ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Learning: First order logic. Inference in first order logic, propositional vs. first
order inference, unification & lifts forward chaining, Backward chaining,
Resolution,
Learning from observation Inductive learning, Decision trees, Explanation based
learning, Statistical Learning methods, Reinforcement Learning.

First Order Logic

First-order logic (FOL), also known as predicate logic or first-order predicate

logic, is a formal system used in AI and other disciplines for representing and
reasoning about knowledge. It extends propositional logic by allowing the use of
quantifiers, variables, predicates, and functions, making it more expressive and
capable of representing more complex statements about the world. Here’s an
explanation of the key concepts and components of first-order logic:

1. Syntax of First-Order Logic

• Constants: These are symbols that represent specific objects in the

domain. Examples: a, b, c, John, Paris.
• Variables: These are symbols that can represent any object in the domain.
Examples: x, y, z.
• Predicates: These symbols represent properties or relations among
objects. They take a certain number of arguments (arity). Examples: Loves
(x, y), IsFatherOf(x, y), IsTall(x).
• Functions: These symbols map tuples of objects to an object. Examples:
Mother(x), Plus(x, y).
• Quantifiers: There are two types of quantifiers:
o Universal quantifier (∀): Asserts that a statement holds for all
possible values of a variable. Example: ∀x Loves(x, IceCream)
means "Everyone loves ice cream."
o Existential quantifier (∃): Asserts that there exists at least one
value of a variable for which a statement holds. Example: ∃x
Loves(x, IceCream) means "There is someone who loves ice cream."

2. Forming Statements

Statements in FOL are formed using predicates, variables, constants, functions,

quantifiers, and logical connectives (and, or, not, implies). Here are some
examples:

• Atomic Sentences: Basic statements involving predicates and terms.

Example: Loves(John, Mary).

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• Complex Sentences: Formed by combining atomic sentences using logical

connectives.
o Conjunction (∧): Loves(John, Mary) ∧ Loves(Mary, John) means
"John loves Mary, and Mary loves John."
o Disjunction (∨): Loves(John, Mary) ∨ Loves(Mary, John) means
"John loves Mary, or Mary loves John (or both)."
o Negation (¬): ¬Loves(John, Mary) means "John does not love
Mary."
o Implication (→): Loves(John, Mary) → Loves(Mary, John) means
"If John loves Mary, then Mary loves John."
o Biconditional (↔): Loves(John, Mary) ↔ Loves(Mary, John)
means "John loves Mary if and only if Mary loves John."

3. Semantics of First-Order Logic

The semantics of FOL define the meaning of statements in terms of models and
interpretations:

• Domain: The set of all objects under consideration.

• Interpretation: Assigns meaning to the symbols in the logic:
o Each constant is assigned a specific object in the domain.
o Each predicate is assigned a relation among objects in the domain.
o Each function is assigned a mapping from objects to objects.
• Model: A model is an interpretation that makes a given statement true. If
a statement is true in a model, the model satisfies the statement.

4. Inference in First-Order Logic

Inference is the process of deriving new statements from existing ones using rules
of logic. Common methods include:

• Modus Ponens: From P and P → Q, infer Q.

• Universal Instantiation: From ∀x P(x), infer P(c) for any constant c.
• Existential Instantiation: From ∃x P(x), infer P(c) for some new constant
c.

5. Applications of First-Order Logic in AI

FOL is widely used in AI for knowledge representation, reasoning, and problem-

solving. Some applications include:

• Expert Systems: Representing and reasoning about domain knowledge.

• Natural Language Processing (NLP): Understanding and generating
human language.

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• Automated Theorem Proving: Proving mathematical theorems

automatically.
• Planning: Representing and solving planning problems.

Example

Consider the following statements in first-order logic:

1. Everyone loves someone: ∀x ∃y Loves(x, y)

2. John loves everyone: ∀y Loves(John, y)
3. Someone loves John: ∃x Loves(x, John)

These statements illustrate how FOL can be used to express complex

relationships and properties involving multiple objects and their interactions.

First-order logic provides a powerful and expressive framework for representing

and reasoning about knowledge, making it a foundational tool in artificial
intelligence and many other fields.

Inference in first order logic

Inference in first-order logic (FOL) refers to the process of deriving new logical
statements from existing ones using formal rules. It is a crucial component in
artificial intelligence for enabling automated reasoning systems to draw
conclusions from a given set of facts and rules. Here's a detailed explanation of
inference in FOL:

1. Basic Concepts

• Logical Consequence: A statement QQQ is a logical consequence of a set

of statements Σ\SigmaΣ if QQQ is true in every model in which all
statements in Σ\SigmaΣ are true.
• Inference Rules: These are formal rules that describe how to derive new
statements from existing ones. The most common inference rules are
Modus Ponens, Universal Instantiation, and Existential Instantiation.

2. Inference Rules in First-Order Logic

Modus Ponens

• Rule: From PPP and P→QP \rightarrow QP→Q, infer QQQ.

• Example: If "It is raining" (PPP) and "If it is raining, then the ground is
wet" (P→QP \rightarrow QP→Q), we can infer "The ground is wet"
(QQQ).

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Universal Instantiation (UI)

• Rule: From ∀x P(x)\forall x \, P(x)∀xP(x), infer P(c)P(c)P(c) for any

constant ccc.
• Example: If "All humans are mortal" (∀x Human(x)→Mortal(x)\forall x \,
\text{Human}(x) \rightarrow \text{Mortal}(x)∀xHuman(x)→Mortal(x)),
we can infer "Socrates is mortal"
(Human(Socrates)→Mortal(Socrates)\text{Human}(\text{Socrates})
\rightarrow
\text{Mortal}(\text{Socrates})Human(Socrates)→Mortal(Socrates)).
Existential Instantiation (EI)

• Rule: From ∃x P(x)\exists x \, P(x)∃xP(x), infer P(c)P(c)P(c) for some new

constant ccc.
• Example: If "There exists someone who loves ice cream"
(∃x Loves(x,IceCream)\exists x \, \text{Loves}(x,
\text{IceCream})∃xLoves(x,IceCream)), we can infer "John loves ice
cream" (Loves(John,IceCream)\text{Loves}(\text{John},
\text{IceCream})Loves(John,IceCream)) assuming John\text{John}John
is a new constant.

3. Unification

Unification is a key process in inference that involves finding a substitution that

makes different logical expressions identical. It is used primarily in automated
theorem proving and logic programming.

• Substitution: Replacing variables in a logical expression with constants or

other variables.
• Unifier: A substitution that makes two or more expressions identical.
• Most General Unifier (MGU): The simplest unifier that makes
expressions identical without introducing unnecessary specifics.
Example of Unification

• Given expressions Loves(x,IceCream)\text{Loves}(x,

\text{IceCream})Loves(x,IceCream) and
Loves(John,y)\text{Loves}(\text{John}, y)Loves(John,y), the unifier
{x/John,y/IceCream}\{x/\text{John},
y/\text{IceCream}\}{x/John,y/IceCream} makes them identical.

4. Resolution

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Resolution is a powerful rule of inference used for automated theorem proving in

FOL. It works by refuting the negation of the statement to be proved.
Resolution Principle

• Convert all statements into a standardized form called Conjunctive

Normal Form (CNF).
• Use the resolution rule to iteratively derive new clauses until either a
contradiction is found (proof by refutation) or no new information can be
derived.
Example of Resolution

1. Given Statements:
o ∀x (Human(x)→Mortal(x))\forall x \, (\text{Human}(x) \rightarrow
\text{Mortal}(x))∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x))
o Human(Socrates)\text{Human}(\text{Socrates})Human(Socrates)
2. Convert to CNF:
o ¬Human(x)∨Mortal(x)\neg \text{Human}(x) \vee
\text{Mortal}(x)¬Human(x)∨Mortal(x)
o Human(Socrates)\text{Human}(\text{Socrates})Human(Socrates)
3. Negate the Goal:
o ¬Mortal(Socrates)\neg
\text{Mortal}(\text{Socrates})¬Mortal(Socrates)
4. Resolve:
o Resolving ¬Human(Socrates)∨Mortal(Socrates)\neg
\text{Human}(\text{Socrates}) \vee
\text{Mortal}(\text{Socrates})¬Human(Socrates)∨Mortal(Socrates
) with
Human(Socrates)\text{Human}(\text{Socrates})Human(Socrates)
yields
Mortal(Socrates)\text{Mortal}(\text{Socrates})Mortal(Socrates).
o Resolving
Mortal(Socrates)\text{Mortal}(\text{Socrates})Mortal(Socrates)
with ¬Mortal(Socrates)\neg
\text{Mortal}(\text{Socrates})¬Mortal(Socrates) yields a
contradiction.

5. Forward and Backward Chaining

Forward Chaining

• Description: Starting with known facts and applying inference rules to

extract more data until the goal is reached.
• Use: Often used in expert systems and rule-based systems.

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• Example: If we know "Socrates is a human" and "All humans are mortal,"

we can infer "Socrates is mortal."
Backward Chaining

• Description: Starting with the goal and working backwards by finding

rules that support the goal, and then proving the premises of those rules.
• Use: Common in logic programming and query systems.
• Example: To prove "Socrates is mortal," we check if "All humans are
mortal" and "Socrates is a human."

6. Applications of Inference in AI

• Automated Theorem Proving: Proving mathematical theorems

automatically using logical inference.
• Expert Systems: Using rules and facts to derive new knowledge and make
decisions.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): Understanding and generating
human language by inferring meanings and relationships.
• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning: Representing complex
knowledge about the world and reasoning about it.

Inference in first-order logic is a fundamental aspect of artificial intelligence that

enables systems to reason about the world and derive conclusions from a set of
given facts and rules.
propositional vs. first order inference

Propositional logic and first-order logic (FOL) are two fundamental systems in
artificial intelligence for representing and reasoning about knowledge. Both have
their own inference mechanisms. Here, we'll explore the differences between
propositional and first-order inference in AI:

Propositional Logic
Characteristics

• Syntax: Composed of propositional variables (e.g., P,Q,RP, Q, RP,Q,R)

and logical connectives (e.g., AND (∧)(\land)(∧), OR (∨)(\lor)(∨), NOT
(¬)(\neg)(¬), IMPLIES (→)(\rightarrow)(→)).
• Semantics: Truth values (true or false) are assigned to each propositional
variable.
• Expressiveness: Limited to statements about specific facts without
quantifiers or variables. Each statement is either true or false.

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Inference

• Inference Rules: Methods to derive new propositions from existing ones.

o Modus Ponens: If PPP and P→QP \rightarrow QP→Q are true, then
QQQ is true.
o Modus Tollens: If P→QP \rightarrow QP→Q is true and QQQ is
false, then PPP is false.
o Disjunction Elimination: If P∨QP \lor QP∨Q is true and PPP is
false, then QQQ is true.
o Conjunction Introduction: If PPP and QQQ are true, then P∧QP
\land QP∧Q is true.
• Resolution: A single, powerful rule of inference used in propositional
logic, particularly in automated theorem proving.
o Resolution Rule: From P∨QP \lor QP∨Q and ¬P∨R\neg P \lor
R¬P∨R, infer Q∨RQ \lor RQ∨R.
Example

• Given: P→QP \rightarrow QP→Q, PPP

• Infer: QQQ (using Modus Ponens)

First-Order Logic (FOL)

Characteristics

• Syntax: Extends propositional logic with:

o Constants: Represent specific objects (e.g., a,b,Johna, b,
Johna,b,John).
o Variables: Represent any object in the domain (e.g., x,yx, yx,y).
o Predicates: Represent properties or relations among objects (e.g.,
Loves(x,y)Loves(x, y)Loves(x,y)).
o Functions: Map objects to objects (e.g.,
Mother(x)Mother(x)Mother(x)).
o Quantifiers: Specify the scope of variables.
▪ Universal Quantifier (∀x\forall x∀x): States that a property
holds for all objects.
▪ Existential Quantifier (∃x\exists x∃x): States that there
exists at least one object for which the property holds.
• Semantics: Interpretation assigns meaning to the constants, functions, and
predicates.
Inference

• Inference Rules: Extend those of propositional logic with rules for

quantifiers and variables.

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oUniversal Instantiation: From ∀x P(x)\forall x \, P(x)∀xP(x), infer

P(c)P(c)P(c) for any constant ccc.
o Existential Instantiation: From ∃x P(x)\exists x \, P(x)∃xP(x), infer
P(c)P(c)P(c) for some new constant ccc.
o Generalized Modus Ponens: From P(a)P(a)P(a) and
∀x(P(x)→Q(x))\forall x (P(x) \rightarrow Q(x))∀x(P(x)→Q(x)),
infer Q(a)Q(a)Q(a).
o Unification: Process of making different logical expressions
identical by finding a suitable substitution for their variables.
• Resolution: Also used in FOL but more complex due to the need to handle
quantifiers and unification.
o Resolution Rule in FOL: Similar to propositional logic but applies
to clauses with variables and requires unification.
Example

• Given: ∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x))\forall x (Human(x) \rightarrow

Mortal(x))∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x)),
Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)
• Infer: Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates) (using Universal
Instantiation and Modus Ponens)

Key Differences

1. Expressiveness:
o Propositional Logic: Limited to specific facts and cannot represent
relationships between objects or general statements about all or
some objects.
o First-Order Logic: More expressive, capable of representing
complex relationships, properties of objects, and general statements
using quantifiers and variables.
2. Inference Mechanisms:
o Propositional Logic: Inference is relatively straightforward with
fewer rules, mainly focusing on the manipulation of true/false
values.
o First-Order Logic: Inference is more complex due to the need to
handle variables, quantifiers, and the process of unification.
3. Use Cases:
o Propositional Logic: Suitable for simple domains with a finite
number of facts and rules. Often used in scenarios where the
complexity of the relationships between objects is low.
o First-Order Logic: Used in more complex domains where it is
necessary to express and reason about general properties and
relationships among objects. Commonly used in knowledge

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representation, natural language processing, and automated theorem

proving.

Summary

• Propositional Logic: Deals with specific, atomic propositions and their

combinations. Inference involves manipulating truth values of these
propositions.
• First-Order Logic: Extends propositional logic to include objects,
predicates, functions, and quantifiers, enabling more expressive
representations. Inference involves more complex rules to handle variables
and quantifiers, making it suitable for more intricate reasoning tasks.

Understanding the distinctions between propositional and first-order logic is

fundamental in AI, as it guides the choice of representation and inference
techniques based on the complexity and nature of the problem domain.

Here's an explanation of unification, lifted forward chaining, backward chaining,

and resolution in AI:

1. Unification

Unification is the process of determining a substitution that makes two logical

expressions identical. It's crucial in first-order logic for inference methods like
resolution, forward chaining, and backward chaining.
Key Concepts of Unification:

• Substitution: A mapping of variables to terms (constants or other

variables).
• Unifier: A substitution that makes two expressions identical.
• Most General Unifier (MGU): The simplest unifier that makes
expressions identical without introducing unnecessary specifics.
Example of Unification:

Given expressions Loves(x,y)\text{Loves}(x, y)Loves(x,y) and

Loves(John,IceCream)\text{Loves}(John,
\text{IceCream})Loves(John,IceCream), the unifier
{x/John,y/IceCream}\{x/John, y/IceCream\}{x/John,y/IceCream} makes them
identical.

2. Lifted Forward Chaining

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Lifted forward chaining is an inference method that operates on first-order logic

(FOL) rules. It extends propositional forward chaining to work with predicates,
variables, and quantifiers.
Process:

1. Initialize: Start with known facts.

2. Match: Identify rules where the premises match the known facts using
unification.
3. Fire: Apply the rule, instantiate the variables, and add the conclusions to
the knowledge base.
4. Repeat: Continue until no more rules can be applied.
Example:

Given:

1. ∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x))\forall x (Human(x) \rightarrow

Mortal(x))∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x))
2. Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)

Steps:

1. Match the rule ∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x))\forall x (Human(x) \rightarrow

Mortal(x))∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x)) with the fact
Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates).
2. Apply the rule, resulting in
Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates).

3. Backward Chaining

Backward chaining is a goal-driven inference method. It starts with the goal and
works backwards by finding rules that could satisfy the goal, and then proving
the premises of those rules.
Process:

1.Initialize: Start with the goal to be proven.

2.Match: Identify rules whose conclusion matches the goal.
3.Subgoals: For each rule, treat its premises as new subgoals.
4.Recursively Apply: Apply the process recursively to prove each subgoal.
5.Success/Failure: If all subgoals are proven, the original goal is proven;
otherwise, it fails.
Example:

Goal: Prove Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates).

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Given:

1. ∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x))\forall x (Human(x) \rightarrow

Mortal(x))∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x))
2. Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)

Steps:

1. Goal Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates) matches the

conclusion of the rule ∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x))\forall x (Human(x)
\rightarrow Mortal(x))∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x)).
2. Create subgoal Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates).
3. Verify Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates) using known
facts.
4. If Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates) is true, then
Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates) is true.

4. Resolution

Resolution is a rule of inference used for automated theorem proving. It is

particularly powerful in first-order logic for deriving contradictions, thus proving
theorems by refutation.
Process:

1. Convert to CNF: Convert all statements into Conjunctive Normal Form

(CNF).
2. Negate the Goal: Negate the statement to be proven and add it to the
knowledge base.
3. Resolution Rule: Apply the resolution rule iteratively to derive new
clauses.
4. Derive Contradiction: If a contradiction (an empty clause) is derived, the
original statement is proven true.
Example:

Given:

1. ∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x))\forall x (Human(x) \rightarrow

Mortal(x))∀x(Human(x)→Mortal(x)) as ¬Human(x)∨Mortal(x)\neg
Human(x) \lor Mortal(x)¬Human(x)∨Mortal(x)
2. Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)
3. Negate the goal ¬Mortal(Socrates)\neg
Mortal(Socrates)¬Mortal(Socrates)

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Steps:

1. Convert to CNF:
o ¬Human(x)∨Mortal(x)\neg Human(x) \lor
Mortal(x)¬Human(x)∨Mortal(x)
o Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)
o ¬Mortal(Socrates)\neg Mortal(Socrates)¬Mortal(Socrates)
2. Apply resolution:
o Resolve Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates)Human(Socrates) and
¬Human(x)∨Mortal(x)\neg Human(x) \lor
Mortal(x)¬Human(x)∨Mortal(x) by unifying xxx with
SocratesSocratesSocrates to get
Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates).
o Resolve Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates)Mortal(Socrates) and
¬Mortal(Socrates)\neg Mortal(Socrates)¬Mortal(Socrates) to get an
empty clause (contradiction).

Summary

• Unification: A process to find a substitution that makes two logical

expressions identical.
• Lifted Forward Chaining: A data-driven method for FOL that applies
rules to known facts to infer new facts.
• Backward Chaining: A goal-driven method for FOL that works
backwards from the goal, recursively proving subgoals.
• Resolution: A refutation-based method used in automated theorem
proving, working by deriving contradictions from the negation of the goal.

Each of these methods plays a crucial role in AI for enabling automated reasoning
and knowledge representation.

Here’s an overview of various learning paradigms in AI, including learning from

observation, inductive learning, decision trees, explanation-based learning,
statistical learning methods, and reinforcement learning.

1. Learning from Observation

Learning from observation involves understanding and learning patterns,

behaviors, or rules from observed data. This form of learning is often the basis
for many other learning methods in AI.

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Key Concepts:

• Observational Data: Collected from sensors, experiments, or interaction

with the environment.
• Pattern Recognition: Identifying patterns and regularities in data.
• Model Building: Creating models that can predict or explain observations.

2. Inductive Learning

Inductive learning is a method of learning where general rules are inferred from
specific instances. The goal is to create a general model that can apply to new,
unseen instances.
Key Concepts:

• Training Data: A set of specific examples from which the model learns.
• Generalization: The ability of the model to apply learned rules to new
data.
• Hypothesis Space: The set of all possible models or rules that could
explain the data.
Example:

• Given data on the weather and whether or not people play tennis, the model
learns a rule like "If it's sunny, then people play tennis."

3. Decision Trees

Decision trees are a type of model used for both classification and regression
tasks. They represent decisions and their possible consequences in a tree-like
structure.
Key Concepts:

• Nodes: Represent features or attributes.

• Edges: Represent decisions based on feature values.
• Leaves: Represent the outcome or class label.
• Splitting: The process of dividing the dataset based on feature values to
create branches in the tree.
Example:

• A decision tree might be used to decide whether a loan applicant is likely

to default based on features such as income, credit score, and employment
history.

4. Explanation-Based Learning (EBL)

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Explanation-Based Learning involves understanding the underlying principles

or explanations of observed examples. EBL focuses on using domain knowledge
to form explanations and generalize from them.
Key Concepts:

• Domain Theory: Background knowledge about the problem domain.

• Explanatory Structure: A logical structure explaining why an example is
a member of a certain class.
• Generalization: Abstracting the explanation to apply to new examples.
Example:

• Learning to recognize different types of animals by understanding the

underlying biological characteristics that define each type.

5. Statistical Learning Methods

Statistical learning methods encompass a range of techniques that use statistical

principles to infer patterns from data. These methods often involve probabilistic
models and are used extensively in machine learning.
Key Concepts:

• Probabilistic Models: Models that represent uncertainty in predictions

using probability distributions.
• Inference: The process of estimating model parameters from data.
• Overfitting: When a model is too complex and captures noise in the
training data rather than the underlying pattern.
Examples:

• Linear Regression: Predicting a continuous outcome based on one or

more predictor variables.
• Naive Bayes: A probabilistic classifier based on Bayes' theorem, assuming
feature independence.

6. Reinforcement Learning (RL)

Reinforcement learning is a type of learning where an agent learns to make

decisions by performing actions in an environment to maximize cumulative
reward.
Key Concepts:

• Agent: The learner or decision-maker.

• Environment: The system with which the agent interacts.
• States: The possible situations in which the agent can find itself.

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• Actions: The choices available to the agent.

• Rewards: The feedback received after performing an action.
• Policy: A strategy that defines the agent's actions based on states.
• Value Function: Estimates the expected return (reward) for a state or state-
action pair.
Example:

• Training a robot to navigate a maze by rewarding it for reaching the goal

and penalizing it for hitting obstacles.

Summary

• Learning from Observation: Deriving patterns and rules from observed

data.
• Inductive Learning: Inferring general rules from specific instances.
• Decision Trees: A tree-like model for decision making and classification.
• Explanation-Based Learning: Using domain knowledge to form and
generalize explanations.
• Statistical Learning Methods: Using statistical principles to infer patterns
and make predictions.
• Reinforcement Learning: Learning optimal actions through trial and error
to maximize cumulative reward.

Each of these methods has its unique strengths and applications, making them
suitable for different types of problems and data in artificial intelligence.

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