give explanations of how these two things happen - make
sure that you understand their subtle differences!
Page 16 of 54
Graphs for A.C. Generators YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
The A.C. generator creates an alternating current, varying in size and direction as the coil
rotates
The size of the induced EMF depends on the number of field lines it cuts
The induced EMF is greatest (maximum value) when the coil is horizontal, or parallel
with the field lines, as in this position it cuts through the field at the fastest rate
The EMF is smallest (0) when the coil is vertical, or perpendicular with the field lines as
in this position it will not be cutting through field lines
Alternating EMF showing the position of the magnet relative to the coil
When the magnet is in position 1 the magnetic field lines of the magnet do not cut the coil
This means that there is no EMF induced in the coil
When the magnet is in position 2 the magnetic field lines of the magnet are at 90° to the
coil
This means that there will be maximum EMF induced in the coil
When the magnet is in position 3 the magnetic field lines of the magnet do not cut the coil
This means that there is no EMF induced in the coil
When the magnet is in position 4 the magnetic field lines of the magnet are at 90° to the
coil
This means that there will be maximum EMF induced in the coil
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As the poles of the magnet are reversed compared to position 2 the induced EMF will YOUR NOTES
also be in the opposite direction compared to position 2 
This means that the graph will show a negative trace
 Exam Tip
Make sure you can remember how the induced EMF relates to the number of field
lines cut by the coil:
When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field lines
When the number of field lines cut is at its maximum
Induced EMF = 0
When the plane of the coil is parallel to the field lines
When the number of field lines cut = 0
Induced e.m.f is at its maximum
The A.C output from an alternator leads to a current which is both in the positive
and negative region of the graph
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4.4.4 Magnetic Effect of a Current YOUR NOTES


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Magnetic Field Around Wires & Solenoids YOUR NOTES

When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced around the 
wire
A conducting wire is any wire that has current flowing through it
The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting
compasses
The compasses would produce a magnetic field lines pattern that would like look the
following
Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles
A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire
has no poles
As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets weaker as
the distance from the wire increases
The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic field
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YOUR NOTES

The right-hand thumb rule shows the direction of current flow through a wire and the
direction of the magnetic field around the wire
Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the direction
of the magnetic field
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YOUR NOTES

Side and top view of the current flowing through a wire and the magnetic field produced
If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic field
Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the strength of the
magnetic field
This means the field lines will become closer together
Magnetic Field Around a Solenoid
When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle around each part of the coil,
passing through the centre of it
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YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a flat circular coil

To increase the strength of the magnetic field around the wire it should be coiled to form
a solenoid
The magnetic field around the solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet
Magnetic field around and through a solenoid

The magnetic field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform
One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves
like the south pole
To work out the polarity of each end of the solenoid it needs to be viewed from the end
If the current is travelling around in a clockwise direction then it is the south pole
If the current is travelling around in an anticlockwise direction then it is the north pole
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If the current changes direction then the north and south poles will be reversed YOUR NOTES
If there is no current flowing through the wire then there will be no magnetic field produced 
around or through the solenoid
Poles of a Solenoid
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Magnetic Effects of Changing Current YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
A solenoid can be used as an electromagnet by adding a soft iron core
The iron core will become an induced magnet when current is flowing through the coils
The magnetic field produced from the solenoid and the iron core will create a much
stronger magnet overall
The magnetic field produced by the electromagnet can be switched on and off
When the current is flowing there will be a magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet
When the current is switched off there will be no magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet
An electromagnet consists of a solenoid wrapped around a soft iron core

Changing the direction of the current also changes the direction of the magnetic field
produced by the iron core
Factors Affecting Magnetic Field Strength
The strength of the magnetic field produced around a solenoid can be increased by:
Increasing the size of the current which is flowing through the wire
Increasing the number of coils
Adding an iron core through the centre of the coils
The strength of an electromagnet can be changed by:
Increasing the current will increase the magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet
Decreasing the current will decrease the magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 When trying to figure out how an electromagnetic device works:

Look for a coil / solenoid - this is going to act as an electromagnet

Look for a piece of iron - this will be attracted to the solenoid
Page 26 of 54
Applications of the Magnetic Effect YOUR NOTES

Electromagnets are used in a wide variety of applications, including: 
Relay circuits (utilised in electric bells, electronic locks, scrapyard cranes etc)
Loudspeakers & headphones
Relay Circuits
Electromagnets are commonly used in relay circuits
Relays are switches that open and close via the action of an electromagnet
A relay circuit consists of:
An electrical circuit containing an electromagnet
A second circuit with a switch which is near to the electromagnet in the first circuit
When a current passes through the coil in Circuit 1, it attracts the switch in Circuit 2, closing
it enables a current to flow in Circuit 2
When a current flows through Circuit 1, a magnetic field is induced around the coil
The magnetic field attracts the switch, causing it to pivot and close the contacts in
Circuit 2
This allows a current to flow in Circuit 2
When no current flows through Circuit 1, the magnetic force stops
The electromagnet stops attracting the switch
The current in Circuit 2 stops flowing
Scrapyard cranes utilise relay circuits to function:
When the electromagnet is switched on it will attract magnetic materials
When the electromagnet is switched off it will drop the magnetic materials
Electric bells also utilise relay circuits to function:
Page 27 of 54
YOUR NOTES

Animation: Electric bells utilise relay circuits. As the current alternates, the metal arm
strikes the bell and drops repeatedly to produce the ringing effect
When the button K is pressed:
A current passes through the electromagnet E creating a magnetic field
This attracted the iron armature A, causing the hammer to strike the bell B
The movement of the armature breaks the circuit at T
This stops the current, destroying the magnetic field and so the armature returns to its
previous position
This re-establishes the circuit, and the whole process starts again
Loudspeakers & Headphones
Loudspeakers and headphones convert electrical signals into sound
They work due to the motor effect
A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of a permanent
magnet
Page 28 of 54
YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker

An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker
This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil
As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the magnetic field will be
constantly changing
The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the permanent
magnet
The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil
The direction of the force at any instant can be determined using Fleming’s left-hand
rule
As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the coil will
constantly change direction
This makes the coil oscillate
The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate
This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves
Page 29 of 54
4.4.5 Investigating the Field Around a Wire YOUR NOTES


Investigating the Field Around a Wire
The magnetic field patterns due to currents in straight wires and in solenoids can be
investigated using:
A thick wire
A solenoid (a wire wrapped into a coil) - for example, a metal slinky
Cell, ammeter, variable resistor and connecting wires
Cardboard with holes (the holes must be large enough for the wire to fit through)
Clamp stand
Iron filings or a compass
Spread the iron filings uniformly on the cardboard and place the magnetic needle on the
board
Tap the cardboard slightly and observe the orientation of iron filings
When the current direction is reversed, the compasses point in the opposite direction showing
that the direction of the ﬁeld reverses when the current reverses
Experiment 1: Plotting the magnetic field around a wire

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole in the middle of the cardboard and secure it to the
clamp stand
Secure the wire vertically so it sits perpendicularly to the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and ammeter
on either side of the cell
Using plotting compasses:
1. Place plotting compasses on the card and draw dots at each end of the needle once it
settles
Make sure to draw an arrow to show the direction of the ﬁeld at different points
2. Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the process above
3. Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots on the card
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4. Then remove the compass, or compasses, and link the dots using a smooth curve – this will YOUR NOTES
be the magnetic field line 
5. Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines
Using iron filings:
1. If using iron filings, simply pour the filings onto the cards and gently shake the card until the
filings settle in the pattern of the magnetic field around the wire
Experiment 2: Plotting the magnetic field around a solenoid

1. Attach the thick wire through a hole on one side of the cardboard and loop it through a hole
on the other side of the cardboard and secure it to the clamp stand
Secure the wire so it forms a circular loop around the cardboard
2. Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit containing the variable resistor and ammeter
on either side of the cell
Using plotting compasses:
1. Follow the procedure outlined in Experiment 1
Note: this can be carried out using a solenoid, but since a solenoid is essentially many
circular loops, the pattern around a circular loop can be extended to give the pattern
around a solenoid
Using iron filings and a solenoid:
1. Take a solenoid (a metal slinky works well for this) and thread it through pre-made holes in a
piece of card
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2. Pour the filings onto the card and gently shake the card until the filings settle in the pattern YOUR NOTES
of the magnetic field around the solenoid 
Page 32 of 54
4.4.6 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor YOUR NOTES


Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

A current-carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field
When interacting with an external magnetic field, it therefore will experience a force
A current-carrying conductor will only experience a force if the current through it is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field lines
A simple situation would be a copper rod placed within a uniform magnetic field
When current is passed through the copper rod, it experiences a force which makes it
move
A copper rod moves within a magnetic field when current is passed through it
Two ways to reverse the direction of the force (and therefore, the copper rod) are by
reversing:
The direction of the current
The direction of the magnetic field
 Exam Tip
This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as 'the motor effect'. The direction of the
force is determined by Fleming's left-hand rule.
Page 33 of 54
Left Hand Rule YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current carrying wire depends on the
direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field
All three will be perpendicular to each other
This means that sometimes the force could appear to be acting either into or out of the
page
The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule:
Fleming's left-hand rule can be used to determine directions of the force, magnetic field
and current
Page 34 of 54
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that if the current-carrying wire is placed into
the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet, as shown below, there will be a
downwards force acting on the wire.
Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field

Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field.
Step 2: Determine the direction of the current
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the
direction of the Current
Step 3: Determine the direction of the force
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move
Page 35 of 54
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember that the magnetic field is always in the direction from North to South and

current is always in the direction of a positive terminal to a negative terminal.
Feel free to use Fleming's left hand rule in your exam, just don't make it too
distracting for other students!
Page 36 of 54
Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force if the
wire is perpendicular
This is because the magnetic field exerts a force on each individual electron flowing
through the wire
Therefore, when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can exert a
force on the particle, causing it to deflect
The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the magnetic field
lines
The direction can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule
In the case of a electron in a magnetic field the second finger points in the opposite
direction to the direction of motion
Conventional current is said to flow opposite to the direction of flow of electrons
The finger represents current
An alternative is to use the right hand to work out directions for charged particles
When a charged particle (such as an electron) enters a magnetic field, it is deflected by the
field
If the particle is travelling perpendicular to the field lines:

It will experience the maximum force
If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines:
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It will experience no force YOUR NOTES

If the particle is travelling at an angle to the field lines: 
It will experience a small force
 Exam Tip
Remember that the direction of current is the direction of positive charged.
Therefore, if a particle has a negative charge (such as an electron), then the second
finger (current) must point in the opposite direction to its direction of travel.
The left-hand rule can be applied to any charged particles, but in the IGCSE exam
questions are likely to stick to electrons.
Page 38 of 54
4.4.7 Electric Motors YOUR NOTES


The DC Motor
The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c electric motor
The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil of wire (which is free to rotate) positioned in a
uniform magnetic field:
A simple d.c. electric motor

This causes the coil to rotate since it experiences a turning effect
The turning effect is increased by increasing:
The number of turns on the coil
The current
The strength of the magnetic field
Page 39 of 54
Operation of a DC Motor YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
When the current is flowing in the coil at 90o to the direction of the magnetic field:
The current creates a magnetic field around the coil
The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field produced by the
magnets
This results in a force being exerted on the coil
The direction of the force can be determined using Fleming's left-hand rule
As current will flow in opposite directions on each side of the coil, the force produced
from the magnetic field will push one side of the coil up and the other side of the coil
down
This will cause the coil to rotate, and it will continue to rotate until it is in the vertical position
In the vertical position momentum keeps the coil turning until the magnetic force takes
over again
The split ring commutator swaps the contacts of the coil
This reverses the direction in which the current is flowing every half turn
This keeps the current leaving the motor in the same direction (d.c)
Reversing the direction of the current will also reverse the direction in which the forces are
acting
As a result, the coil will continue to rotate
Forces on coil after commutator has reversed the direction of the current
The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of the current in the coil every half turn
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This will keep the coil rotating continuously as long as the current is flowing YOUR NOTES
Factors Affecting the D.C Motor 
The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:
Increasing the current
Use a stronger magnet
The direction of rotation of coil in the d.c motor can be changed by:
Reversing the direction of the current
Reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing the poles of the magnet
The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
Increasing the current in the coil
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
Adding more turns to the coil
 Worked Example
A d.c motor is set up as shown below.
Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.
Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines
These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of the magnet
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YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils
Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal
Step 3: Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to determine the direction of the force on each side
of the coil
Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the
direction of the Current
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
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YOUR NOTES

Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation

The coil will be turning clockwise
 Exam Tip
It is important to remember all the steps that causes the rotation of the coil in a d.c.
motor.
Use Fleming's left-hand rule to convince yourself of the direction of the forces on
each side of the coil. These should be in opposite directions because the direction
of the current through them is in opposite directions.
Page 43 of 54
4.4.8 Transformers YOUR NOTES


Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or decrease the potential
difference of an alternating current (voltage transformations)
This is achieved using the generator effect
A basic transformer consists of:
A primary coil
A secondary coil
A soft iron core
Iron is used because it is easily magnetised
Structure of a transformer
Page 44 of 54
Operation of a Transformer YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil
The current is continually changing direction
This means it will produce a changing magnetic field around the primary coil
The iron core is easily magnetised, so the changing magnetic field passes through it
As a result, there is now a changing magnetic field inside the secondary coil
This changing field cuts through the secondary coil and induces a potential
difference
As the magnetic field is continually changing the potential difference induced will be
alternating
The alternating potential difference will have the same frequency as the alternating
current supplied to the primary coil
If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit it will cause an alternating current to flow
Step-up & Step-down Transformers

A transformer consists of a primary and secondary coil
The primary coil is the first coil
The second coil is the second coil
A step-up transformer increases the potential difference of a power source
A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
(Ns > Np)
A step-down transformer decreases the potential difference of a power source
A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary
coil (Ns < Np)
Page 45 of 54
4.4.9 Transformer Calculations YOUR NOTES


Page 46 of 54
Transformer Calculations YOUR NOTES

The output potential difference (voltage) of a transformer depends on: 
The number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
The input potential difference (voltage)
It can be calculated using the equation:
This equation can be written using symbols as follows:

Vp Np
=
Vs Ns
Where
Vp = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
Vs = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)
np = number of turns on primary coil
ns = number of turns on secondary coil
The equation above can be flipped upside down to give:
Vs Ns
=
Vp Np
The equations above show that:

The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary coils of a
transformer is equal to the ratio of the number of turns on each coil
Page 47 of 54
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil and 800 turns on the secondary coil.
The input potential difference across the primary coil is 500 V.
a) Calculate the output potential difference
b) State what type of transformer this is
Answer
Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Number of turns in primary coil, N P = 20
Number of turns in secondary coil, N S = 800
Voltage in primary coil, V P = 500 V
Step 2: Write the equation linking the output potential difference ( V S ) to the
known quantities
There will be less rearranging to do if V S is on the top of the fraction
NS VS
=
NP VP
Step 3: Rearrange the equation to make V S the subject
NSVP
VS =
NP
Step 4: Substitute the known values into the equation

800 × 500
VS = = 20 000 V
20
Part (b)
The secondary voltage is larger than the primary, therefore this is a step-up
transformer
Page 48 of 54
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 When you are using the transformer equation make sure you have used the same

letter (p or s) in the numerators (top line) of the fraction and the same letter (p or s) in
the denominators (bottom line) of the fraction.
There will be less rearranging to do in a calculation if the variable which you are trying
to find is on the numerator (top line) of the fraction.
The individual loops of wire going around each side of the transformer should be
referred to as turns and not coils.
Page 49 of 54
Transformer Efficiency YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
An ideal transformer would be 100% efficient

Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due to the law of
conservation of energy, they cannot increase the power output
If a transformer is 100% efficient:
Input power = Output power
The equation to calculate electrical power is:
P=V×I
Where:
P = power in Watts (W)
V = potential difference in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A)
Therefore, if a transformer is 100% efficient then:
Vp × Ip = Vs × Is
Where:
Vp = potential difference across primary coil in volts (V)
Ip = current through primary coil in Amps (A)
Vs = potential difference across secondary coil in volts (V)
Is = current through secondary coil in Amps (A)
The equation above could also be written as:
Ps = Vp × Ip
Where:
Ps = output power (power produced in secondary coil) in Watts (W)
 Worked Example
A transformer in a travel adapter steps up a 115 V ac mains electricity supply to the
230 V needed for a hair dryer. A current of 5 A flows through the hairdryer.
Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the current drawn from
the mains supply.
Step 1: List the known quantities

Voltage in primary coil, Vp = 115 V
Voltage in secondary coil, Vs = 230 V
Current in secondary coil, Is = 5 A
Page 50 of 54
Step 2: Write the equation linking the known values to the current drawn from the YOUR NOTES
supply, Ip 
Vp × Ip = Vs × Is
Step 3: Substitute in the known values
115 × Ip = 230 × 5
Step 4: Rearrange the equation to find Ip
Step 5: Calculate a value for Ip and include the correct unit

Ip = 10 A
Page 51 of 54
High-Voltage Transmission YOUR NOTES

Transformers have a number of roles: 
They are used to increase the potential difference of electricity before it is transmitted
across the national grid
They are used to lower the high voltage electricity used in power lines to the lower
voltages used in houses
They are used in adapters to lower mains voltage to the lower voltages used by many
electronic devices
Advantages of High Voltage Transmission
When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current in the wires heats them,
resulting in energy loss
To transmit the same amount of power as the input power the potential difference at
which the electricity is transmitted should be increased
This will result in a smaller current being transmitted through the power lines
This is because P = IV, so if V increases, I must decrease to transmit the same power
A smaller current flowing through the power lines results in less heat being produced in the
wire
This will reduce the energy loss in the power lines
Electricity is transmitted at high voltage, reducing the current and hence power loss in the
cables
Page 52 of 54
Calculating Power Losses YOUR NOTES

EXTENDED 
When a current passes through a wire, the current creates a heating effect which means the
wires warm up
This means they lose electrical energy as heat which reduced the efficiency of the
transformer
This is due to electrical resistance which is present in all wires
The power (energy per second) lost in the wire is given by the following equation
P = I2R
Where:
P = power in watts (W)
I = current in amps (A)
R = resistance in ohms (Ω)
Since the power is the energy lost per second, the total energy lost in a time t will be:
E=P×t
Where:
E = energy in joules (J)
t = time in seconds (s)
A step-up transformer may be used to increase the voltage of a power supply from the
power station to the transmission wires
The number of turns and voltage for the transformer is related by the following equation:
Vs Ns
=
Vp Np
Where:
Vp = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
Vs = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)
np = number of turns on the primary coil
ns = number of turns on the secondary coil
A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil, Ns, than on the primary coil, Np
Since a transformer cannot output more power than is put into it, increasing the voltage
must result in the current being lowered
IpVp = IsVs
Where:
Ip = current in the primary coil in amps (A)
Is = current in the secondary coil in amps (A)
Lower current results in less power and energy loss in the cables
Page 53 of 54
This makes the transfer of electrical energy through the wires more efficient YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
If you forget the equation P = I2R just remember 'Twinkle twinkle little star, power
equals I squared R''.
Page 54 of 54

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4.4 Electromagnetic Effects

4.4.1 Electromagnetic Induction YOUR NOTES

Induced EMF YOUR NOTES

Moving an electrical conductor in a magnetic field to induce an EMF

Lenz's Law YOUR NOTES

Magnet being pushed into a coil of wire

Magnet being pulled away from a coil of wire

Right-Hand Dynamo Rule YOUR NOTES

To use the rule:

4.4.2 Demonstrating Induction YOUR NOTES

A bar magnet is moved through a coil connected to a voltmeter to induce an EMF

A wire is moved between two magnets connected to a voltmeter to induce an EMF

Factors Affecting EM Induction YOUR NOTES

4.4.3 The A.C. Generator YOUR NOTES

Simple A.C Generators YOUR NOTES

An alternator is a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to slip rings

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

Graphs for A.C. Generators YOUR NOTES

4.4.4 Magnetic Effect of a Current YOUR NOTES

Magnetic Field Around Wires & Solenoids YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a flat circular coil

Magnetic field around and through a solenoid

Magnetic Effects of Changing Current YOUR NOTES

An electromagnet consists of a solenoid wrapped around a soft iron core

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

Look for a coil / solenoid - this is going to act as an electromagnet

Applications of the Magnetic Effect YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker

4.4.5 Investigating the Field Around a Wire YOUR NOTES

Experiment 1: Plotting the magnetic field around a wire

Experiment 2: Plotting the magnetic field around a solenoid

4.4.6 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor YOUR NOTES

Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

Left Hand Rule YOUR NOTES

Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field YOUR NOTES

If the particle is travelling perpendicular to the field lines:

It will experience no force YOUR NOTES

4.4.7 Electric Motors YOUR NOTES

A simple d.c. electric motor

Operation of a DC Motor YOUR NOTES

Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.

Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation

4.4.8 Transformers YOUR NOTES

Operation of a Transformer YOUR NOTES

Step-up & Step-down Transformers

4.4.9 Transformer Calculations YOUR NOTES

Transformer Calculations YOUR NOTES

This equation can be written using symbols as follows:

The equations above show that:

Step 3: Rearrange the equation to make V S the subject

Step 4: Substitute the known values into the equation

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

Transformer Efficiency YOUR NOTES

An ideal transformer would be 100% efficient

Step 1: List the known quantities