Endocrine Glands And

Hormones

By- Viral Tiwari

Endocrine Glands And Hormones

Introduction

An ecosystem is all about the interaction and

dependency between living and non-living components.
This interaction ensures the existence and survival of
each organism. For better interaction, they need a well-
defined coordinating system. Animals and plants have
their own control and coordination mechanisms within
their bodies. Let us see how endocrine glands help in
chemical coordination in animals.
Endocrine Gland – An overview

• Animals including humans have a complex living system. In the

case of animals, they have the nervous system and endocrine
system for control and coordination. The Endocrine System is
responsible for chemical coordination. Numerous involuntary
physiological activities are under the control of the endocrine
system. It consists of glands which release hormones. Endocrine
glands are also called ductless glands. Hormones play a vital
role in various activities in the body including growth and
development. They also support the nervous system.
• Endocrine glands in animals are the hypothalamus, the pituitary
gland, the pineal gland, the thyroid, the parathyroid, the
thymus, the pancreas, the adrenal gland and the gonads
Hypothalamus

• This gland is a part of the brain that consists of

neurosecretory cells. They connect both the nervous
and the endocrine system. The hypothalamus secretes
various releasing hormones like gonadotropin-releasing
hormones and growth hormone-releasing hormones.
These hormones act on the pituitary gland to stimulate
other glands.
What is Hypothalamus?

• Hypothalamus is a minute region, almost the size of an

almond, present at the centre of the human brain, near
the pituitary gland.
• It consists of three main regions:
• The anterior region.
• The middle region.
• The posterior region.
• It plays a vital role in the production of hormones.
Maintaining the hypothalamus health is very important.
Its improper functioning causes several disorders.
Structure of Hypothalamus
• The structure of hypothalamus is made up of three main
regions:
• Anterior region
• Middle region
• Posterior region
Anterior Region

1.The anterior region is also known as the supraoptic region.

2.It regulates body temperature and maintains the circadian rhythm.
3.There are several small nuclei in the hypothalamus. The major hypothalamic
nuclei include supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei.
4.The nuclei in this region are involved in the hormone secretion.
• Following are the hormones secreted by the anterior region of the hypothalamus:
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
• Oxytocin
• Vasopressin
• Somatostatin
Middle Region
1.This is known as the tuberal region.
2.It consists of ventromedial and arcuate nuclei.
3.The ventromedial nuclei control the appetite, whereas the arcuate nuclei
secrete the growth hormone responsible for the growth and development of
the body.

• Posterior Region

1.This region is also known as the mammillary region.

2.The major nuclei include posterior hypothalamic nucleus and mammillary
nuclei.
3.The posterior hypothalamic nuclei cause shivering and blockage of sweat
and thus regulates the body temperature.
4.The mammillary nuclei, on the contrary, are believed to be involved in the
memory function.
 Functions of Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus contains osmotic sensors that react to the
concentration of sodium, potassium, carbon dioxide, and chloride. When
the blood pressure is very low these osmotic sensors and baroreceptors
intimate the kidneys to store or release water to maintain the
concentration of these substances.
• Following are the important functions of the hypothalamus:
• Its main function is maintaining the body’s internal balance- homeostasis.
• It also connects the endocrine and the nervous system.
• Hypothalamus stimulates or inhibits many of the body’s activities in order
to maintain homeostasis, such as regulating body temperature, appetite
and body weight, heart rate and blood pressure, etc.

• It is involved in many essential functions of the body, including:

1.Childbirth.
2.Emotions.
3.Sleep cycles.
4.Balancing body fluids.
5.Appetite and thirst control.
Hormones Secreted by Hypothalamus
• The anterior region of the hypothalamus is responsible for hormone
secretion. The nuclei present in this region lead the process. The important
hormones secreted by hypothalamus are:

1.Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone: This hormone is responsible for the

regulation of metabolic and immune response.
2.Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone: It triggers the pituitary gland to
release a thyroid-stimulating hormone which plays a major role in the
functioning of organs of the body such as heart, muscles, etc.
3.Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone: It stimulates the pituitary gland to
release several reproductive hormones.
4.Oxytocin: It is involved in several processes such as lactation, childbirth,
regulating sleep cycles, maintaining body temperature.
5.Somatostatin: This hormone is also known as Growth Hormone Inhibiting
Hormone. It regulates the endocrine system and affects the
neurotransmission and cell proliferation by interacting with G-protein
coupled receptors
Oxytocin
• Oxytocin is a peptide hormone, released during childbirth and lactation. In
females, it is mainly involved in stimulating the growth of prostaglandins,
increasing the contractions of the muscles of the uterus, reduces the excess
blood flow post-childbirth, promotes milk movement into the mammary
glands. In males, oxytocin helps in the production of testosterone and aids in
the movement of sperm. It also plays a role in social behaviour and various
aspects around it

Functions Of Oxytocin

• Affects gland growth.

• Acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain.
• Stimulates contractility of the epididymis, prostate gland, and seminiferous
tubules.
• Oxytocin plays a role in maternal and sexual behaviour, memory-related,
yawning, feeding, thermoregulation and cardiovascular regulation.
• Stimulates uterine muscle contractions. During childbirth, fetal-ejection reflex
produces oxytocin, which causes contractions of muscles of the uterus.
ADH- Anti-diuretic Hormone
• ADH, also known as arginine vasopressin, is a hormone produced
by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland. It
is made up of special nerve cells found at the base of the
hypothalamus. The hormone is transported to the pituitary gland
via axons, where it is released into the bloodstream. It regulates
and balances the amount of water in the blood.

Functions Of ADH
• It acts on the kidneys and the blood vessels and functions to
control the blood pressure. Higher concentrations of ADH constrict
the blood vessels which increases the blood pressure.
• It allows the water in the urine to be taken back in a specific area in
the kidney and thus reduces the amount of water excreted through
the urine thereby conserving the volume of the fluid in the body.
• It is mainly responsible for homeostasis
Hypothalamic Disorders
• Every hormone should be secreted at accurate levels.
Very high or very low secretions can lead to
hypothalamic disorders. Hypothalamic disorders can be
due to the following problems:
• Head injuries
• Genetic disorders
• Tumours in the hypothalamus
• Disorders in eating
• Brain surgeries
• Autoimmune disorders
Pituitary Gland
• The Pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis, is a
pea-sized endocrine gland situated at the base of our
brain. It is often referred to as the ‘Master Gland’
because it produces some of the important hormones in
the body. It is situated in a bony structure called the
Pituitary fossa, just below the hypothalamus, close to
the optic nerve. The pituitary gland is divided into three
parts, also called lobes:

• Anterior pituitary
• Intermediate pituitary (Absent in adult human beings)
• Posterior pituitary
Anterior Pituitary Hormones

• The anterior pituitary is responsible for the synthesis and

secretion of several key hormones in the body. These
hormones include:
• Human Growth Hormone (HGH): Responsible for the
growth and repair of all cells in the body.
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Influences the
thyroid gland for the release of thyroxine, its own
hormone. TSH is also called Thyrotropin.
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Influences the
adrenal gland to release of Cortisol or the “stress
hormone”. ACTH is also known as corticotropin
• Luteinising Hormone (LH) and Follicle-Stimulating
Hormone (FSH): Collectively known as Gonadotropins,
LH and FSH control the sexual and reproductive
characteristics in males and females.
• Prolactin (PRL): Produces milk in the breast. Though it
is present at all times, the secretion is increased during
and just after pregnancy.
• Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH): Involved
in the stimulation of the production of melanin by skin
and hair
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
• The posterior pituitary is responsible for the storage and
secretion of two very important hormones:
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Controls the water balance
of the body by affecting reabsorption of water by the
kidneys
• Oxytocin: Controls certain aspects of pregnancy and
childbirth such as uterine contraction and production of milk.

Pituitary disorders
• Pituitary disorders affect the functioning of the pituitary
gland, increasing or decreasing the level of certain hormone
secretion. This generally happens because of a non-
cancerous tumour called the pituitary adenoma
Pineal Gland
• It is a pinecone-shaped small gland located in the middle of the human
brain in between the two hemispheres in an area called epithalamus. It was
once known as “the third eye”. It is the major site for melatonin secretion,
which regulates the body’s internal clock (Circadian rhythm).
• This gland is rich in calcium levels. The calcium acts as a radiographer to
locate the middle of the brain in X-ray images. It was also one of the last
glands to be discovered.
Anatomy of Pineal Gland
• The pineal gland is about 0.3 inches long and weighs 0.1
grams. The adrenergic nerves entering the pineal gland
regulate its functions.
• The pineal gland is composed of pinealocytes and supporting
cells that resemble the astrocytes present in the brain.
• Some lower vertebrates have a well-developed eye-like
structure that acts as a light receptor
Hormones Secreted by Pineal Gland– Melatonin
• The pineal gland synthesises melatonin and serotonin, hence they
are also called as the Pineal Gland Hormone. The pineal gland also
produces neurosteroids.
• Serotonin is the precursor of melatonin. Serotonin is acetylated
and methylated to yield melatonin within the pineal gland. The
light exposure to the eyes affects the synthesis and secretion of
melatonin.
• Two melatonin receptors have been found in mammals- Mel1A and
Mel1B. These are G-protein coupled cell surface receptors.
• Melatonin affects circadian rhythm.
• Our circadian rhythm is a 24-hour biological cycle, characterised by
the sleep-wake patterns. The daylight and darkness regulate our
circadian rhythms. The secretion of melatonin is stopped on
exposure to light which in turn controls the circadian rhythm. The
secretion of melatonin is high during dark and low during daylight.
This influences our reaction to photoperiod.
Functions Of Pineal Gland

• Secretion Of Melatonin
• This gland secretes the hormone melatonin which regulates the
circadian rhythm of the body and also certain reproductive
hormones. The secretion of this hormone depends upon the
amount of light a person is exposed to. This hormone is produced
in large amounts when it is dark. The presence of light inhibits
the secretion of melatonin which controls our circadian rhythms.
• Cardiovascular Health
• The melatonin secretion has a positive impact on the heart and
blood pressure. It may also be used for the treatment of
cardiovascular diseases.
• Reproduction
• Melatonin inhibits the secretion of reproductive hormones from
the anterior pituitary, which are responsible for the development
and functioning of reproductive organs.
Disorders Of Pineal Gland

• Listed below are few disorders caused by the malfunctioning of the pineal
gland.
1.Depression.
2.Mood swings.
3.Peptic or stomach ulcers.
4.Disruption in sleep patterns.
5.An impaired pineal gland leads to hormonal imbalance.
6.Sexual disorders are caused by the dysfunctioning of the pineal gland.
• Other disorders include:
• Low melatonin secretion also leads to anxiety, low thyroid hormone
production, menopause symptoms, etc.
• Over secretion of melatonin can lead to low blood pressure and improper
functioning of the thyroid glands and adrenal glands.
• Seasonal affective disorders of pineal gland include a depressive disorder.
This disorder is mainly caused in the winter season when melatonin
secretion is high due to the presence of low sunlight.
Thyroid Gland

• The thyroid gland is a ductless endocrine gland situated

in the anterior/front portion of the neck. It roughly
resembles the shape of a butterfly. It is also one of the
largest endocrine glands, weighing an average of 25 –
30 g. This gland has two lobes on either side of the
trachea, with each lobe measuring 4 – 6 cm in length
and 1.3 – 1.8 cm in width.

• The primary function of the thyroid gland is to secrete

two hormones, namely, Triiodothyronine (T3) hormone
and the Thyroxine hormone (T4). Both T3 and T4
hormones play a very important role and affect almost
every tissue in the body.
 Thyroid Gland Location

The thyroid gland is located in the anterior neck

between C5 and T1 vertebrae. It consists of two
lobes and parathyroid glands are present on
their posterior surfaces.
Thyroid Hormones
• There are two thyroid hormones:
• T4: Thyroxine (Tetraiodothyronine)
• T3: Triiodothyronine
• T4
• Thyroxine is a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland in
the bloodstream. It then travels to the organs such as
kidneys and liver where it gets converted into and gets
converted into its active form triiodothyronine.
• T3
• It is a thyroid hormone that affects physiological
processes such as growth, development, metabolism,
etc.
Thyroid Symptoms

• Sometimes, symptoms of a thyroid disorder are not very obvious.

This is because there are various other factors that can induce
similar symptoms and usually, the treatment is given according to
the symptoms. For instance, excessive tiredness may be
associated with sleep apnea, narcolepsy etc, but the underlying
symptoms may actually be thyroid related. Some of the common
symptoms of the thyroid are:
• Nervousness
• Poor concentration and knowledge retention
• Change in the menstrual cycle
• Increased heart rate
• Muscle aches
• Weight gain
• High level of cholesterol
 Thyroid Gland Disorders
• The thyroid gland is susceptible to many disorders and diseases. These problems
might be due to the excess secretion of hormones, unusual growth of the gland,
malignant lumps etc. Also, scientists have theorized a relationship between stress and
thyroid health. i.e., stress may actually aggravate the underlying thyroid condition.
Some of the common thyroid problems are:

Goitre
• It is an excessive enlargement of the thyroid gland often obstructing the oesophagus
or other organs in the neck and chest by causing difficulty to eat and breathe.

Thyroid cancer
• It is a very common form of cancer. However, the chances of survival for a thyroid
cancer patient is quite high compared to other forms of cancer. There are four types of
thyroid cancer, namely:
1.Papillary thyroid cancer
2.Follicular thyroid cancer
3.Medullary cancer
4.Anaplastic thyroid cancer
Hyperthyroidism

• This condition is caused when thyroid glands excessively

produce a hormone called thyroxine. The symptoms include a
change in appetite, unexpected weight loss, insomnia,
fatigue, irritability, frequent urination, increased sweating and
heat intolerance. But this condition usually resolves within a
few months of relevant treatments and proper medication.

Hypothyroidism
• This condition is caused by the under-secretion of the thyroid
hormones. It is a very common problem and often stays
undetected for years. One of the main reasons that trigger
hypothyroidism is an autoimmune disorder called Hashimoto’s
disease. In this condition, the antibodies produced by the
body attack the thyroid gland and this results in the glands
producing fewer hormones.
Introduction
• Parathyroid hormone is secreted by the four parathyroid
glands. These tiny glands are present in the neck behind
the thyroid glands. Parathyroid hormone controls and
regulates the levels of calcium in the blood and raises their
levels when they are too low. This gland performs its
function through its actions on the bones, intestines, and
kidneys.

• There are two main types of Parathyroid hormone:

1.Parathormone
2.Calcitonin
• The primary purpose of parathyroid glands is to regulate
calcium in the blood in a very strict range between 9.0
and 10.1 mg/dL. Parathyroids also manage the amount
of calcium in the bones and determine their strength.
• Bones – The parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulates the
release of calcium from stores of calcium present in the
bones into the bloodstream.
• Intestine – PTH increases the calcium absorption in the
intestine by food through its impacts and affects the
metabolism of vitamin D.
• Kidneys – PTH minimizes the calcium loss in the urine
and also stimulates active vitamin D formation in the
kidneys.
Pancreas
• Pancreas is an abdominal organ located behind the
stomach and surrounded by spleen, liver and small
intestine. It is a vital part of the digestive system and is
responsible for regulating blood sugar levels.

• The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes such as

amylase, proteases and lipase into the duodenum.
These enzymes help in digesting sugar, proteins and fat
respectively. Islets of Langerhans are embedded in the
pancreas that secretes hormones such as insulin and
glucagon into the blood.
 Pancreas Location
• The pancreas is located in the abdomen. A part of it is placed
between the stomach and the spine. The other part finds its
place in the curve of the first section of the small intestine,
known as the duodenum.
• The head of the pancreas is on the right side of the abdomen
and is connected to the duodenum through the pancreatic
duct. The tail of the pancreas extends to the left side of the
body.
Pancreatic Diseases

• Due to the inaccessibility of pancreas, the evaluation of

pancreatic diseases could be difficult.
• Disorders that affect the pancreas include precancerous
conditions, pancreatitis, and pancreatic cancer. Each disorder
exhibits different symptoms and needs different treatments.
• Pancreatitis
• Pancreatitis is swelling when the pancreatic enzyme is secreted
and begins to digest the organ itself. It could exist as painful
attacks or a chronic condition that lasts for years.
Pancreas Function
• Exocrine Function
• The pancreas consists of exocrine glands that produce
enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin that are essential for
digestion. These enzymes contain chymotrypsin and trypsin
to digest proteins, amylase for the digestion of
carbohydrates and lipase to break down fats. These
pancreatic juices are liberated into the system of ducts and
culminated in the pancreatic duct when the food enters the
stomach.
• Endocrine Function
• The endocrine part of the pancreas comprises Islets of
Langerhans that release insulin and glucagon directly into
the bloodstream. They help in regulating the blood sugar
levels of the body.
Adrenal Glands

• Adrenal glands have two regions known as the adrenal cortex

and adrenal medulla.

• The cortex region of the adrenal gland secretes the hormones

cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens while the medulla region
secretes the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Adrenaline is the hormone responsible for the fight or flight
response of the body in times of emergency.
Adrenal Gland Location
• The Adrenal Glands are found on top of each kidney. Even the name
“Adrenal” directly refers to their location: (Latin: ad– “near” and renes –
“kidneys.”) These glands are also known as suprarenal glands.
(Latin: supra – “above” and renes – “kidneys.”)
Adrenal Gland Anatomy
• As stated in the introduction, the human body has two adrenal glands, the
right gland is pyramidal in shape and the left gland is semilunar in shape.
• The left adrenal gland is also comparatively larger than the right.
• The glands are usually about 5×3 cm in size and their combined weight
ranges from 7 to 10 grams. Healthy glands are yellowish in colour.
Adrenal Capsule
• The capsule is a protective layer of fat that surrounds each adrenal glands. They are not
strictly a part of the adrenal glands, but the primary function of this capsule layer is to
enclose and protect each of the adrenal glands.

Adrenal Cortex
• The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal gland which is devoted to the
production of aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens hormones. There are three layers of
cortex called zones which can be examined and easily differentiated under a microscope:

• Zona glomerulosa – It secretes mineralocorticoids like aldosterone

• Zona fasciculata – It is responsible for producing corticosteroids like cortisol. Also

secrets small quantities of androgens (such as testosterone and androstenedione)

• Zona reticularis – It produces DHES or dehydroepiandrosterone (also called

androstenolone)
Adrenal Medulla
• The last and innermost part of the adrenal gland is the medulla. It contains the
Chromaffin cells, which produce the body’s main source of catecholamines (such as
adrenaline and noradrenaline) and endorphins. These are stored and released in
response to stress.

Adrenal Gland Hormones

• Epinephrine: Also called adrenaline, this hormone rapidly responds to stress by

increasing the heart rate and raising blood glucose levels in the blood.
• Norepinephrine: Also called noradrenaline, this hormone works with epinephrine in
reacting to stress. Its primary function is to mobilize the body and brain for action.
• Hydrocortisone: It is commonly known as cortisol or a steroid hormone. It is involved
in regulating body functions like the conversion of fats, and carbohydrates to energy and
also plays a vital role in other metabolic processes.
• Corticosterone: This hormone works with hydrocortisone to control the immune
response and prevents inflammatory reactions.
Adrenal Gland Disorders
• Adrenal Gland disorders appear when not enough hormones or inadequate
hormones are produced by the adrenal glands. Even abnormal growths or tumours
can cause certain illness.

• Cushing’s Syndrome is a condition where the cortisol levels in the body are very
high. The cause can be a tumour in the adrenal gland or the pituitary gland.
• Adrenocortical carcinoma is a cancerous tumour that usually develops in the
outer layer of the adrenal gland. This type of tumour is typically found years after
they have spread to other organs in the body.
• Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) is a genetic disorder characterized by
very low levels of cortisol production. The people inflicted with this condition may
also have other hormonal imbalances where their bodies may make very little
aldosterone, but too much androgen.
• Addison’s Disease is caused when adrenal glands produce insufficient cortisol or
aldosterone. It results in weakness, fatigue, low blood pressure, nausea, etc. In 70%
of cases, Addisone disease is caused due to autoimmune disorder, where the body
mistakenly attacks the adrenal glands. As a result, the adrenal gland does not
produce the hormone aldosterone in sufficient quantities.
Gonads
• Gonads are reproductive glands present in males and females. The
male gonad is the pair of testes which secretes the hormone
testosterone. This is responsible for the secondary sexual
characteristics in males. The female gonad consists of a pair of
ovaries. They secrete two hormones estrogen and progesterone.
Both of these regulate secondary sexual characteristics in females

Gonads: Sex Hormones

• Being a component of Endocrine system, both male and female
gonads generate sex hormones. The sex hormones are steroid
hormones and can pass through the cell membrane of their target
cells. Gonadal hormones are regulated by hormones secreted by the
pituitary gland in the brain. Hormones that are responsible for
stimulating the gonads to produce sex hormones are called
gonadotropins. The gonadotropins called luteinizing hormone (LH)
and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are secreted by the pituitary.
• The tests are stimulated by the LH to secrete the sex hormone
testosterone and ovaries to secrete estrogens and progesterone. The
FSH is involved in the maturation of ovarian follicles (sacs that contain
ova) in females and production of sperm in males

Male Gonad Hormones

Androgens are hormones that majorly influence the development of the

male reproductive system.
• Testosterone is responsible and essential for increased growth of
bone and muscle, growth of body hair, developing broader shoulder,
voice deepening and growth of the penis.
• Androstenedione – These are the hormones that act as a precursor
to estrogens and testosterone.
• Inhibin – These hormones inhibit the release of FSH and thought to be
involved in sperm cell regulation and development.
 Female Gonad Hormones
• The major hormones of the ovaries are progesterone and
estrogens.
• Estrogens – It is a group of female sex hormones essential
for reproduction and the development of the female
reproductive system. Estrogens are responsible for
maturation and growth of the vagina and uterus, widening of
pelvis, breast and the uterus changes during the menstrual
cycle, and increasing growth of hairs on the body.
• Progesterone – These are the hormones whose function is
to prepare the uterus for conception, regulating changes in
the uterus during the Menstrual cycle, ovulation aids, and
stimulating gland development for the production of milk
during pregnancy.
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