#Theory #steps #concepts

TOC
Table of Contents

GIS Introduction
First Known GIS Application
GIS For Civil Engineers
GIS - Definition
Types of GIS data
Broader Categories
Topology
Topology Errors
Projection System
Importance of PCS
GCS vs PCS
Most Common PCS
Spatial Analysis(https://gisgeography.com/spatial-analysis/)
GIS Software and formats
GIS Software
GIS Data file formats
Remote Sensing(https://gisgeography.com/remote-sensing-earth-
observation-guide/)
How it works
Parts
Data Storage
Land Cover Types
Data Resolution
Identifying Landcover Types
Reading a Satellite Image How to Interpret a Satellite Image:
Five Tips and Strategies (nasa.gov)
(https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/ColorImage)
NDVI(https://opensourceoptions.com/remote-sensing-with-qgis-
calculate-ndvi/)
RS in Civil Engineering
DEM download
Flood Simulation with GIS
GPS
 GPS Types
GPS Applications
RS and GPS Integration with GIS
GPS receiver types
Considerations
Using Data from GPS Receivers
Zero Dark Thirty (2011)
Failure Reason
Applications of GIS
Concepts
Land Acquisitions
NDVI
Steps involved in finding Osama Bin Laden
Mobile Connection to field to do survey
Flood forecasting
GIS with transportation
GIS with water
GIS with Environment

GIS Introduction
First Known GIS Application
1854
Cholera broke out in Soho, London
People dying on the street
John Snow - a doctor.
Struggling to cope.
550 died in 2 week
No Public sanitation
No sewers
River full of waste
People believed cholera spreading through the air (Bad Air)
John Snow counted cholera deaths
Mapped them along with water pumps
Map revealed the actual cause
Most deaths around the Broad Street water pump
Relation between cholera and water is thus reviled
616 died in total
 John became the father of epidemiology
GIS is used

GIS For Civil Engineers

Civil engineering projects have a physical dimension and occupy space
Interacts with everything else around it, such as roads, buildings, crop
field, rivers, and people's homes.
while Implementing a project, we must know how it is going to interact
with its surrounding objects
Minimize adverse impacts
Identify the most efficient way of design, construction,
management, and monitoring

GIS - Definition
A database containing geographic data
Descriptions of phenomena for which location is relevant
Software tools for managing, analyzing, and visualizing those data
GIS will have locational information, such as x,y coordinates or
Latitude, Longitude
GIS database includes the following locational information:
Points (x,y) – minimum requirement. Example: Water wells.
Lines – Points (x,y) and group of points making a line. Example:
Road network
Area – Points (x,y), group of points making a line, group of lines
making an area. Example: district boundaries

Types of GIS data

Broader Categories
Two Categories
Spatially referenced data
represented by vector and raster forms (including imagery)
Location data
Attribute data
represented in tabular format
Spatial referenced – Vector and Raster
Raster –Grids (scanned image, photograph, satellite image,
represented with a grid pattern, continuous surface)
 Vector –Points, lines, polygons (data represented with x,y
coordinates, Property lines, Transportation)

Network (Lines and links, Turn prohibitions, Node-related

delays)

Topology
Connect points, Lined and Polys
The spatial relationships between connecting or adjacent vector features
points, polylines, and polygons
Set of mathematical rules that connect the features together

Topology Errors
 Undershoots (vector lines that should connect to each other don’t quite
touch.)
Overshoots (a line ends beyond the line it should connect to.)
Slivers (vertices of two polygons do not match up on their borders)

Projection System
Projection system is the way to convert an area on the earth’s (almost
spherical) surface to a paper (flat surface).
Distortions

Area
Shape
Distance
Direction
Three basic ways to transfer a curved surface to a plane
Cylindrical
Conic
Planer
And many combinations of these
Projection systems model the earth with the following
Undulation of the earth’s surface – Geoid
Shape of the earth – Ellipsoid
 Modeling the undulations with a mathematical model – Datum

Importance of PCS
The earth has a Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) –
Latitude/Longitude (Lat/Lon)
In GIS, A GCS point is converted to PCS point (x,y coordinates)
For measurement of distance, direction, shape and area
Correct relationship between two different maps is important
The same place can have different coordinate values for different GCS
Datum
PCS - A reference system for identifying locations and measuring
features on a flat (map) surface
Consists of lines that intersect at right angles, forming a grid
PCS components
- an origin
- an x-axis
- a y-axis, and
 - a linear unit of measure

GCS vs PCS
GCS PCS

consists of: Datum (which includes consists of: Geographic Coordinate

the System
ellipsoid

Prime Meridian (almost always Projection Method

Greenwich, England)

Units (always degrees) Projection Parameters

Units

Most Common PCS

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Preserves angles and shapes
Bangladesh lies between 87 degrees and 93 degrees East, split
between
Zone 45: 84 to 90 E
Zone 46: 90 to 96E
Two special grids
- Bangladesh Transverse Mercator (BTM)
- Bangladesh Universal Transverse Mercator (BUTM)
Geographic coordinate limits 20.5o to 26.5o N latitude, 88o to 93o E
Lambert Conformal Conic
Used by LGED, RHD
Preserves direction
Cassini (also called Cassini-Soldner) Projection System
Used for Mouza Maps and cadastral survey
Used by DLRS
 Preserves area and size for small plots

Spatial Analysis
Buffer analysis
Generates a polygon around features at a set distance.

Clip tool
Cuts out an input layer to a defined feature boundary.

Merge tool
Combines data from multiple sources, then adds them into a new

data set.
Dissolve tool
 Unifies adjacent boundaries based on common attribute values

Intersect tool
Performs a geometric overlap with all overlapping features becoming
part of the output feature class.

Union tool
Combines input data layers into a single composite layer, preserving
the boundaries and attributes from all input features.

Erase tool
 Removes the area that is overlapping with the erasing features.

Append tool
Adds data from one or more sources and puts it into an existing
target data set

Spatial join
Inserts the columns from one feature table to another based on
location or proximity.
 Relational join

GIS Software and formats

GIS Software
Open-Source GIS
QGIS
Free and open-source cross-platform desktop GIS application
Supports viewing, editing, printing, and analysis of geospatial
data
Cross-platform compatibility – Windows, Linux, Mac OS, Android
GRASS – by US Army Corps of Engineers. Used by Academia,
environment consultants, and government agencies (NASA, NOAA,
USDA, and USGS). Good in image processing.
TerrSet (formerly IDRISI) – GIS and remote sensing software. Good
for image processing.
Whitebox GAT – good for image processing
Proprietary
ArcGiS: proprietary by ESRI
High prices for the products
MapInfo – by Precisely
Geomedia – by Hexagon Geospatial
Global Mapper – by Blue Marble
SuperGIS – by Supergeo Technologies
AutoCAD Map 3D – by Autodesk
SuperMap – by SuperMap Software – Chinese
 Large and powerful software
Many advanced features – more than ArcGIS or QGIS

GIS Data file formats

ESRI Shapefile
Most common geospatial file type
Industry standard
All commercial and open source accept shapefile as a GIS format
Needs minimum three files to make up a shapefile
SHP is the feature geometry.
SHX is the shape index position.
DBF is the attribute data.
Geographic JavaScript Object Notation (GeoJSON)
Mostly for web-based mapping
Stores coordinates as text in JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)
form.
Google Keyhole Markup Language (KML/KMZ)
This GIS format is XML-based and is primarily used for Google Earth
OpenStreetMap OSM XML
OSM files are the native file for OpenStreetMap
Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER)
Used by the United States Census Bureau
Can merge census data sources with the TIGER files
Available without cost – public domain
ERDAS Imagine
Commonly used for raster data to store satellite data
Proprietary
GeoTIFF
Public domain metadata standard
Allows georeferencing information to be embedded within a TIFF file
GeoPackage
GeoPackage (GPKG) – emerging standard
Open, non-proprietary, platform-independent and standards-based
data format
Defined by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)
Can contain anything from vectors, tiles, raster, and layer
attributes
Easy to share because it’s all contained in a single file.
Remote Sensing
Science of obtaining the physical properties of an area without being there
Technology for obtaining information about a target through the analysis of
data acquired from a distance.

How it works
A sensor takes photographs from a distance
Electromagnetic signals from objects hits the sensor
These signals create electronic signals
Electronic signals are translated into image files

Parts
targets - objects or phenomena in an area;
data acquisition - through specific instruments (sensors); and
Passive remote sensing
Passive sensors gather radiation emitted or reflected by objects
or surrounding areas
Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation
measured by passive sensors.
Examples: film photography, infrared
Active remote sensing
Active sensors emit energy to scan objects and areas,
whereupon a sensor detects and measures the radiation
reflected or backscattered from the target.
RADAR – Radio Detection and Ranging
LiDAR – Light Detection and Ranging
• aircrafts, • satellites, • balloons, • rockets, • space shuttles

data analysis and presentation in the form of an image – with software.

Data Storage
A rectangle is divided into rows and columns forming cells or grid points.
One number for each cell (or grid point)

Land Cover Types

When the sun ray passes through a prism, it is dispersed into seven
different colours. It shows that the white light of the sun has many colours.
When it hits a coloured object, say red, the reflects only the red colour,
and absorbs the others. Then we know that the object’s colour is red.
Electro Magnetic Waves : Light is a small part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Electronic sensors can detect signals over a wide range of
wavelength. The unique way a given land cover reflects and absorbs light is
known as its spectral signature.

Data Resolution
Spatial
The size of a pixel that is recorded in a raster image
 Square areas ranging from 1 to 1,000 metres (3.3 to 3,280.8 ft)
Spectral
Number of frequency bands
Example: NASA Landsat images have 7 bands
Includes several in the infrared spectrum, ranging from a spectral
resolution of 0.7 to 2.1 μm.
Radiometric
Number of different intensities of radiation
Typically, from 8 to 14 bits (256 levels of the grayscale and up to
16,384 intensities or “shades” of colour)
Temporal resolutions – how often the image of one area is taken?
Frequency of flyovers by the satellite or plane
Relevant in time-series studies or those requiring an averaged or
mosaic image, as in deforesting monitoring
Cloud cover over a given area or object makes it necessary to
repeat the collection of said location

Identifying Landcover Types

First, decide on what land cover categories we like to use.
For flood maps, there may be only two categories — dry land and
wetland
A standard global land cover map may have seventeen categories
closed shrublands, savannas, evergreen needle leaf forests, urban
areas, and ice/snow.
The only requirement for any land cover category is a distinct spectral
signature that a satellite can record.
Blue, 450–515..520 nm
Atmosphere and deep water imaging can reach depths up to 150 feet
(50 m) in clear water
Green, 515..520–590..600 nm,
vegetation and deep water structures, up to 90 feet (30 m) in clear
water.
Red, 600..630–680..690 nm
man-made objects in water up to 30 feet (9 m) deep, soil, and
vegetation
Near infrared (NIR), 750–900 nm
vegetation
Mid-infrared (MIR), 1550–1750 nm
vegetation, soil moisture content, and some forest fires
Far-infrared (FIR), 2080–2350 nm
 soil, moisture, geological features, silicates, clays, and fires
Thermal infrared, 10400-12500 nm,
emitted instead of reflected radiation to image geological
structures, thermal differences in water currents, fires, and for
night studies.
Radar and related technologies
terrain and for detecting various objects
For different purposes, different combinations of spectral bands can be
used. Often, bands are artificially combined to identify a particular
object or data on the Earth surface. A combination of Red-Near Infrared
(NIR) gives a good indication of vegetation strength (Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index pr NDVI)
N I R−R

N I R+R
- Ranges from -1 to +1
Higher value indicated good vegetation
There are other indices, such as NDWI (Water Index) and NDSI (Snow
Index). The Index Stack (NDVI, NDWI, NDSI): Description And Features
(eos.com)

Reading a Satellite Image How to Interpret a

Satellite Image: Five Tips and Strategies
(nasa.gov)
To unlock the rich information in a satellite image, you need to:

Look for a scale

Look for patterns, shapes, and textures
Bodies of water:
rivers, lakes, and oceans
simplest features to identify because they tend to have unique
shapes and they show up on maps
Farms usually have geometric shapes
circles or rectangles—that stand out against the more random
patterns seen in nature
clearing is often square or has a series of herring-bone lines
that form along roads
A straight line
human-made, such as a road, a canal, or some boundary made
visible by land use
Mountains look like wrinkles or bumps
Islands create turbulence that results in swirling vortices or wakes
in the cloud
 Grasslands tend to be pale green, while forests are very dark green
Densely built areas are typically silver or gray.
Some cities have a more brown or red tone depending on rooftop
materials
Define the colors (including shadows
Find north
Consider your prior knowledge

NDVI
#steps

Download Raster Image Landsat 8 or 9

Need Band 4 and 5
Band 4 = Redband
Band 5 = NearInfraRedbad
Use Raster Calculator
Formula = N I R−R

N I R+R

or B5−B4

B5+B4

Clip the image on particular shapefile if required

Change the color intro vegetation color (not mandatory)

RS in Civil Engineering
Digital elevation modes (DEM)
A 3D representation of a terrain
Filters out and excludes terrain vector features
streams, breaklines, and ridges
all ground objects,
built (power lines, buildings, and towers)
natural (trees and other types of vegetation).
Digital terrain modes (DTM)
A 3D, bare-earth representation of a terrain or surface topography
Includes features like rivers, ridges, and breaklines
Excludes natural or man-made objects such as:
vegetation
buildings
Digital surface modes (DSM)
- A 3D representation of the heights of the Earth's surface
- Including natural or man-made objects located on it
- Represents the mean sea level elevations of the reflective surfaces
 - vegetation, buildings, and other features elevated above the bare
earth

DEM download
#steps

5 Free Global DEM Data Sources - Digital Elevation Models - GIS

Geography
Space Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) DEM (30 m pixel size,
and 16 m vertical accuracy
From USGS Earth Explorer (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/)
ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model (30 m pixel size)
Through NASA Earthdata
(https://search.earthdata.nasa.gov/search)
USGS Earth Explorer (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/)
JAXA’s Global ALOS 3D World
30-meter resolution digital surface model (DSM) captured by the
Japan Space Agency
(https://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/ALOS/en/dataset/aw3d30/aw3d30\_e.h
tm)
3D visualization
 Developing a 3D Model using QGIS (youtube.com)

Flood Simulation with GIS

Flood map generation (HECRAS)

GPS
GPS – Global Positioning System
Gives the location and time information anywhere in the world
A system of earth-orbiting satellites
Provides a precise location on the earth’s surface in
latitude/longitude coordinates
Space Segments
GPS satellites fly in around the earth at an altitude of approximately
20,000 km
Period of 12 hours
At least 6 satellites are always within line of sight from any location
Satellites are powered by solar cells
Control Segments – Ensures proper functioning of the whole system
Consists of Control Station, Monitor Station, Ground Antenna
Control station maintains optimum GPS constellation
 Monitor station checks the exact altitude, position, speed of
orbiting satellites
Ground antennas communicate with GPS satellite
User Segments
GPS receiver is composed of an antenna, receiver processor, and
highly stable clock
At least 4 GPS satellites are required for calculating the exact
position
Mobile phones are common GPS receivers

GPS Types
4 types

GPS – American – First launch in 1978

Currently 31 earth orbiting satellites
Accuracy 500-30 cm
GLONASS – Russian – Launched in 1982
GLObal NAvigation Satellite System
Consists of 24 satellites
Galileo – by European Space Agency (ESA) – first launched in 2005
30 active satellites
30 active satellites
BeiDou – Chinese Navigation Satellite System – launched 2000
55 satellites
Accuracy 3.6 – 10 cm

GPS Applications
Geodetic Control Survey

**Geodetic surveying** is the survey in which the curvature of the earth is

taken into account and higher degree of accuracy
in **linear** and **angular** observations is
achieved. The geodetic **surveys** extend over large areas and lines connecting
any two points on the surface of the earth are treated as arcs. For calculating
their projected distances on the plans or maps, the correction for the earth’s
curvature is applied to the measured distances. The angles between the **curved
lines** are treated as spherical angles. A knowledge of spherical trigonometry
is necessary for making measurements for the **geodetic surveys**.

Cadastral Survey
 Cadastral surveying is **the sub-field of cadastre and surveying that
specialises in the establishment and re-establishment of real property
boundaries.** It involves the physical delineation of property boundaries and
determination of dimensions, areas and certain rights associated with properties

Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Surveying

Environmental modelling, Disaster mitigation, mobile mapping
GPS receivers provide very accurate data and are widely used in
surveying
Navigation
Determining the ground position of an object and helps in the
navigation to any location

RS and GPS Integration with GIS

GPS, RS, and GIS are three closely related technologies
GPS – collects location data and feeds into RS and GIS
RS – Interprets satellite imagery and feeds the output into GIS
GIS – Carries out all spatial analysis with data from GPS and RS.
Without location data, GIS is meaningless
RS provides detailed data to GIS which is otherwise not available

GPS receiver types

3 types

Recreation Grade
accuracy approx. 3-5m, cost $100-500
Mobile phone GPS
accuracy is not essential but just a feel of the location is
adequate
If there is no network coverage in the project area, we can still
get the location if we download the project area map through a
WiFi connection or where there is good coverage
Route planning for a site visit
Tracking the route after the visit
Geotagging of the photographs taken during the visit
Limitations
Data not easily downloadable (app needed)
Accuracy is not dependable
Map Grade
 accuracy 0.5-2m, cost $1,000-3,000
Sometimes need a data processing software
Tracking a route with reasonable accuracy
Hand-held GPS (map grade)
Reconnaissance survey
Route planning
Data can be downloaded for integration with GIS
Simple user interface
Used for non-critical applications
Survey Grade
accuracy 1mm, cost starts from $10,000
Multiple devices are used simultaneously
Require post processing software and GPS data administration
services to attain the “verifiable” accuracy levels
Accurate survey works
Need a professional surveyor and specialized software
Expensive, needs a lot of planning and expertise
But essential for some projects, such as land acquisition,
alignment fixation, siting of structures, etc.

Considerations
Accuracy requirement
Price
Ease of use
Data downloading facility
Post Processing needs

Using Data from GPS Receivers

Usually a series of x,y points in ASCII format
Downloaded onto a computer
Can be uploaded into any GIS software and plotted on a map
Compared with established and visible map features
Map verification
Ground truthing
Map rectification
Mobile devices can also be used as GPS receivers
Suitable if location accuracy is not critical
Several software available
 Open-source: QField and Mergin Maps (both work with QGIS) –
free for small projects; larger projects need a subscription
Commercial: Collector (ESRI), Fulcrum, GIS Cloud

Zero Dark Thirty (2011)

The story of the greatest manhunt in history
CIA announced $25 million for information leading to a wanted person’s
capture
CIA sought help from
- National Security Agency for codebreaking and communications
monitoring
- National Geospatial Intelligence Agency for maps and surveillance
photographs, and
- National Reconnaissance Office for satellite imagery
Geography Department at UCLA: How GIS and biogeography can help find a
wanted person.
Biogeography: A science that predict how plants and animals distribute
themselves over space and time
two theories
Distance-decay theory
As one goes further away from a precise location, there is an
exponential decline in the turnover of species and a lower
probability of finding the same composition of species
Bin Laden should be closest to the point where he was last
reported
Within a region that has a similar physical environment and
cultural composition (that is, similar religious and political
beliefs)
Island biogeography theory
Large and close islands will have higher immigration rates and
support more species with lower extinction rates than small
isolated islands
He is in a larger town rather than a smaller and more isolated
town where the extinction rate would be higher
Bin Laden
Last seen in Jalalabad on November 13, 2001
Last heard from a transmission from Tora Bora on November 28,
2001
Three spatial scale analyses (global, regional, local) were examined
Global scale
 Distance-decay probability maps from the last known location

Using the distance-decay model to his last known location

A three-dimensional model of the Tora Bora landscape

Regional scale
Identified cities with the highest probability of occurrence

26 city islands within a 20-km radius

City islands larger than 100 m x 100 m were digitized
QuickBird imagery in ArcGIS 9.0 to quantify area and isolation
metrics
City-islands identified
Area of continuous man-made structures
 Distance in kilometers to all other city-islands was used as
an isolation metric
Kurram had the highest probability of hosting the person (98%)
86.6% probability that he is within one of the seven FATAs
Parachinar - Largest city (red dot)
Nightlight imagery also shows that Parachinar is the closest city
to his last known location
The brightest city by nightlight intensity in Kurram

Local scale
Studied city structures having suitable size and features
 In Parachinar – three structures meet Bin Laden’s lifestyle
requirement criteria
He was tall, so high walls
Trees to cover the yard
Three bedrooms for many people
Electricity for a dialysis machine (the person was known to
need it)
Three buildings
Structures A, B, and C are the best fortified and some of
the largest residential homes or structures in the city of
Parachinar
Structures A and C are residential homes, while structure B
appears to be a prison
Imagery source:
Landsat ETM+, Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, QuickBird, and
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program- Operational Linescan
System imagery
Georectified into the same geographic coordinate system (WGS84
Resampled to same pixel size

Failure Reason
 Bin Laden was later found in another city in Pakistan
500km away from Parachinar
They forgot one significant factor
Bin Laden’s close relationship with the Pakistan Army
The hosting city was only 50km away from Islamabad
It has a strong presence of the Pakistan Army
He relied more on the Army than the Taleban
GIS is a powerful tool
But must be used with all relevant data
Analysis must be realistic
Bottom line
GIS can help in analyzing complex problems spread over a large area
But, we must have a bigger picture of the problem to get the best
outcome from GIS

Applications of GIS
1000 GIS Applications & Uses - How GIS Is Changing the World - GIS
Geography
Agriculture
precision farming
Data from the Sky – Satellites and Drones
Data online – Real-time mapping
Modeling – Mashing data sets
Agri-tech:
The modern-day farmer needs to understand – soils,
weeds, nutrients, weather, insects, disease, machinery,
and climate
Transport and supply chain problems
What’s the shortest route to the market?
Where should I build a hospital to best serve a community?
How can I optimize a vehicle delivery fleet?
Point-to-point analysis
Finding Coverage
Optimize Fleet
Select Optimal Site
Origin-Destination – OD Cost Matrix
Inundation forecasting
Uses hydrodynamic models and ArcGIS to prepare flood forecast
models
 Displays in maps for easy understanding
3D volumetric modeling
Avoiding Dangerous Airspace

Finding locations that hide military vehicles from view

Mining, geology, and engineering
Infrastructure planning and management
Transport networks, large construction sites
Urban planning and municipal services (waste collection)
Utility services planning and management
Integration of GIS with BIM – indoor mapping for large public buildings
Airports, Hospitals, Universities, etc
Asset management
Landuse planning and land management
Watershed delineation, water resources planning and management
Epidemiological studies
Disease spread pattern study
Disease demographic study
Identification of vulnerable groups
Finding optimum location for rural health centres

Concepts
#concepts

Land Acquisitions
Data: Mouza map (Cassini); epsg.io
Steps
Acquire Mouza map
Project Road onto the map
Buffer Road
 Repeat the process Model Builder GIS

NDVI
Data Source: Landsat Image from USGS or NASA
Formula
N I R−R

N I R+R

or B5−B4

B5+B4
for Landsat band 4 and band 5
Software: Qgis
As it is a time series analysis, I should go for model building
Define Input and Output Folders:
Use a "Parameter" algorithm twice.
 Name the first one "Landsat_Folder" and set its type to
"String". This will store the location of your downloaded
Landsat images.
Name the second one "Output_Folder" and set its type to
"String". This will store the final NDVI time series maps with
basemaps.
Download Landsat 8 Images:
From USGS
Insert them into "Landsat_Folder"
Looping through Years:
Use an "Iterator" algorithm.
Set the "iterable" to a list containing the years you want to
analyze
Build the NDVI Processing Chain (Inside the Loop):
Use a "Raster Calculator" algorithm
Set "Input layer 1" to a combination of the "LandsatFolder"
parameter and the current year from the loop (e.g.,
os.path.join("(Landsat_Folder)",
f"landsat{{CURRENT}}.tif")). This dynamically builds the
path based on the loop iteration.
Set "Input layer 2" similar to layer 1, selecting the NIR band
(modify band numbers if needed).
Formula B5−B4

B5+B4

utput layer: Name it "NDVI_{{CURRENT}}.tif" (replace with

year dynamically using double curly braces).
Clip to Desired Area
Use a "Clip Raster" algorithm.
Input layer: The NDVI layer from the "Raster Calculator"
(use the output port).
Clip layer: Your desired area shapefile
Output layer: Name it "NDVIClipped{{CURRENT}}.tif"
(dynamic year).
Generate Map with Basemap
Save Output Map (Optional - Inside the Loop):
Use a "Save Raster" algorithm (if using "Composite Bands")
Model Execution:
Run the model. This will iterate through the years, calculate
NDVI for each year, clip to your area of interest, and optionally
generate a map series with a basemap. The final outputs will be
saved based on your defined folder paths.
 Benefits of this Model Builder Approach:
- Avoids repetitive manual steps for each year.
- Dynamically builds file paths based on loop iterations.
Model Builder GIS

Steps involved in finding Osama Bin Laden

Used Biogeography theory and GIS
Global
Distance Decay Theory
3 dimensional model to get actually closed cities
Near Tora Bora
Regional
 Larger cities are identified
Larger cities with light pollution (from night image) are identified
(Kurram)
Local
Structures that matches the need of Bin Laded is searched in
Paranichar
3 Structures found
2 of them are residential
1 is a prison
If failed for one reason
Broader picture was not used in GIS analysis
good relation between Bin Laden and Pakistani army was not
used as an information while doing GIS analysis

Mobile Connection to field to do survey

Open source: Margin maps or Qfield
In Qfiled forms are created as attribute table with the help of a plugin
Margin maps do not require forms to be created inside Qgis, It can be
easily created withing the mobile application.
Utilize Margin Maps for Field Data Collection
Use Margin Maps on your mobile device for data collection in the
field. It allows you to capture geospatial information, photos, and
notes.
Export Data from Margin Maps:
Margin Maps likely offers options to export your collected data. This
could be in formats like CSV, KML, or Shapefile.
Import Data into QGIS:
In QGIS, go to the Layer menu and choose "Add Layer" ->; "Add
Vector Layer."
Browse to your exported Margin Maps data file and select it.
Now you have your field data loaded into QGIS for further analysis
and map creation.
Additional Options in QGIS:
Since you now have geospatial data, you can use QGIS's extensive
functionalities to:
Visualize your data on a basemap.
Perform spatial analysis.
Create thematic maps.
Design a professional map layout using the composer tool.
Resources:
 See how Mergin Maps works | Mergin Maps demo (youtube.com)

Flood forecasting
Data Acquisition and Preparation:
Elevation Data: Use Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) to understand
terrain and potential flow paths.
Historical Flood Data: Utilize historical flood maps, inundation
zones, and river gauge data to identify flood-prone areas.
Precipitation Data: Integrate real-time and predicted precipitation
data from weather stations or radar.
Land Cover Data: Land cover maps (forests, urban areas) influence
runoff and infiltration, impacting flood risk.
Floodplain Delineation:
Use DEMs and spatial analysis tools to identify areas at risk of
flooding based on elevation and potential water flow paths.
Hydraulic Modeling (Optional):
Integrate specialized hydraulic models with GIS to simulate flood
wave propagation and water level changes in rivers and streams.
This requires additional expertise and data
Flood Inundation Mapping:
Combine flood-prone areas, historical data, and real-time
precipitation data to create inundation maps that predict the extent
of potential flooding.
Scenario Modeling:
Use GIS to model different flood scenarios based on varying
precipitation intensities and durations. This helps assess flood risk
under different conditions.
Vulnerability and Risk Assessment:
Overlay flood inundation maps with infrastructure, population, and
land-use data to identify vulnerable areas and assess potential
damage.
Floodplain Management and Early Warning Systems:
- Use GIS to create flood hazard maps and evacuation plans for at-risk
communities.
- Integrate real-time monitoring data with GIS for early warning systems
that alert people to potential floods.
 Model Builder GIS

GIS with transportation

Route Planning and Optimization (emergency):
Finding the most efficient routes:
distance
travel time
Traffic congestion,
road restrictions
 turn limitations
Traffic Analysis and Management
Traffic flow analysis
Real-time traffic monitoring
Accident analysis
Public Transportation Planning
Identifying optimal bus stop locations
Assessing transit needs
Infrastructure Management
Road maintenance planning
Infrastructure asset management
Steps
Define your project goals and objectives
Collect relevant spatial data
road networks
traffic data
public transportation routes
accident locations
population data
Clean and prepare the data
Ensure data accuracy, consistency, and compatibility with your
GIS software.
Perform spatial analysis
Visualize your results

GIS with water

Data Collection and Inventory
Spatial Data
Surface water bodies (lakes, rivers, streams)
Groundwater wells and aquifers
Water infrastructure (pipes, canals, treatment plants)
Land cover (forests, agriculture, urban areas) - impacting
water flow
Elevation data (influences drainage patterns)
Attribute Data
Water quality parameters
Well depth and pumping rates
Infrastructure capacity and maintenance records
Land use data
 Water Resource Assessment
Mapping and Analysis
Visualize the spatial distribution of water resources.
Identify areas with water scarcity or potential for new water
sources
Analyze water flow patterns and drainage networks.
Model the impact of climate change on water resources.
Spatial Queries
Where are the areas with the highest water demand?
What are the potential impacts of a new development on water
resources?
Which areas are most vulnerable to drought or flooding?
Water Management Planning
Scenario Modeling
Water Monitoring and Regulation
Public Outreach and Education
Interactive Maps

GIS with Environment

Pollution Source Identification and Monitoring:
Import point data representing potential pollution sources (e.g.,
factories, waste facilities).
Overlay this data with water quality data (e.g., river samples) as
point or polygon layers.
Use spatial join to identify facilities near polluted locations.
Analyze proximity and upstream/downstream relationships using
vector analysis tools.
Generate maps to visualize potential pollution sources and areas of
concern.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for Projects
Import project area boundaries as a polygon layer.
Overlay with sensitive environmental features (e.g., protected
areas, wetlands) from environmental databases or government
websites.
Use buffer zones around sensitive features to define areas with
development restrictions.
Analyze land cover data (e.g., forest cover) to assess potential
habitat disruption.
Generate maps to communicate project footprint and potential
environmental impacts.
Sustainable Land Management and Resource Planning:
Import soil quality data as a raster layer
Overlay with land cover data (e.g., agricultural land, forests).
Use zonal statistics to identify areas with high-quality soil suitable
for specific agricultural uses.
Analyze land suitability based on soil characteristics and slope
information.
Generate maps to guide sustainable land use practices and resource
conservation.