MODAL VERBS

LOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS
I'm certain/sure that sth is true
MUST
He must be Tom’s son. He looks just like him.
I'm certain/sure that sth is NOT true
CAN'T, COULDN'T
That can’t / couldn’t be Sue over there. She’s in Paris on business.

POSSIBILITY
general possibility
CAN + pres. inf.
The streets can get very slippery when it rains.
it's possible/likely (in a specific situation); perhaps:
COULD, MAY, MIGHT + If it gets colder tomorrow, it could / may /might snow.
pres. inf. NOTE: In questions, we use can, could or might but not may:
I can’t find him. Where can/could/might he have gone?
refers to the past – it was possible but it didn't happen
COULD, MIGHT + perf. inf. He drove carelessly yesterday. He might have had an accident but
luckily he didn’t.

OBLIGATION – DUTY – NECESSITY

you are obliged to do sth, the speaker decides that sth is necessary:
MUST
I must complete this project by Monday.
it is necessary to do sth (sb else has decided):
HAVE TO
The manager told me that I have to complete this project by Monday.
Must - do you insist that:
MUST ↔ HAVE TO Must I do this HW now?
in questions Have to – is it necessary for me to do it:
Do I have to do this HW now?
duty (less emphatic than must):
SHOULD, OUGHT TO
Shop assistants should/ought to be polite to the customers.
it is necessary to:
NEED Need I call the doctor today?
(She doesn’t need to = needn’t go shopping this week.)

ABSENCE OF NECESSITY
present/future – it isn’t necessary to do sth:
NEEDN’T, DON’T HAVE
You needn’t/don’t have to/don’t need to take a taxi. I’ll drive you to the
TO + pres. inf. airport.
DIDN’T NEED TO, it wasn’t necessary to do sth:
DIDN’T HAVE TO He didn’t need to/didn’t have to stay in a hotel.

NEEDN’T + perf. inf. it wasn’t necessary to do sth, but it was done

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 You needn’t have asked Tom to help you. You can do it by yourself.

PROHIBITION
MUSTN’T, CAN’T it is forbidden to do sth:
You mustn’t / can’t park your car here. (It’s against the law.)

CRITICISM
COULD, SHOULD,
it would have been better if you had (past), but you didn’t…
MIGHT, OUGHT TO +
She could/should/might/ought to have called the police. (But she didn’t.)
perf. inf.
COULD, SHOULD,
it would be better if (present)
MIGHT, OUGHT TO +
You could/should/might/ought to tell me if you’re going to be late.
pres. inf.

. . .

MODAL VERBS - EXERCISES

I. Study the examples and then write the second sentence by using a modal verb.

I'm sure he comes from Italy. present

Perhaps he will cook dinner. infinitive
It's possible that she is having a party
present
tonight.
continuous
Perhaps she'll be having a party
infinitive
tomorrow.
I’m sure he didn’t receive the message.
Perhaps they have won first prize. perfect
It’s possible that she had visited a infinitive
friend.
I’m certain she was studying.
perfect
Perhaps she has been shopping.
continuous
It’s likely that they had been watching
infinitive
TV.

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II. Complete the sentences using must, have to, may, might, could or can't, as in the example.
1. Perhaps Tom will work late tonight.
Tom may/might work late tonight.
2. It's possible that Mary is trying to call us.
Mary might be trying to call us.
3. The students are obliged to finish the test in one hour.
The students have to finish the test in one hour.
4. It's possible that Mum is working in the garden.
Mum might be working in the garden.
5. I'm sure Rachel is hungry.
Rachel must be hungry.
6. Perhaps Dad will take us out to dinner.
Dad may take us out to dinner.
7. I'm sure Lucy hasn't reached the station yet.
Lucy couldn’t have reached the station yet.
8. It is necessary for Grandma to take her medication every morning.
Grandma has to take her medication every morning.
9. It's likely that they have gone to the supermarket.
They might have gone to the supermarket.
10. I'm certain Bob didn't leave the party early.
Bob couldn’t have left the party early.

III. Fill in the gaps with must, mustn't or needn't/don't have to, as in the example.

1. A: You needn't/don't have to do the washing up. I'll do it.

B: Thanks, Mum.

2. A: Paul must go to the dentist more often.

B: I know. His teeth are in terrible condition.

3. A: If we want to see the beginning of the film, we must leave now.

B: Alright. I'm ready.

4. A: You mustn’t speak with your mouth full.

B: I know. It's very rude.

5. A: Shall I mow the lawn?

B: No, you don’t have to. I did it earlier.

6. A: Must I walk the dog now?

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 B: Yes, it'll be dark in half an hour.

7. A: John and I are going to the theatre on Friday night.

B: You don’t have to get a baby-sitter. I'll take care of the children for you.

8. A: You mustn’t forget to post those letters.

B: I'll post them on my way to work.

IV. Tick/colour the correct sentence.

1. a) You can't have called a taxi. I would have driven you to the station.
b) You needn't have called a taxi. I would have driven you to the station.
2. a) Robert can't be very talented. He plays the piano, the violin and the flute.
b) Robert must be very talented. He plays the piano, the violin and the flute.
3. a) If Jane sings well in the competition, she might win a prize.
b) If Jane sings well in the competition, she couldn't win a prize.
4. a) You must go to the bank. I can lend you some money.
b) You don't need to go to the bank. I can lend you some money.
5. a) Terry looks tired. He must have been studying all night.
b) Terry looks tired. He mustn’t have been studying all night.

V. Tick/ colour the correct item.

1. Dan can't be a teacher.
a) I'm sure Dan isn't a teacher.
b) I think Dan isn't a teacher.
2. Need I take the tablets every day?
a) Is it a good idea to take the tablets every day?
b) Is it necessary to take the tablets every day?
3. You needn't have bought me flowers.
a) You bought me flowers.
b) You didn't buy me flowers.
4. If it is hot tomorrow, we might go to the beach.
a) We will definitely go to the beach tomorrow.
b) It is possible that we will go to the beach tomorrow.

5. You ought to have apologised to Mary.

a) You apologised to Mary.
b) You didn't apologise to Mary.

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6. You mustn't steal.
a) It is against the law to steal.
b) It isn't necessary to steal.
7. Alison has to work on Saturday. Her boss told her so.
a) Alison wants to work on Saturday.
b) Alison's boss wants her to work on Saturday.
8. Sam must have finished lunch by now.
a) I'm sure Sam has finished lunch.
b) I'm sure Sam hasn't finished lunch.

VI. Choose the correct item.

1. Ben is very rude. He __________ have talked to Sarah that way.
A could B shouldn't C mustn't
2. It's very late. The children __________ be sleeping.
A must B can't C shouldn't
3. We __________ finish the project by Friday or else we'll lose the client.
A might B needn't C have to
4. You __________ made anything for the party. I have plenty of food.
A needn't have B needn't C mustn't
5. The north of England __________ get very cold during the winter.
A may B can C could
6. You __________ write and thank everyone for the birthday presents they gave you.
A shouldn't B need C ought to
7. John isn't at home. He __________ be at the gym.
A might B couldn't C can't
8. Susan has a broken leg. She __________ gone skiing.
A can't have B couldn't C may
9. It's your own fault you crashed the car. You __________ been driving so fast.
A might not have B may not have C shouldn't have
10. Mandy: __________ I call David now? - - Bob: Yes, he said it was an emergency.
A Need B Needn't C Could
11. That __________ be Eve on the phone. She doesn't know our new number.
A mustn't B needn't C can't
12. Lucy: Why are Bob and Moira late? - - Bill: Well, they __________ missed the 5 o'clock bus.
A could have been B might have C should

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13. You __________ bring your tent with you. We can both sleep in mine.
A need B don't need to C needn't have
14. You __________ have brought so many jumpers. I could have lent you some of mine.
A needn't B couldn't C didn't need to
15. Diana must __________ the stage props all night. She looks extremely tired.
A be preparing B have been preparing C have prepared

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 WORD FORMATION

To form new words, we ad certain:

 prefixes – syllables put at the beginning of words
 suffixes – syllables put at the end of words
However, there are no certain rules to follow to form one word from another.

Prefixes

Prefixes with some meaning

prefix meaning example prefix meaning example
anti- against antinuclear pre- before, in prejudge
bi- two bilingual pro- advance pro-american
co- with cooperation re- in favour of rearrange
de- acting against decomposition semi- again semicircle
ex- before, former ex-general sub- half subconscious
inter- between intermediate super- under supernatural
mono- one monolingual trans- above transatlantic
non- not non-stop tri- across tricycle
over- too much overeat under- three underestimate
post- after postgraduate uni- not enough unicycle
one

Prefixes with negative or opposite state or process

prefi example prefix example
x
un- unbelievable ir- (before r) irresistible
im- impossible il- (before I) illegal
mal- malfunction dis- disagree
in- incompetent

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 Suffixes

Nouns derived from verbs

suffix example suffix example suffix example
-ion confuse - confusion -age break - breakage -y injure – injury
-tion direct – direction -ance annoy - annoyance -sis analyse - analysis
-ation organise – organisation -ence prefer - preference -al propose – proposal
-sion suspend – suspension -ment amuse - amusement

Nouns derived from adjectives

suffix example suffix example suffix example
-ion desperate – desperation -ance tolerant - tolerance -ity popular - popularity
-iness happy - happiness -ence obedient - obedience -ty royal - royalty
-cy fluent – fluency -ment content - contentment -y honest – honesty

Adjectives derived from verbs Verbs derived from adjectives/nouns

suffix example suffix example
-ive decide – decisive -en dark - darken, strong - strengthen,
-able bear - bearable fright – frighten, length - lengthen

Sufixes with some meaning

suffi meaning example suffix meaning example
x
-ee passive meaning employee -ish a) with the quality of childish
-er with active meaning employer b) rather smallish
-ful a) with careful -less without careless
b) indicates quantity spoonful -proof safe against waterproof

Sufixes to describe people

suffix position example
-ar, -er, - or to the end of the verbs lie - liar, rob - robber, create – creator
-ist, -ian to the end of nouns or verbs type - typist, music - musician

Word class recognition

NOUN -ion, -ance, -ence, -ment, -ness, -y, -cy, -al, -ist, -ian, -ar/or/er, -ee…
ADJECTIVE -able, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less, -proof, -ish, -ed/-ing…

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 VERB -en, -ify, -ise…
ADVERB -ly…

WORD FORMATION - exercises

I. Make nouns from the following words.

employ Employment instruct instruction lonely Loneliness

inspire Inspiration portray Portrayal reluctant Reluctance
post Postage translate Translation excellent Excellence
except exception injure injury intelligent intelligence
expand expansion refer reference accurate accuracy
publish Publication apologize apology excited excitement
accept acceptance examine Examination fragile fragility
develop development pollute pollution regular regularity
combine combination judge judgment stupid stupidity
drive driver use usage isolate isolation

II. Fill in the right form of the words in brackets.

The 1) length (long) of the journey was beginning to cause a lot of 2) frustration (frustrate) for
everyone involved. Unfortunately, father got the blame, as he had been responsible for the
3) organization (organise) of the trip. 4) impatience (impatient) had begun to set in when we realised
we'd been given the wrong 5) directions(direct) by a well-meaning pedestrian. What is more, father's
6) popularity (popular) was not 7) increased (increase) by his 8) insistence (insist) that we stop every
hour or so to observe the scenery. The trip to France, he'd said, would 9) broaden (broad) our
horizons and provide us with both 10) amusement (amuse) and 11) education (educate). However, in
12) reality (real), it turned out to be an 13) unbearable (bear) waste of time and effort. It was then
that we made the 14) decision (decide) never to listen to one of father's 15) proposials (propose)
again.

III. Add the correct prefixes to the beginning of the words.

1. The anti-government protesters marched to parliament.
2. John overslept and was late for work.
3. Many people who wanted tickets were disappointed because the organisers had underestimated
the singer's popularity.
4. He is taking a northatlantic flight from London to New York.
5. When the ambulance came, the man was unconscious after being knocked down by a car.
6. The ex-president of the United States was honoured at a ceremony, five years after he resigned.
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7. People who can only speak their own language are called monolingual.
8. Superman is a comic strip character who has superhuman strength.
9. There were violent scenes as pro-government and anti-government demonstrators fought
outside parliament.
10. Inter-racial fighting between the two minorities had led to civil war in the country.
11. John left his job because he was unable to deal with such a large amount of work.
12. The two countries co-operated to prevent the shipment of drugs from one to the other.
13. That child looks very thin. I think he must be underfed.
14. Don't overfeed the dog or it'll get fat.
15. The media gave her so much attention she became a superstar overnight.
16. He never goes out or talks to people; he's so antisocial.
17. Tom knew the information was somewhere in his subconscious, but he couldn't remember it.
18. I always find the day after Christmas an anticlimax.
19. The man had to reapply the paint because the first coat wasn't sufficient.
20. Ghandi achieved a lot through non-violent action.
21. The neighbouring tribes found it difficult to co-exist peacefully.
22. We caught the transcontinental train from Paris to Istanbul.
23. As these programmes are interchangeable, they can be used with any computer system.
24. We weren't allowed onto the ferry because it had been overbooked.

IV. Complete each sentence using the correct form of the word in brackets.

1. IBM’s bluegene is the most powerful (power) supercomputer.

2. Most library databases are accessible (access) via the Internet.
3. I’ll email my report to you as an attachment (attach).
4. This book will show you how to computerize (computer) your small business.
5. An erasable (erase) optical disc allows data to be deleted and new data to be recorded on it.
6. The growth of the Internet has increased the need for effective data serucity (secure).
7. The combination of electronics (electron) and new textile materials has made it possible to create
musical jackets and smart shirts that can read our heart rate.
8. Bluetooth is a wireless (wire) technology designed to connect computers, mobile phones and
other devices, replacing direct cable links.
9. Aircraft flight simulation (simulate) is used to train pilots.

V. Fill in the right form of the words in brackets.

Leaving a job

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I recently left my job in an 1) advertising (advertisement) agency after a disagreement with my boss.
She accepted my 2) resignation (resign) but warned me that because of the 3) economic (economy)
situation, I might have to get used to the idea of being 4) unemployed (employ) for a while. I
thought that she was trying to make a point, but after I had made over fifty 5) applications (apply) to
other companies, I realised that she was right. Although I am a 6) qualified (qualification) designer, I
didn't receive any offers of a job. After that I tried working from home, but it was not very 7)
profitable (profit). Then I became an 8) employee (employ) in a fast-food restaurant, even though my
9) earnings (earn) were extremely low. I wish I had accepted early 10) returement (retire) from my
old job. That is what I disagreed with my boss about!

How a hobby can make you angry!

Recently, I decided to take up 1) photography (photograph) as a hobby. I have always taken
snapshots, but I have never been very 2) skillful (skill). My snaps were either a complete 3) failure
(fail) for technical reasons, or were just not very 4) imaginative (imagine). First, I decided that to be
5) successful (success), I would have to buy new equipment. Just then I had an 6) unexpected
(expect) piece of good luck. A friend who works in a camera shop said she could sell me a 7)
valuable (value) camera. A customer had left it at the shop to be repaired, but there had been a 8)
misunderstanding (understand), and it was actually for sale. I thought this was a rather 9)
unbelievable (belief) explanation and so I asked her some more questions. It turned out that she had
had a 10) disagreement (agree) with the customer and he had thrown the camera at her in anger
because she had disliked his photos.

Father and son

My next-door neighbour has a very unusual 1) appearance (appear). He has long hair with a 2)
parting (part) in the middle, and usually wears an old pair of jeans and a 3) striped (stripe) shirt. His
clothes are very 4) unsuitable (suit) for working in a bank, but that is what he does! Unless he 5)
undresses (dress) when he gets to work and changes his clothes! His clothes are usually filthy and I
am sure he never washes them or takes them to the 6) cleaner (clean). When he wears a coat, it is
always old and 7) worn (wear), and even on very cold days it is 8) unbuttoned
(button) all down the front. The funny thing is that his son is very 9) fashionable (fashion), always
wears the latest styles, and never wears casual clothes, even on an 10) informal (formal) occasion.

A letter of apology
I am writing to apologise for the 1) cancelation (cancel) of your Happy Holiday Coach Tour to
Aberdeen. 2) Unfortunately (fortune) our luxury coach was involved in a
3) collision (collide) in France a week ago, and our driver has been
4) unexpectedly (expect) obliged to remain there for the moment. The coach was travelling on a road
5) unsuitable (suit) for heavy traffic, and the accident was 6)
unavoidable (avoid). Luckily none of the passengers suffered any

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7) injuries (injure), and we have complained to the authorities that the road needs
8) widening (wide). Our new coach will be fitted with 9) adjustable (adjust) seat belts for the safety
and comfort of passengers. We will of course return the 10)
payment (pay) you have made for your holiday as soon as possible.

A house in the country

When Ann decided to move house, it was mainly because she was tired of the
1) neighbourhood (neighbour) she lived in. It was crowded, there was a 2)
shortage (short) of parking places, and the view from her 3) upstairs (stairs) windows was of distant
factory chimneys. Luckily, she arranged the 4) sale (sell) of her house very easily, and with a small
5) loan (lend) from the bank, was able to buy a house in the country. It was an old farm building,
which had been 6) rebuilt (build) and turned into a modern house.
After loading all her belongings into a van, Ann managed to get them into the new house 7)
undamaged (damage). She 8) furnished (furniture) most of the rooms with what
she already owned. Even her curtains were the right 9) length (long) for the windows and she only
had to buy a new 10) cooker (cook) for the kitchen. It seemed too good to be true.
Surely something was bound to go wrong!

Can you please write your opinion about this handout and its tasks? Thank you.
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