Magnetism

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Edexcel IGCSE Physics Your notes
Magnetism & Electromagnetism

Contents
Magnetism
Magnetic Fields
Permanent & Induced Magnets
Core Practical: Investigating Magnetic Fields
Electromagnetism
The Motor Effect
Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
Electromagnets
Magnetic Field Patterns
Magnetic Force on a Charge
Page 1 of 42
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Magnetism
Your notes
The law of magnetism
Poles of a magnet
The ends of a magnet are called poles
Magnets have two poles: a north and a south
Poles of a Magnet
The law of magnetism
When two magnets are held close together, there will be an attractive or repulsive force between the
magnets depending on how they are arranged:
Opposite poles attract; like poles repel

The law of magnetism states that:
Two like poles repel (e.g. S and S or N and N)
Two opposite poles attract (e.g. S and N)
The attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles occurs due to the magnetic force
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Magnetic materials
Magnetic materials can be soft or hard Your notes
Magnetically soft materials (e.g. iron):
Are easy to magnetise
Easily lose their magnetism (temporarily magnetised)
Magnetically hard materials (e.g. steel):
Are difficult to magnetise
Do not easily lose their magnetism (permanently magnetised)
Permanent magnets are made out of magnetically hard materials
Electromagnets are made out of magnetically soft materials
This means that electromagnets can be made magnetic or non-magnetic as an when required
A steel pin will be attracted when an electromagnet switches on but not when it switches off. It is
always attracted to a permanent magnet
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Magnetic Fields
Your notes
Magnetic field lines
All magnets are surrounded by a magnetic field
A magnetic field is defined as:
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a magnetic
material (such as iron, steel, cobalt and nickel)
Magnetic field lines

Magnetic field lines are used to represent the strength and direction of a magnetic field
The direction of the magnetic field is shown using arrows
The strength of the magnetic field is shown by the spacing of the magnetic field lines
If the magnetic field lines are close together then the magnetic field will be strong
If the magnetic field lines are far apart then the magnetic field will be weak
There are some rules which must be followed when drawing magnetic field lines. Magnetic field lines:
Always go from north to south (indicated by an arrow midway along the line)
two magnetic field lines must never touch or cross other field lines
Magnetic field around a bar magnet
The magnetic field is strongest at the poles
This is where the magnetic field lines are closest together
The magnetic field becomes weaker as the distance from the magnet increases
This is shown by the magnetic field lines are getting further apart
The magnetic field around a bar magnet
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Two bar magnets can repel or attract, the field lines will look slightly different for each:
Your notes
Magnetic field lines for attracting and repelling bar magnets

Therefore, the magnetic field lines around different configurations of two bar magnets would look like:
Page 5 of 42
Your notes
Magnetic field lines between two bar magnets
Examiner Tip
If you are asked to draw the magnetic field around a bar magnet remember to indicate both the
direction of the magnetic field and the strength of the magnetic field.You can do this by:
Adding arrows pointing away from the north pole and towards the south pole
Making sure the magnetic field lines are further apart as the distance from the magnet increases
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Representing magnetic fields

Two bar magnets can be used to produce a uniform magnetic field Your notes
Point opposite poles (north and south) of the two magnets a few centimetres apart
A uniform magnetic field will be produced in the gaps between opposite poles
Note: Outside that gap, the field will not be uniform
A uniform field is created when two opposite poles are held close together. Magnetic fields are always
directed from North to South. Note that the rest of each magnet is not shown, but the magnet with a
north pole also has a south pole not shown and vice versa for the south pole shown above.
A uniform magnetic field is one that has the same strength and direction at all points
To show that the magnetic field has the same strength at all points there must be equal spacing
between all magnetic field lines
To show that the magnetic field is acting in the same direction at all points there must be an arrow
on each magnetic field line going from the north pole to the south pole
The magnetic field lines are the same distance apart between the gaps of the poles to indicate that
the field strength is the same at every point between the poles
Examiner Tip
Remember that the direction of the field line at a point is the same as the direction of the force a north
pole would experience at that point
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Permanent & Induced Magnets

Your notes
Permanent & induced magnets
Magnetic materials
Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet; non-magnetic materials are not

Magnetic materials are materials which are attracted by magnets
Being a magnetic material does not mean the material is itself a magnet
Very few metals in the periodic table are magnetic, these include:
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Steel is an alloy which contains iron, so it is also magnetic
Magnetic materials will always be attracted to the magnet, regardless of which pole is held close to it
Magnetic materials attracted to either pole of a magnet

To test whether a material is a magnet it should be brought close to a known magnet
If it can be repelled by the known magnet then the material itself is a magnet
If it can only be attracted and not repelled then it is a magnetic material
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There are two types of magnets

Permanent magnets
Induced magnets Your notes
Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are made out of permanent magnetic materials, for example steel
A permanent magnet will produce its own magnetic field
It will not lose its magnetism
Induced magnets
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the material can temporarily be turned into a
magnet.
This is called induced magnetism
When magnetism is induced in a material:
One end of the material will become a north pole
The other end will become a south pole
Magnetic materials will always be attracted to a permanent magnet
This means that the end of the material closest to the magnet will have the opposite pole to
magnets pole closest to the material
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Inducing magnetism in a magnetic material

When the magnetic material is removed from the magnetic field it will lose most/all of its magnetism Your notes
quickly
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Worked example
Your notes
The diagram below shows a magnet held close to a piece of metal that is suspended by a light cotton
thread. The piece of metal is attracted towards the magnet.
Which of the following rows in the table gives the correct type of pole at X and the correct material of
the suspended piece of metal?
Type of pole at X Material of suspended metal
A North Nickel
B South Nickel
C North Aluminium
D South Aluminium
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Answer: A Your notes

X must be a north pole
The piece of metal is being attracted towards the magnet
The law of magnetism states that opposite poles attract
The material of the suspended piece of metal is nickel
Nickel is a magnetic material (It will experience a force when it is placed in a magnetic field, in
this case it is attracted towards the magnet)
B is incorrect because X cannot also be a south pole (and hence is a north pole)
If the pole at X was a south pole then the piece of metal would be repelled from the magnet
because the law of magnetism states that like poles repel
C and D are incorrect because aluminium is not a magnetic material
A non-magnetic material would be unaffected by the magnetic field produced by the
magnet.
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Core Practical: Investigating Magnetic Fields

Your notes
Core Practical 12: Investigating Magnetic Fields
Aim of the experiment
To investigate the magnetic field pattern for a permanent bar magnet and between two bar magnets
Equipment
Equipment List
Equipment Purpose
Two bar magnets Produce a magnetic field which is plotted
Plotting compasses Show the direction of the magnetic field at a given point
Paper Plot the magnetic field pattern on this
Pencil Plot the magnetic field pattern with this
Method
Step 1:
Place the magnet on top of a piece of paper
Draw a dot at one end of the magnet (near its corner)
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Your notes
Step 2:
Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of the needle of the compass points
away from the dot
Use a pencil to draw a new dot at the other side of the compass needle
Step 3:
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Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the process above
Your notes
Step 4:
Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots going from one end of the
magnet to the other
Then remove the compass, and link the dots using a smooth curve – this will be the magnetic field
line
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Step 5:
Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines
Your notes
Step 6:
Repeat the whole process for two bar magnets placed 5 cm apart first facing the same pole then
facing opposite poles
Analysis of results
The magnetic field pattern for the single bar magnetic should look like this:
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Your notes
The magnetic field of a bar magnet plotted

The magnetic field pattern for two bar magnets should look like this:
Page 17 of 42
Your notes
Magnetic field of two bar magnets interacting

Evaluating the experiment
Make sure the pencil you use is sharp to provide a clear and accurate drawing of the field lines
Read the marker on the compass from above and not at an angle
Allow the compasses to settle for a couple of seconds before taking the reading
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Electromagnetism
Your notes
Electromagnetism
Magnetic field of a wire carrying current
When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced around the wire
The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting compasses
Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles
A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire has no
poles
As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets weaker as the distance
from the wire increases
The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic field
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Your notes
The right-hand thumb rule shows the direction of current flow through a wire and the direction of the
magnetic field around the wire
Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the direction of the
magnetic field
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Your notes
Side and top view of the current flowing through a wire and the magnetic field produced
If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic field
Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the strength of the magnetic
field
This means the field lines will become closer together
Factors affecting field strength

The strength of the magnetic fields field depends on:
The size of the current
The distance from the long straight conductor (such as a wire)
A larger current will produce a larger magnetic field and vice versa
The greater the distance from the conductor, the weaker the magnetic field and vice versa
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Your notes
The greater the current, the stronger the magnetic field. This is shown by more concentrated field lines
Page 22 of 42
The Motor Effect

Your notes
Magnetic force on a current-carrying wire
The motor effect occurs when:
A wire with current flowing through it is placed in a magnetic field and experiences a force
This effect is a result of two interacting magnetic fields
One is produced around the wire due to the current flowing through it
The second is the magnetic field into which the wire is placed, for example, between two magnets
As a result of the interactions of the two magnetic fields, the wire will experience a force
When no current is passed through a conductor in a magnetic field, however, it will experience no force
The motor effect is a result of two magnetic fields interacting to produce a force on the wire
The D.C. motor
The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c. electric motor
The force on a current-carrying coil is used to make it rotate in a single direction
The simple D.C. motor consists of a coil of wire (which is free to rotate) positioned in a uniform
magnetic field
The coil of wire, when horizontal, forms a complete circuit with a cell
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The coil is attached to a split ring (a circular tube of metal split in two)
This split ring is connected in a circuit with the cell via contact with conducting carbon brushes
Forces on the horizontal coil in a D.C. motor Your notes
Forces acting in opposite directions on each side of the coil, causing it to rotate. The split ring connects
the coil to the flow of current
Current flowing through the coil produces a magnetic field
This magnetic field interacts with the uniform external field, so a force is exerted on the wire
Forces act in opposite directions on each side of the coil, causing it to rotate:
On the blue side of the coil, current travels towards the cell so the force acts upwards (using
Fleming's left-hand rule)
On the black side, current flows away from the cell so the force acts downwards
Once the coil has rotated 90°, the split ring is no longer in contact with the brushes
No current flows through the coil so no forces act
Coil in the vertical position
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Your notes
No force acts on the coil when vertical, as the split ring is not in contact with the brushes
Even though no force acts, the momentum of the coil causes the coil to continue to rotate slightly
The split ring reconnects with the carbon brushes and current flows through the coil again
Now the blue side is on the right and the black side is on the left
Current still flows toward the cell on the left and away from the cell on the right, even though the coil
has flipped
The black side of the coil experiences an upward force on the left and the blue side experiences a
downward force on the right
The coil continues to rotate in the same direction, forming a continuously spinning motor
Forces on the coil when rotated 180°
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Your notes
Even though the coil has flipped, current still flows anticlockwise and the forces still cause rotation in
the same direction
Factors affecting the D.C. motor
The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:
Increasing the current
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
The direction of rotation of coil in the D.C. motor can be changed by:
Reversing the direction of the current
Reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing the poles of the magnet
The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
Increasing the current in the coil
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
Adding more turns to the coil
Loudspeakers
Loudspeakers and headphones convert electrical signals into sound
They work due to the motor effect
They work in the opposite way to microphones
A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of a permanent magnet
Page 26 of 42
Your notes
Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker

An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker
This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil
As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the magnetic field will be constantly
changing
The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the permanent magnet
The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil
The direction of the force at any instant can be determined using Fleming’s left-hand rule
As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the coil will constantly
change direction
This makes the coil oscillate
The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate
This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves
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Worked example
Your notes
A d.c. motor is set up as shown below.
Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.

Answer:
Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines
These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of the magnet
Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils
Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal
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Your notes
Step 3: Use Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of the force on each side of the coil
Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the direction of the
Current
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation

The coil will be turning clockwise
Page 29 of 42
Your notes
Examiner Tip
It is important to remember all the steps that cause the rotation of the coil in a d.c. motor. Use
Fleming's Left Hand rule to convince yourself of the direction of the force on each side of the coil,
these should be in opposite directions because the directions of the current through each side are
opposite.
Additionally, don't be confused if you see the phrase 'split-ring commutator'. This is another way of
referring to the split ring in the circuit and they mean the same thing.
The explanation of the loudspeaker is very similar to the explanation of a motor, however direct current
is used in a d.c motor and alternating current is used in a loudspeaker. You need to learn how both
work.
When explaining how a loudspeaker works remember to refer to the alternating current and the
changing magnetic field that it creates.
Page 30 of 42
Factors affecting magnetic force

Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields Your notes
Stronger magnetic fields produce stronger forces and vice versa
For a current carrying conductor, the size of the force exerted by the magnetic fields can be increased
by:
Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire
This will increase the magnetic field around the wire
Using stronger magnets
This will increase the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet
Placing the wire at 90o to the direction of the magnetic field lines between the poles of the magnet
This will result in the maximum interaction between the two magnetic fields
Note: If the two magnetic fields are parallel there will be no interaction between the two magnetic
fields and therefore no force produced
Page 31 of 42
Fleming's Left-Hand Rule

Your notes
Fleming's left-hand rule
The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current-carrying wire depends on the direction of
the current
the magnetic field
All three will be perpendicular to each other in Fleming's left-hand rule questions
This means that sometimes the force could be into and out of the page (in 3D)
The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule:
Fleming’s left-hand rule can be used to determine the directions of the force, magnetic field and
current
Page 32 of 42
Worked example
Your notes
A current-carrying wire is placed into the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet, as shown in
the diagram.
Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that there will be a downward force acting on the wire.
Answer:
Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field
Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
Step 2: Determine the direction of the current
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the direction of the
Current
Step 3: Determine the direction of the force
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move
Page 33 of 42
Your notes
Examiner Tip
Remember that the magnetic field is always in the direction from North to South.
Feel free to use your hands when answering Fleming's left hand rule questions, just don't make it too
obvious or distracting for other students!
Page 34 of 42
Electromagnets
Your notes
Electromagnets
When an electric current flows in a wire it creates a magnetic field around the wire
By winding the wire into a coil we can strengthen the magnetic field by concentrating the field lines
If this wire is wound around a soft magnet, such as an iron, then an electromagnet is made (see the
electromagnet diagram below)
The electromagnet is magnetic only when current flows through the wire
Electromagnet diagram
Electromagnets are made up of a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core

The strength of an electromagnet’s magnetic field may be increased by:
Increasing the current in the coil
Adding more turns to the coil
The magnetic field around an electromagnet has the same shape as the one around a bar magnet
The field can be reversed by reversing the direction of the current
However, bar magnets are always magnetic, unlike electromagnets
Page 35 of 42
Magnetic Field Patterns

Your notes
Magnetic field patterns
Magnetic field line patterns are all slightly different around:
Straight wires
Flat circular coils
Solenoids
Magnetic field in a straight wire

When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced around the wire
The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting compasses
The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles
A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire has no
poles
As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets weaker as the distance
from the wire increases
The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic field
Page 36 of 42
Your notes
The direction of the magnetic field around a wire is given by the right-hand thumb rule
Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the direction of the
magnetic field
If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic field
Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the strength of the magnetic
field
This means the field lines will become closer together
Magnetic field in a flat circular coil

When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle around each part of the coil, passing
through the centre of it
Page 37 of 42
Your notes
The magnetic field around a flat circular coil

To increase the strength of the magnetic field around the wire it should be coiled to form a solenoid
The magnetic field around the solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet
Using this, we can draw the pattern of magnetic field lines of a current carrying solenoid
Magnetic field around and through a solenoid. This is similar to the field of a bar magnet.
Page 38 of 42
Magnetic field in a solenoid

The magnetic field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform Your notes
Inside a solenoid (an example of an electromagnet) the fields from individual coils
Add together to form a very strong almost uniform field along the centre of the solenoid
Cancel to give a weaker field outside the solenoid
One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves like the south
pole
To work out the polarity of each end of the solenoid it needs to be viewed from the end
If the current is travelling around in a clockwise direction then it is the south pole
If the current is travelling around in an anticlockwise direction then it is the north pole
If the current changes direction then the north and south poles will be reversed
If there is no current flowing through the wire then there will be no magnetic field produced around or
through the solenoid
Poles of a solenoid. The right hand rule can be adapted for this situation, with fingers following the
direction of current and the thumb pointing in the direction of the central magnetic field lines.
Factors affecting magnetic field strength of a solenoid
The strength of the magnetic field produced around a solenoid can be increased by:
Increasing the size of the current which is flowing through the wire
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Increasing the number of coils

Adding an iron core through the centre of the coils
The iron core will become an induced magnet when current is flowing through the coils Your notes
The magnetic field produced from the solenoid and the iron core will create a much stronger magnet
overall
Examiner Tip
Remember the term ‘uniform field’ means a field which has the same strength and direction at all
points. This is represented by parallel field lines.When discussing the strength of an electromagnet,
avoid saying “add more coils”:
The coil describes the overall object – the individual loops of wire should be referred to as turns.
The correct phrase to use is “add more turns to the coil”.
Page 40 of 42
Magnetic Force on a Charge

Your notes
Magnetic force on a charge
When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force if the wire is
perpendicular
This is because the magnetic field exerts a force on each individual electron flowing through the
wire
Therefore, when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can exert a force on the
particle, causing it to deflect
The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the magnetic field lines
The direction can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule
The electron experiences a force upwards when it travels through the magnetic field between the two
poles. Remember that conventional current flows in the opposite direction to electrons.
If the particle is travelling perpendicular to the field lines:
It will experience the maximum force
If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines:
It will experience no force
If the particle is travelling at an angle to the field lines:
Page 41 of 42
It will experience a small force
Your notes
Examiner Tip
Remember that the direction of current flow in Fleming's Left-Hand Rule is from positive to negative.
This means it is in the opposite direction to the direction of travel of an electron (which is negatively
charged)
Page 42 of 42

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Edexcel IGCSE Physics Your notes

Magnetism & Electromagnetism

Opposite poles attract; like poles repel

Magnetic field lines

The magnetic field around a bar magnet

Magnetic field lines for attracting and repelling bar magnets

Magnetic field lines between two bar magnets

Representing magnetic fields

Permanent & Induced Magnets

Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet; non-magnetic materials are not

Magnetic materials attracted to either pole of a magnet

There are two types of magnets

Inducing magnetism in a magnetic material

Type of pole at X Material of suspended metal

Answer: A Your notes

Core Practical: Investigating Magnetic Fields

Two bar magnets Produce a magnetic field which is plotted

Paper Plot the magnetic field pattern on this

Pencil Plot the magnetic field pattern with this

The magnetic field of a bar magnet plotted

Magnetic field of two bar magnets interacting

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

Factors affecting field strength

The Motor Effect

Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker

Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.

Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation

Factors affecting magnetic force

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule

Electromagnets are made up of a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core

Magnetic Field Patterns

Magnetic field in a straight wire

Magnetic field in a flat circular coil

The magnetic field around a flat circular coil

Magnetic field in a solenoid

Increasing the number of coils

Magnetic Force on a Charge

It will experience a small force

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