ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is a sophisticated network of glands and organs that produce, store, and secrete hormones
directly into the bloodstream. These hormones are crucial for regulating a myriad of bodily functions, including
metabolism, growth, reproduction, and mood. Unlike the nervous system, which communicates through
electrical signals, the endocrine system operates via chemical signals, leading to slower but often longer-lasting
effects.

GLANDS AND ORGANS

• Hypothalamus- Located in the brain, it links the nervous system to the endocrine system. It produces
releasing and inhibiting hormones that control the pituitary gland.
• Pituitary Gland- Known as the “master gland,” it has anterior and posterior lobes.
➢ Anterior Lobe- Secretes hormones such as:
✓ Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates growth and cell reproduction.
✓ Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Regulates the thyroid.
✓ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal glands.
➢ Posterior Lobe- Releases oxytocin (involved in childbirth and bonding) and antidiuretic
hormone (ADH, which regulates water balance).
• Thyroid Gland- Located in the neck, it produces:
✓ Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3): Regulate metabolism, energy production, and
growth.
✓ Calcitonin: Helps regulate calcium levels in the blood.
• Parathyroid Glands- Small glands behind the thyroid that secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which
regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism.
• Adrenal Glands- Situated on top of the kidneys, these glands produce:
✓ Cortisol: A stress hormone that increases glucose availability and reduces inflammation.
✓ Aldosterone: Regulates sodium and potassium levels, affecting blood pressure.
✓ Adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine: Part of the body’s fight-or-flight response.
• Pancreas- An exocrine and endocrine gland that produces:
✓ Insulin: Lowers blood glucose levels.
✓ Glucagon: Raises blood glucose levels.
✓ Somatostatin: Regulates the secretion of other hormones.
• Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)- Produce sex hormones:
➢ Ovaries: Produce estrogen and progesterone, crucial for female reproductive health.
➢ Testes: Produce testosterone, essential for male reproductive health and development

HORMONES

Hormones are classified into three categories:

➢ Peptide Hormones- Made of amino acids (e.g., insulin, GH).

➢ Steroid Hormones- Derived from cholesterol (e.g., cortisol, sex hormones).
➢ Amine Hormones- Derived from amino acids (e.g., adrenaline).
Hormones exert their effects by binding to specific receptors on target cells, leading to various biological
responses.

FUNCTIONS

Metabolism

• Hormones regulate the body’s metabolism by controlling how food is converted into energy.
• Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) increase basal metabolic rate, influencing energy expenditure.

Growth and Development

• Growth hormone promotes growth in tissues and bones, while sex hormones are critical for sexual
maturation during puberty.

Reproduction

• Hormones regulate menstrual cycles, ovulation, sperm production, and pregnancy. For instance,
estrogen and progesterone play essential roles in the female reproductive cycle.

Homeostasis

• The endocrine system maintains homeostasis by regulating body temperature, fluid balance, and
electrolyte levels. For example, ADH helps manage hydration by controlling water reabsorption in the
kidneys.

Response to Stress

• The adrenal glands release cortisol and adrenaline in response to stress, preparing the body for a “fight
or flight” response by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy availability.

DISORDERS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Diabetes Mellitus

• Type 1 Diabetes: An autoimmune condition where the pancreas fails to produce insulin.
• Type 2 Diabetes: A condition where the body becomes resistant to insulin or doesn’t produce enough.

Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism

• Hypothyroidism: Insufficient thyroid hormone production, leading to fatigue, weight gain, and
depression.
• Hyperthyroidism: Excessive thyroid hormone production, resulting in weight loss, anxiety, and
increased heart rate.

Cushing’s Syndrome

• Caused by prolonged exposure to high cortisol levels, leading to symptoms such as weight gain, high
blood pressure, and mood changes.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)

• A hormonal disorder characterized by irregular menstrual cycles, excess androgen levels, and
polycystic ovaries, affecting fertility and metabolism.

Addison’s Disease

• A disorder of the adrenal glands where insufficient cortisol is produced, leading to fatigue, weight loss,
and low blood pressure.

REGULATION

• The endocrine system relies heavily on feedback mechanisms to maintain hormone levels:
➢ Negative Feedback: The most common mechanism. When hormone levels rise, signals are sent to
reduce further secretion. For example, high levels of thyroid hormones inhibit TSH production.
INHIBITION
➢ Positive Feedback: Less common, this amplifies a response. For instance, during childbirth, oxytocin
release increases uterine contractions, which in turn stimulates more oxytocin release. EXCITATION

HORMONE CASCADES- refer to the series of hormonal signals that regulate various physiological processes in
the body. These cascades often involve multiple hormones and feedback loops, coordinating functions such as
growth, metabolism, stress response, and reproduction.

➢ Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis (HPA) The hypothalamus releases hormones that stimulate the pituitary
gland, which in turn releases tropic hormones affecting other glands (e.g., adrenal, thyroid).
✓ Example: Stress triggers the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the
hypothalamus, stimulating the pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
which prompts cortisol release from the adrenal glands.
➢ Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal (HPG) Axis - Regulates reproductive functions. The hypothalamus
secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), prompting the pituitary to release luteinizing
hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), influencing the ovaries or testes.
➢ Insulin and Glucagon - The pancreas releases insulin to lower blood sugar and glucagon to raise it,
maintaining glucose homeostasis.
➢ Thyroid Hormone Regulation - Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary regulates thyroid
hormone (T3 and T4) production, affecting metabolism.
➢ Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) - Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance. Low blood
pressure stimulates the kidneys to release renin, leading to a cascade that produces angiotensin II and
increases aldosterone release.