The Endocrine

System

Choshi JM
 • The endocrine system consists of the ductless
General endocrine glands scattered throughout the body,
which secrete hormones into the blood

principles • Once secreted, a hormone travels in the blood

to its distant target cells, where it regulates or
directs particular function
• Even though the blood distributes hormones
throughout the body, only specific target cells
can respond to each hormone because only the
target cells have receptors for binding with the
particular hormone
Continued..
• The binding of a hormone with its specific target-cell receptors initiates a chain of events within the
target cells to bring about the hormone’s final effect
• A hormone brings about its ultimate physiologic effect depends on whether the hormone is hydrophilic
(peptide hormones and catecholamines) or lipophilic (steroid hormones and thyroid hormone)
• Peptide hormones, the most abundant chemical category of hormone, are chains of amino acids of
varying length.
• Catecholamines, produced by the adrenal medulla, are derived from the amino acid tyrosine.
• Steroid hormones, produced by the adrenal cortex and reproductive endocrine glands, are neutral lipids
derived from cholesterol.
• Thyroid hormone, produced by the thyroid gland, is an iodinated tyrosine derivative
Functions of the endocrine system
1. Regulating nutrient metabolism and H2O and electrolyte balance (homeostasis)

2. Inducing adaptive changes to help the body cope with stressful situations

3. Promoting smooth, sequential growth and development

4. Controlling reproduction

5. Regulating red blood cell production

6. Along with the autonomic nervous system, controlling and integrating activities of both the circulatory and
the digestive systems
Terminology
• Endocrinology – the study of the homeostatic chemical adjustments that
hormones cause

• Tropic hormones – hormones that regulate the production and secretion of another
hormone, e.g., thyroid-stimulating hormone

• Mixed function glands – glands that perform nonendocrine functions as well as

secrete hormones, e.g., testes produce sperm and secrete testosterone
 Hormone
• It is a mediator molecule that is released in one part of the body but regulates
the activity of cells in other part of body.
• It regulates important body processes such as growth, reproduction & metabolism.
• Many hormones are derived from steroids that easily crosses the cell membrane

• Examples of steroid hormones

o Estrogen
o Progesterone
o Testosterone
o Cortisol
 Chemical classes of hormones
• Divided into 2 classes;
✓ Lipid soluble classes
✓ Water soluble classes
 Lipid soluble hormone
• It includes;
• Steroid hormone:
• These are derived from cholesterol.
• Structure similar to that of cholesterol.
• Adrenal glands: Cortisol & Aldosterone
• Ovaries: Estrogen & Progesterone
• Testes: Testosterone
 Lipid soluble hormone
• Thyroid hormone:
• T3 and T4 are synthesized from thyroid gland.

• Nitric Oxide:
• It is both hormone & neurotransmitter.
• It is synthesized by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase.
 Water soluble hormone
• It includes;
• Amino Hormones:
• These are synthesized from certain amino acids.
• E.g. Histamine is synthesized from Histidine by mast cells & platelets.
 Water soluble hormone
• Peptide & Protein hormones:
• Smaller peptide hormones consist of 3 to 49 amino acids.
• Larger protein hormone includes 50 to 200 amino acids.
• Peptide hormone: ADH & Oxytocin
• Protein hormones: Human growth hormone & Insulin
Endocrine
glands
 Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
Located in the brain just below the thalamus
Functions as part of both the nervous system and the endocrine system

Pituitary gland
Located in the brain at the end of the stalk from the hypothalamus.
Divided into 2 separate parts;
• Anterior pituitary (Anterior lobe)/Adenohypophysis:
• Posterior pituitary (Posterior lobe)/Neurohypophysis:
 Anterior pituitary
• It makes about 75 % of pituitary gland weight.
• It is made of 5 types of secretory cells.
• These five types of cells are responsible for production of seven hormones.
• The five different types of cells are;
❖ Somatotrophs
❖ Thymotrophs
❖ Gonadotrophs
❖ Lactotrophs
❖ Corticotrophs
 Anterior pituitary
• Somatotrophs: About 30-40% cells are somatotrophs.
• These cells are responsible for secretion of human growth hormone that stimulate
general body growth & regulate metabolism.

• Thyrotropes: About 5% cells are thymotrophs.

• These are responsible for secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone which controls the
activities of thyroid gland.
• secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH,- thyrotropin), which stimulates secretion
of thyroid hormone and growth of the thyroid gland.
 Anterior pituitary
• Gonadotrophs: About 4-5% cells are gonadotrophs.
• They secrete two hormones which are responsible for controlling sexual function.
✓ Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
✓ Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• They stimulate secretion of estrogens & progesterone and maturation of oocytes in
ovaries.
• They stimulate sperms production & secretion of testosterone in the testes.
 Anterior pituitary
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) helps regulate gamete (reproductive cells,
namely, ova and sperm) production in both sexes.
• In females, it stimulates growth and development of ovarian follicles, within which
the ova, or eggs, develop.
• It also promotes secretion of the hormone estrogen by the ovaries.
• In males, FSH is required for sperm production.
 Anterior pituitary
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) helps control sex hormone secretion in both sexes, among
other important actions in females.
• LH regulates ovarian secretion of the female sex hormones, estrogen and
progesterone.
• In males, the same hormone stimulates the interstitial cells of Leydig in the testes to
secrete the male sex hormone, testosterone.
• In females, LH is also responsible for ovulation (egg release) and luteinization
(formation of a hormone-secreting corpus luteum in the ovary following ovulation).
 Anterior pituitary
• Lactotrophs: About 3 to 5% cells are lactotrophs.
• They secrete prolactin which initiates milk production in the mammary gland.

• Corticotrophs: About 20 % cells are corticotrophs.

• They secrete two types of hormones:
• Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH):
• Stimulate the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids such as Cortisol.
• Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH):
• Stimulates the production of melanin by melanocytes in skin and hair.
Pituitary gland
 Posterior pituitary
• Posterior pituitary gland does not synthesize any hormones but it stores & release
two hormones which are synthesized by the hypothalamus.

• These two major hormones are;

❖ Oxytocin
❖Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin
 Oxytocin
• During & after delivery of a baby, oxytocin affects two
target tissues:
✓ Mother’s uterus
✓ Breasts
• During delivery it enhances the contraction of smooth muscle in the uterus.
• After delivery, it stimulates milk ejection from the mammary glands in response to the
mechanical stimulus provided by a suckling infant.
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• An antidiuretic hormone decreases urine production.
• ADH causes the kidneys to return more water to the blood, thus decreasing urine
volume.
• It is also called as Vasopressin.
 Pineal gland
Located between the two lobes of the thalamus
Secretes Melatonin- helps keep the body’s circadian rhythm in time with the light–
dark cycle.

Inhibition of growth & development of sex organs before puberty, by preventing

synthesis or release of gonadotropins.
 Diurnal (Circadian) Rhythm
➢ The secretion rates of many hormones rhythmically fluctuate up and down as a function of
time.
➢ The most common endocrine rhythm is the diurnal (“day–night”) or circadian (“around a day”)
rhythm, which is characterized by regular, repetitive oscillations in hormone levels that cycle once
every 24 hours.
 Thyroid gland
➢ An irregularly shaped gland that has two lobes connected by a thin bridge in
between (the isthmus)

➢ Located in the neck on either side of the trachea and across its anterior surface
Thyroid gland
 Thyroid gland
• Two thyroid hormones are secreted by thyroid gland,
• Tri-iodothyronine (T3)
• Thyroxine (T4)

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulate the secretion of thyroid hormones

• Its secretion (TSH) is controlled by hypothalamus through the release of Thyrotropin-
releasing hormone (TRH) & Thyrotropin- inhibiting hormone (TIH).
 Thyroid gland
• The gland is made up of large number of follicles called as thyroid follicles.
• The wall of each follicle consists of two types of cells.
• Follicular cells: These are present in the lumen of follicles and made up of cuboidal
epithelial cells.
• They secrete T3 and T4.
 Thyroid gland
• Para-follicular cells:
• These cells lies between follicles called as parafollicular cells or C (clear) cells
• They produce calcitonin hormone which maintain calcium homeostasis.
 Functions of thyroid hormone
✓ Increase in basal metabolic rate:
Thyroid hormone increase basal metabolic rate.
✓ Effect on growth:
T3 and T4 promotes growth in children, development of skeleton, growth of individuals
and mental growth (development of brain during fetal life).
Hypersecretion of thyroid hormone causes mental retardation in the children.
✓ Effect on carbohydrate, fat & protein metabolism:
Thyroid hormone stimulates protein synthesis, lipolysis and increases use of glucose for
ATP production.
 Functions of thyroid hormone
✓ Effect on cardiovascular system:
Thyroid hormone increase heart rate, cardiac contractility and cardiac output.
Also promotes vasodilation that leads to enhanced blood flow to organs.
✓ Effect on central nervous system:
Both increased and decreased concentration of thyroid hormones leads to alterations in the
mental states.
Low quantity causes mental sluggishness and high quantity causes anxiety and nervousness.
✓ Effects on reproductive system
Normal reproductive behaviour depends on normal levels of thyroid hormones.
Hypothyroidism is particularly associated with infertility.
 Parathyroid glands
 Four tiny glands
 Located on the posterior surface of the
thyroid gland, two on each lobe
 Parathyroid glands
• There are four small parathyroid glands, present at the
posterior surface of thyroid gland.
• Its weight is about 40 mg.
• Histologically, it contains two kinds of epithelial cells.
• Chief cells: produces parathyroid hormone (PTH).
• Oxyphil cell: its function is not known.
• PTH is the major regulator of calcium, magnesium & phosphate ions level in the blood.
• The result is elevated bone resorption, which releases calcium & phosphates into the blood.
 Calcitonin
• This hormone is secreted by the parafollicular or C-cells in the thyroid gland.

• It acts on bone & kidneys to reduce the blood calcium level when it is raised.

• It reduces the reabsorption of calcium from bones.

 Thymus gland
A pink gland with two lobes located in the thoracic cavity
posterior to the sternum
Large during childhood and puberty but shrinks during
adulthood
 Adrenal gland
Paired, triangular glands over the superior end of each
kidney.
Each gland has an outer layer (cortex) and an inner layer
(medulla).
Each layer functions independently of the other and
secretes its own hormones.
 Adrenal gland
• The paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands, lies on the top of kidney.

• It is divided into two parts;

• Adrenal cortex: 80 % of the gland, peripheral portion
• Adrenal medulla: 20 % of the gland, central portion

• Adrenal cortex: It is subdivided into 3 zones each of which secretes different

hormones.
 Adrenal gland
• Zona glomerulosa: Outer zone. secrete mineralocorticoid hormones (e.g. aldosterone).
• Zona fasciculata: Middle zone. secretes glucocorticoid hormone (e.g. cortisol).
• Zona reticularis: Inner zone. secrete steroid hormone androgens.

• Adrenal medulla: The inner region.

• It is made up of chromaffin cells.
• The two major hormones synthesized by adrenal medulla are;
• Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
• Norepinephrine (Noradrenalin)
 Mineralocorticoids
• Aldosterone:
• Aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoids.
• It regulates the balance of sodium & potassium ions and helps in regulating blood
pressure & blood volume.

• It also promotes excretion of hydrogen ions in the urine which can help in preventing
acidosis.
 Effects of glucocorticoids
• Protein breakdown:
• It increases the protein breakdown in muscle fibers, & causes liberation of amino
acids into the bloodstream.
• The amino acids are used for synthesis of new proteins.
• Glucose formation:
• GCs stimulates liver cells that convert certain amino acids to glucose which is used for
ATP production.
• Lipolysis:
• GCs stimulate lipolysis, the breakdown of TG and release of fatty acids into blood
circulation.
 Effects of glucocorticoids
• Anti-inflammatory effects:
• GCs are very useful in the treatment of rheumatic arthritis
• Depression of immune responses:
• High doses of GCs depress immune responses. For this reason, GCs are prescribed for
organ transplant therapy.
• Resistance to stress:
• GCs provides resistance to stress. It is used to combat a range of stresses, including
exercise, fasting, fright, temperature extremes, high altitude, bleeding, infection,
surgery, trauma, and disease.
 Sex hormone (Androgen)
• In both males and females, the adrenal cortex secretes small amounts of androgens.

• The major androgen secreted by the adrenal gland is dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).

• After puberty in males, the androgen testosterone is released from the testes.

In females adrenal androgens play important roles.

• They promote libido (sex drive) & are converted into estrogens (feminizing sex
steroids) by other body tissues.
• Adrenal androgens also stimulate growth of axillary and pubic hair in boys & girls.
 Pancreas
 Located posterior to the stomach
 In C – like duodenum
 Is both an endocrine and exocrine gland
 Pancreas
• Exocrine pancrea: About 99% of cells are arranged in clusters called as acini.
• The cells within the acini secrete a pancreatic juice.

• Endocrine pancrea: Remaining 1% of cells are arranged

into clusters called as Pancreatic islets.

• The cells secrete the hormone insulin, glucagon which is responsible for maintenance
of blood sugar level.
• Insulin lowers the blood sugar level whereas, glucagon increases the blood sugar level.
 Pancreatic cells
• It contains 4 types of hormone-secreting cells:
• Alpha or A cells: 17% of pancreatic islet cells and secretes glucagon.

• Beta or B cells: 70% of pancreatic islet cells and secretes insulin.

• Delta or D cells: 7% of pancreatic islet cells and secretes somatostatin.

• F cells: It secretes pancreatic polypeptide.

 Glucagon and insulin
• It is secreted from alpha cells of pancreatic islets.
• Action:
• It raises the blood glucose level by accelerating the breakdown of glucagon into
glucose in liver (glycogenolysis).

• It is secreted from beta cells of pancreatic islets.

• Action:
• It lowers the elevated blood glucose level by converting glucose into glycogen
(glycogenesis).
Somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide
Somatostatin
• It is secreted from delta cells of pancreatic islets, and inhibits secretion of Insulin &
Glucagon and slows absorption of nutrients from the GIT.

Pancreatic polypeptide
• It is secreted from F cells of pancreatic islets and inhibits secretion of somatostatin.
• It promotes secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes.
 Ovaries and testes
Ovaries
 Small, egg-shaped glands located in the pelvic cavity
Function as part of both the female reproductive
system and the endocrine system

Testes
➢ Male genital glands, located outside the body in the scrotum
 Ovaries and testes
• Gonads are the organs that produce gametes sperm in males and oocytes in females.

• Ovaries are paired oval bodies located in female pelvic cavity, produces steroid
hormones such as estrogens & progesterone.

• These female sex hormones, along with FSH and LH regulates the menstrual cycle,
maintain pregnancy, and prepare the mammary glands for lactation.
• They also promote enlargement of breasts & widening of hips at puberty and
maintain female secondary sex characteristics.
 Ovaries and testes
• The testes are oval glands that lies in the scrotum.

• They secretes testosterone hormone (male sex hormone).

• Testosterone stimulates production of sperm, and stimulates the development of

beard growth & deepening of the voice.
Study table 17.1: summary of major hormones
 Regulation of
thyroid hormone
secretion

• Stress, and cold in infants act on the

hypothalamus. Stress suppresses the
hypothalamus and cold in infants
stimulates the hypothalamus
 The secretion of cortisol
is regulated by the
hypothalamus-pituitary-
adrenal cortex axis
• ACTH from the anterior pituitary stimulates
the secretion of cortisol from the adrenal
cortex. ACTH secretion is triggered by CRH
from the hypothalamus.

• Negative feedback loops from cortisol in the

blood to the hypothalamus and the anterior
pituitary regulate the level of cortisol in the
blood.

• Increased output of CRH and ACTH increases

in response to stress.

• Cortisol secretion also varies by a diurnal

rhythm
 Endocrine disorders
• Endocrine disorders result from hormone excess or deficiency or decreased target-
cell responsiveness.

• Endocrine disorders most commonly result from abnormal plasma concentrations of

a hormone caused by inappropriate rates of secretion—that is, too little hormone
secreted (hyposecretion) or too much hormone secreted (hypersecretion).
 Endocrine disorders
• The responsiveness of a target cell can be varied by regulating the number of
hormone-specific receptors.

Down Regulation. Can be explained by: when the plasma concentration of insulin is
chronically elevated, the total number of target-cell receptors for insulin is gradually
reduced as a direct result of the effect a sustained elevation of insulin has on the insulin
receptors. This phenomenon, known as down regulation, constitutes an important
locally acting negative-feedback mechanism that prevents the target cells from
overreacting to a prolonged high concentration of insulin; that is, the target cells are
desensitized to insulin, helping blunt the effect of insulin hypersecretion.
 Permissiveness, synergism, antagonism
With permissiveness, one hormone must be present in adequate amounts for the full
exertion of another hormone’s effect. In essence, the first hormone, by enhancing a
target cell’s responsiveness to another hormone, “permits” this other hormone to exert
its full effect.

Synergism occurs when the actions of several hormones are complementary and their
combined effect is greater than the sum of their separate effects. An example is the
synergistic action of follicle-stimulating hormone and testosterone, both of which are
needed to maintain the normal rate of sperm production. Synergism results from each
hormone’s influence on the number or affinity (attraction) of receptors for the other
hormone.
 Permissiveness, synergism, antagonism
Antagonism occurs when one hormone causes the loss of another hormone’s
receptors, reducing the effectiveness of the second hormone. To illustrate,
progesterone (a hormone secreted during pregnancy that decreases contractions of the
uterus) inhibits uterine responsiveness to Estrogen (another hormone secreted during
pregnancy that increases uterine contractions).
Endocrine control of growth
Growth is signaled by the growth
hormone. There are other factors that
influence growth.
Growth capacity is genetically
determined. Adequate diet, freedom
from chronic disease and stress, and
normal levels of other growth-
influencing hormones are other
factors.
The growth hormone does not play a
role in fetal development. In children
there is a postnatal growth spurt. The
growth hormone may play a role in the
later-occurring pubertal growth spurt.
Androgens also contribute at this time.
FUNCTIONS:
• The growth hormone promotes growth by
signaling an increase in the number of cells
and size of cells in target organs. It stimulates
the uptake of amino acids and protein
synthesis in target cells.
• The growth hormone stimulates growth in the
length and thickness of long bones.
• It stimulates the lengthening of bones at the
epiphyseal plate. It stimulates osteoblast
activity and the proliferation of epiphyseal
cartilage. New bone tissue replaces cartilage
in this region.
• It stimulates bone thickness by activating
osteoblasts under the periosteum.
• It mobilizes fat stores as a major energy
source while conserving glucose for glucose-
dependent tissues. This metabolic action is
unrelated to growth.
 The growth hormone exerts its effects indirectly by
stimulating somatomedins
• These substances are also called insulin-like growth factors.
They are stimulated by the growth hormone and mediate
most of the growth-promoting effects of the hormone.
• The main source of these factors is the liver. Their production
depends on adequate nutrition. Their production is also
related to age.
• The secretion of the growth hormone is regulated by GHRH
and GHIH.
• Many factors influence the secretion of the growth hormone.
It increases one hour after a deep sleep. Exercise can
increase the secretion of the growth hormone. An abundance
of amino acids increases its release.
 Growth hormone disorders
• A hyposecretion produces dwarfism in a child. In Laron dwarfism, tissues fail to
respond to the growth hormone.
• In adults a growth hormone deficiency reduces muscle mass and strength.
• A hypersecretion of the growth hormone produces gigantism in the child.
• If hypersecretion occurs after the epiphyseal plates have closed, acromegaly
develops. Only certain bones are affected.
• Other hormones in addition to the growth hormone are essential for normal
growth. The thyroid hormone is essential for growth. Insulin is a growth
promoter. Androgens play a role in a pubertal growth spurt.
 Growth hormone disorders
• Pituitary gigantism:
• Hypersecretions of human growth hormone during childhood causes gigantism, an
abnormal increase in the length of long bones.
• The person grows very tall.
• Pituitary acromegaly:
• Hypersecretions of human growth hormone during adulthood causes acromegaly.
• At this age as the long bones are fused with the shaft the person cannot grow taller, but the
soft tissues continue to grow & bones grow in thickness.
 Other disorders of the endocrine system
Thyroid disorders:
• Cretinism:
• Hyposecretion of thyroid hormone during fetal life, infancy or childhood leads to cretinism.
• In absence of thyroid hormones, the skeleton fails to grow and mature, therefore it is the
characteristics of dwarfism.
 Other disorders of the endocrine system
• Myxedema:
• Hypothyroidism during the adult years produces Myxedema.
• It occurs five times more common in females than in males.
• Hallmark of this disorder is edema (accumulation of interstitial fluid) that causes the facial
tissues to swell & look puffy.
 Other disorders of the endocrine system
• Grave’s disease:
• Most common form of hyperthyroidism is Graves’s disease.
• It occurs 7 to 10 times more often in females than in males, usually before the age of 40.
• In this thyroid gland increases two or three times the normal size and produces more
amount of thyroid hormone.
• Graves’s patients often have a edema behind the eyes which causes the eyes to protrude.
 Other disorders of the endocrine system
• Goiter:
• A goiter is simply an enlargement of thyroid gland.
• It may be associated with hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism or euthyroidism which means
normal secretion of thyroid hormone.
Other disorders of the endocrine system
 Other disorders of the endocrine system
Adrenal gland disorders:
• Cushing syndrome:
• Hypersecretions of cortisol by adrenal cortex produces Cushing syndrome.
• The causes include a tumour of the adrenal gland that secrete cortisol.
 Other disorders of the endocrine system
• Addison’s disease:
• Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone causes Addison’s disease.
• Low aldosterone level leads to elevated potassium and decreased sodium level in the blood,
low blood pressure, dehydration, decreased cardio output and even cardiac arrest.
END OF CHAPT ER