Homeostasis

Done by: Olicia-ann Sylvester

• With the aid of a diagram, name the endocrine glands in the
body and briefly outline the hormones they secrete and their
function.

• With the aid of diagrams show the internal structure of the

pancreas, showing the A (alpha) cells, B (beta) cells, Islets of
Langerhans and acinar cells.

• Give careful treatment to the pancreas and how its hormones

(glucagon and insulin) control blood glucose levels.

• State the set point or normal levels of glucose in the human

blood, and use the terms Hypoglycemia and Hyperglycemia in
explaining how the glucose levels are controlled.

Objective
• Homeostasis generally refers to stability, balance or
equilibrium. It is the body's attempt in maintaining a
constant internal environment.

• Maintaining a stable internal environment requires

constant monitoring and adjustments as conditions
change. This adjusting of physiological systems within
the body is called homeostatic regulation.

Definition
• The endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a
type of hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body.

• The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which

secretes its chemicals using ducts.

• It derives from the Greek words "endo" meaning inside, within, and
"crinis" for secrete.

• The endocrine system is an information signal system with effects

that are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting for
hours to weeks.

• The endocrine system is made of a series of glands that produce

chemicals called hormones.

Endocrine System
• Glands are small but powerful organs that are located throughout the body.
They control very important body functions by releasing hormones.

The following list of glands make up the endocrine system:

• Pituitary Gland
• Hypothalmus
• Thymus
• Pineal Gland
• Testes
• Ovaries
• Thyroid
• Adrenal Glands
• Parathyroid
• Pancreas

Organs and Glands of the

Endocrine System
Diagram Of The Endocrine
System
Name them:

Diagram of organs involve in

the endocrine system
• Hormones are substances (chemical mediators)
released from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream
where they travel to target tissue and generate a
response.

Endocrine System cont’d

• The pituitary gland is sometimes called the "master gland" because of its
great influence on the other body organs. It consist of an anterior and
posterior section.

• The anterior pituitary produces several types of hormones:

• Prolactin or PRL - PRL stimulates milk production from a woman's

breasts after childbirth and can affect sex hormone levels from the
ovaries in women and the testes in men.

• Growth hormone or GH - GH stimulates growth in childhood and is

important for maintaining a healthy body composition.

Pituitary Gland
• Adrenocorticotropin or ACTH - ACTH stimulates production of cortisol
by the adrenal glands. Cortisol, a so-called "stress hormone," is vital to
survival. It helps maintain blood pressure and blood glucose levels.

• Thyroid-stimulating hormone or TSH - TSH stimulates the thyroid

gland to make thyroid hormones, which, in turn, control (regulate) the
body's metabolism, energy, growth and development, and nervous
system activity.

• Luteinizing hormone or LH - LH regulates testosterone in men and

estrogen in women.

• Follicle-stimulating hormone or FSH - FSH promotes sperm

production in men and stimulates the ovaries to release eggs (ovulate) in
women. LH and FSH work together to allow normal function of the
ovaries or testes.

Pituitary Gland
• The posterior pituitary produces two hormones:

• Oxytocin - Oxytocin causes milk letdown in nursing

mothers and contractions during childbirth.

• Antidiuretic hormone or ADH - ADH, also called

vasopressin, is stored in the back part of the pituitary
gland and regulates water balance. If this hormone is
not secreted properly, this can lead to problems of
sodium (salt) and water balance, and could also affect
the kidneys so that they do not work as well.

Pituitary Gland cont’d

• Diagram of pituitary

Pituitary Gland
• The hypothalamus is part of the brain that lies just above the pituitary gland.

• It releases hormones that start and stop the release of pituitary hormones.

• The hypothalamus controls hormone production in the pituitary gland

through several "releasing" hormones.

• Some of these are:

• Growth -releasing hormone, or (controls GH release)
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone, or TRH (controls TSH release).
• Corticoptropin-releasing hormone, or CRH (controls ACTH release).
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) tells the pituitary gland to make
luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which are
important for normal puberty.

Hypothalamus
• Located at the front of brain

Diagram of the Hypothalamus

• The thymus is a gland needed early in life for normal
immune function.
• It is very large just after a child is born and weighs its
greatest when a child reaches puberty. Then its tissue
is replaced by fat.
• The thymus gland secretes hormones called humoral
factors.
• These hormones help to develop the lymphoid system,
which is a system throughout the body that help it to
reach a mature immune response in cells to protect
them from invading bodies, like bacteria.

Thymus
The Thymus

Diagram of Thymus
• Scientists are still learning how the pineal gland
works.
• They have found one hormone so far that is produced
by this gland: melatonin.
• Melatonin may stop the action of (inhibit) the
hormones that produce gonadotropin, which causes
the ovaries and testes to develop and function.
• It may also help to control sleep patterns.

Pineal Gland
• Pineal Gland

Diagram of Pineal Gland

• Males have twin reproductive glands, called testes, that produce
the hormone testosterone.

• Testosterone helps a boy develop and then maintain his sexual

traits.

• During puberty, testosterone helps to bring about the physical

changes that turn a boy into an adult male, such as growth of the
penis and testes, growth of facial and pubic hair, deepening of the
voice, increase in muscle mass and strength, and increase in
height.

• Throughout adult life, testosterone helps maintain sex drive,

sperm production, male hair patterns, muscle mass, and bone
mass.

Testes
• Scrotum

Diagram of Testes
• The two most important hormones of a woman's twin
reproductive glands, the ovaries, are estrogen and progesterone.

• These hormones are responsible for developing and maintaining

female sexual traits, as well as maintaining a pregnancy.

• Along with the pituitary gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone or

LH and follicle-stimulating hormone or FSH), they also control
the menstrual cycle.

• The ovaries also produce inhibin, a protein that curbs (inhibits)

the release of follicle-stimulating hormone from the anterior
pituitary and helps control egg development

Ovaries
• Ovum

Diagram of the Ovaries

• The thyroid is a small gland inside the neck, located in
front of your breathing airway (trachea) and below
your Adam's apple.

• The thyroid hormones control your metabolism, which

is the body's ability to break down food and store it as
energy and the ability to break down food into waste
products with a release of energy in the process.

• The thyroid produces two hormones, T3 (called tri-

iodothyronine) and T4 (called thyroxine).

Thyroid
• The Thyroid Gland

Diagram of the Thyroid

• Each adrenal gland is actually two endocrine organs. The outer portion is
called the adrenal cortex. The inner portion is called the adrenal medulla.

• The hormones of the adrenal cortex are essential for life. The types of
hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla are not.

• The adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids (such as cortisol) that help

the body control blood sugar, increase the burning of protein and fat, and
respond to stressors like fever, major illness, and injury.

• The mineralcorticoids (such as aldosterone) control blood volume and

help to regulate blood pressure by acting on the kidneys to help them hold
onto enough sodium and water.

• The adrenal cortex also produces some sex hormones, which are
important for some secondary sex characteristics in both men and
women.

Adrenal Glands
• The adrenal medulla produces epinephrine
(adrenaline), which is secreted by nerve endings and
increases the heart rate, opens airways to improve
oxygen intake, and increases blood flow to muscles,
usually when a person is scared, excited, or under
stress.

Adrenal Glands cont’d

• Adrenal Gland

Diagram of the Adrenal

Glands
• Located behind the thyroid gland are four tiny parathyroid glands. These
make hormones that help control calcium and phosphorous levels in the
body.

• The parathyroid glands are necessary for proper bone development.

• In response to too little calcium in the diet, the parathyroid glands make
parathyroid hormone, or PTH, that takes calcium from bones so that it will
be available in the blood for nerve conduction and muscle contraction.

• If the parathyroids are removed during a thyroid operation, low blood

calcium will result in symptoms such as irregular heartbeat, muscle
spasms, tingling in the hands and feet, and possibly difficulty breathing.

• A tumor or chronic illness can cause too much secretion of PTH and lead to
bone pain, kidney stones, increased urination, muscle weakness, and
fatigue.

Parathyroid Gland
• Parathyroid

Diagram of the Parathyroid Gland

• The pancreas is a large gland behind your stomach that helps
the body to maintain healthy blood sugar (glucose) levels.

• The pancreas secretes insulin, a hormone that helps glucose

move from the blood into the cells where it is used for energy.

• The pancreas also secretes glucagon when the blood sugar is

low. Glucagon tells the liver to release glucose, stored in the
liver as glycogen, into the bloodstream.

• Diabetes, an imbalance of blood sugar levels, is the major

disorder of the pancreas.

• There are two types of diabetes. Type I, and Type II diabetes.

Pancreas
• Type I diabetes occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough
insulin.

• Type II diabetes occurs when the body is resistant to the insulin in the
blood).

• Without enough insulin to keep glucose moving through the metabolic

process, the blood glucose level rises too high.

• In Type I diabetes, a patient must take insulin shots. In Type II diabetes,

a patient may not necessarily need insulin and can sometimes control
blood sugar levels with exercise, diet and other medications.

• A condition called hyperinsulinism (HI) is caused by too much insulin

and leads to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar).

Pancreas cont’d
• Pancreas

Diagram of the Pancreas

• Pancreatic endocrine tissue consists of cell clusters known
as islets of Langerhans.
• These cells produce and secrete hormones into the
bloodstream.
• Two of the main pancreatic hormones are insulin and
glucagon.
• These hormones work together to maintain the proper
level of sugar in the blood.
• Insulin works to lower blood sugar and glucagon works to
increase blood sugar.
• When the insulin-secreting cells fail to function properly
diabetes occurs

Pancreas Cont’d
• The endocrine tissue of the pancreas includes the islets of
Langerhans. This area is responsible for the production and release of
certain hormones into the bloodstream. The main three types of cells
that produce hormones in the islets of Langerhans are:
• Alpha cells - release the hormone glucagon, which triggers the
release of glycogen form liver stores and helps to raise the level of
glucose (sugar) in the bloodstream

• Beta cells - release the hormone insulin, which help regulate

carbohydrate metabolism into the bloodstream, and

• Delta cells - release the hormone somatostatin into the bloodstream

that acts as an inhibitor to the pituitary hormone called somatotropin
and helps tell the body when to make other hormones like insulin,
glucagon, gastrin, renin, and secretin

Islets of Langerhans
• Internal View

Islets of Langerhans
• Cross section

Pancreas
• Showing the different sections through the pancreas

Diagram of Pancreas
• Pancreatic acinar cells are functional units of the
exocrine pancreas.
• They synthesize, store, and secrete inactive proforms
of digestive enzymes into the lumen of the acinus.
• Pancreatic alpha-amylase breaks down starch to
dextrins.

Pancreas cont’d
• Hperglycemia refers to chronically high blood glucose levels.
Persistent hyperglycemia can cause a wide range of chronic
complications that affect almost every system in your body. When
large blood vessels are affected, it can lead to:

• Stroke (cerebral vascular disease)

• Heart attack or Congestive Heart Failure (coronary heart disease)
• Circulation disorders and possible amputation (peripheral
vascular disease)
• When smaller blood veshsels are affected, it can lead to:
• Kidney disease (nephropathy)
• Nerve damage (neuropathy)
• Eye disease (retinopathy)

Hyperglycemia
• Hypoglycemia refers to dangerously low blood glucose levels that
drop below 70 mg/dL ( this is the set point or normal levels of glucose in the
human blood).

• It is an acute complication of diabetes and occurs in individuals who use

insulin or specific kinds of oral diabetes medication. Symptoms of
hypoglycemia include the following:

• Sweating
• Rapid pulse
• Shakiness, dizziness, weakness
• Decreased coordination
• Difficulty concentrating
• Blurred vision
• Headache
• Trouble performing routine tasks

Hypoglycemia
• Blood sugar levels are regulated by negative feedback in order to keep the
body in homeostasis.

• The levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by the cells in

the pancreas's Islets of Langerhans.

• If the blood glucose level falls to dangerous levels the Alpha cells of the
pancreas release glucagon, a hormone whose effects on liver cells act to
increase blood glucose levels.

• They convert glycogen into glucose (this process is called glycogenolysis).

• The glucose is released into the bloodstream, increasing blood sugar levels.

Regulation of Blood
Glucose
Negative Feedback
• When levels of blood sugar rise, whether as a result of glycogen conversion, or
from digestion of a meal, a different hormone is released from beta cells found in
the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.

• This hormone, insulin, causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen (this
process is called glycogenesis), and to force about 2/3 of body cells to take up
glucose from the blood through the GLUT4 transporter, thus decreasing blood
sugar.

• When insulin binds to the receptors on the cell surface, vesicles containing the
GLUT4 transporters come to the plasma membrane and fuse together by the
process of exocytosis and thus enabling a facilitated diffusion of glucose into the
cell.

• As soon as the glucose enters the cell, it is phosphorylated into Glucose-6-

Phosphate in order to preserve the concentration gradient so glucose will
continue to enter the cell.

Regulation of Blood
Glucose cont’d
Regulation of Blood
Glucose
• Action of hormones and cells

Diagram showing how blood

glucose is maintained
Blood Glucose control
Blood Glucose control
Videos of Blood Glucose R
egulation
Videos of Blood Glucose R
egulation
Videos of Blood Glucose R
egulation
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