Assignment

on
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Course code: TE410

Course title: Textile Mill Utilities

Submitted to:
Dr. Abdul Wazed Bhuiya,

Asst. Professor

Department Of Textile Engineering

Daffodil International University

Submitted By:
Md. Asif Anwar

ID: 111-23-2515

Sec: E
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Introduction:

Internal combustion engines are seen every day in automobiles, trucks, and buses. The name
internal combustion refers also to gas turbines except that the name is usually applied to
reciprocating internal combustion (I.C.) engines like the ones found in everyday automobiles.
There are basically two types of I.C. ignition engines, those which need a spark plug, and those
that rely on compression of a uid. Spark ignition engines take a mixture of fuel
and air, compress it, and ignite it using a spark plug. Figure 1.1 shows a piston and some of its
basic components. The name `reciprocating' is given because of the motion that the crank
mechanism goes through. The piston cylinder engine is basically a crank-slider mechanism,
where the slider is the piston in this case. The piston is moved up and down by the rotary
motion of the two arms or links. The crankshaft rotates which makes the two links
rotate. The piston is encapsulated within a combustion chamber. The bore is the diameter of the
chamber. The valves on top represent induction and exhaust valves necessary for the intake of
an air-fuel mixture and exhaust of chamber residuals. In a spark ignition engine a spark plug is
required to transfer an electrical discharge to ignite the mixture. In compression ignition engines
the mixture ignites at high temperatures and pressures. The lowest point where the piston
reaches is called bottom dead center. The highest point where the piston reaches is called top
dead center. The ratio of bottom dead center to top dead center is called the compression ratio.
The compression ratio is very important in many aspects of both compression and spark ignition
engines, by defining the efficiency of engines. Compression ignition engines take atmospheric
air, compress it to high pressure and temperature, at which time combustion occurs. These
engines .

Figure: Piston
In four stroke engines the piston accomplishes four distinct strokes for every two revolutions of
the crankshaft. In a two stroke engine there are two distinct strokes in one revolution. The piston
then moves to BDC where the exhaust valve opens. The exhaust stroke is where the exhaust
residuals leave the combustion chamber. In order for the exhaust residuals to leave the
combustion chamber the pressure needs to be greater than atmospheric. Then the piston
preceeds to TDC where the exhaust valve closes. The next stroke is the intake stroke. During
the intake stroke the intake valve opens which permits the air and fuel mixture to enter the
combustion chamber and repeat the same process. p-v diagram for the actual process of a four
stroke internal combustion (IC) engine. When the piston starts at bottom dead center (BDC) the
intake valve opens. A mixture of fuel and water then is compressed to top dead center (TDC),
where the spark plug is used to ignite the mixture. This is known as the compression stroke.
After hitting TDC the air and fuel mixture have ignited and combustion occurs. The expansion
stroke, or the power stroke, supplies the force necessary to drive the crankshaft. After the power
stroke. The piston then moves to BDC where the exhaust valve opens. The exhaust stroke is
where the exhaust residuals leave the combustion chamber. In order for the exhaust residuals
to leave the combustion chamber the pressure needs to be greater than atmospheric. Then the
piston preceeds to TDC where the exhaust valve closes. The next stroke is the intake stroke.
During the intake stroke the intake valve opens which permits the air and fuel mixture to enter
the combustion chamber and repeat the same process.
Otto Cycle:

The Otto cycle is a model of the real cycle that assumes heat addition at top dead center. The
Otto cycle consists of four internally reversible cycles, that describe the process of an engine.
Figure shows the p-v and T-s diagramfor the Otto cycle.

Process 1-2 is an isentropic compression of air and fuel, which occurs when the piston moves
from bottom dead center (BDC) to TDC. In this process air and fuel are compressed and ready
for the second process. Process 2-3 is a constant volume heat addition process where the air to
fuel mixture is ignited. Process 3-4 is an isentropic expansion, where work is done on the piston,
but no heat is added. This process is referred to as the power stroke. The Internal process, 4-1,
is a constant volume heat removal that ends at BDC. Work and heat are important aspects of
engines, that can be represented by Figure. On the T-s diagram the area 1-4-a-b-1 corresponds
to the heat rejected per unit of mass. Area 2-3-a-b-2 corresponds to the heat added per unit of
mass. The enclosed area shown represents the net heat added during the process. The area 1-
2-a-b-1 in the p-v diagram corresponds to the work input per unit mass and area 3-4-b-a-3
corresponds to work output per unit mass. The net work done is interpreted by the enclosed
region in Figure 2.1, in the T-s diagram. In the Otto cycle there are therefore two processes that
involve work but no heat transfer and two different processes that involve heat transfer but no
work.

Spark Ignition Engines:

Internal combustion engines are divided into spark ignition engines and com-
pression ignition engines. Almost all automobiles today use spark ignition
engines while trailers and some big trucks use compression ignition engines.
The main difference between the two is the way in which the air to fuel mix-
ture is ignited, and the design of the chamber which leads to certain power
and efficiency characteristics.
Spark ignition engines use an air to fuel mixture that is compressed at high pressures. At this
high pressure the mixture has to be near stoichiometric to be chemically inert and able to ignite.
Stoichiometric means that there is a one to one ratio between the air and fuel mixture. So the
mixture in order to ignite needs not to be either with too much fuel or too much air but rather
have an overall even amount. There are several components to the spark ignition engine.
Chamber design, mixture and the injection system are some of the most important aspects of
the spark ignition engine. The importance of the chamber design will be discussed. The four
basic designs for combustion chambers are as follow:

_ the distance travelled by the ame front should be minimised

_ the exhaust valve and spark plug should be close together
_ there should be sufficient turbulence
_ the end gas should be in a cool part of the combustion chamber.

The first design requires that the distance between the end gas and the sparkplug be close in
order for combustion to progress rapidly. If combustion is speed up then, (i) the engine speed is
increased and therefore power output is higher, and (ii) the chain reactions that lead to knock
are reduced. From the second design criteria the exhaust valve, since it is very hot, should
be as far from the end gas in order to prevent knock or pre-ignition. The third design criteria
suggest that there should be enough turbulance in order to promote rapid combustion", through
mixing. Too much turbulance, however, will lead to excessive heat transfer from the chamber
and too rapid combustion which causes noise. Turbulance in combustion chambers is
generated by squish areas or shrouded inlet valves. The fourth design requires that the end gas
be in a cool part of the combustion chamber. The cool part of the combustion chamber forms
between the cylinder head and piston. There are many types of designs for combustion
chambers. Four common combustion chambers are
_ wedge chamber
_ hemispherical head
_ bowl in piston chamber
_ bath-tub head

The wedge design is simple giving good results. In the wedge design the valve drive train is
easy to install, but the inlet and exhaust manifold have to be on the same side of the cylinder
head." (Stone, p.127) The second type of combustion chamber is the hemispherical head. The
advantage of a hemispherical chamber is its angled valves which are used in high perfor-
mance engines. This design is expensive with twin overhead camshafts. The design allows for
crossow from inlet to exhaust, with crossow occuring at the end of the exhaust stroke and at the
beginning of the induction stroke while both valves are open. The third combustion chamber is a
cheaper de- sign that has good performance. The last combustion chamber design has
a compact combustion chamber that might be expected to give economical performance. The
process by which the air to fuel mixture is prepared and put in the combustion chamber is
through carburetors and fuel injectors. Spark plugs are part of all spark ignition engines. In order
to start one of these engines
a spark has to ignite a mixture into a ame. The way in which this spark is first initiated is through
the car battery and a circuit directly leading to the spark plug. The battery supplies the electric
current to initiate a spark in the spark plug. The Spark then ignites the air and fuel mixture. The
type of fuel injectors used divide into multi-point and single-point injection. Carburetors divide
into fxed and variable jet carburettors. The air and fuel mixture is analysed as either a lean or
rich mixture depending on the content of fuel. A stoichiometric mixture is one in which there is a
perfect ratio of air and fuel molecules. A lean mixture would be defficient in fuel where a rich
one would be saturated with fuel. To achieve economic status and yet receive the maximum
power the engine would have to use a lean mixture and a rich one at full throttle. When the
throttle is fully opened and a lean mixture is used the power output is economical because of
the weak fuel. When the throttle is opened the combustion chamber needs the air to fuel
mixture. Since a stream of air is generated extra fuel is needed to compensate for the
insufficient ow of fuel. In order to obtain maximum power a rich mixture is needed. For good fuel
economy all the fuel should be burnt and the quench area where the ame is extinguished should
be minimised."

Compression Ignition Engines:

Compression ignition engines differ from spark ignition engines in a variety of ways but the most
obvious one being the way in which the air and fuel mixture is ignited. As stated above a spark
plug is used to create a spark in the combustion chamber which ignites the mixture. In a
compression ignition engine there is no spark to create the flame but rather high temperatures
and pressures in the combustion chamber cause a flame to initiate at different sites of the
combustion chamber. Combustion increases with increasing pressure and temperature.
Compression ignition engines are divided into direct and indirect ignition engines. Diesel
engines require fuel injection systems to inject fuel into the combustion chamber. Fuel injection
systems are either linear or rotary. Rotary fuel injectors are used in indirect ignition engines
because of low pressures. Direct injection engines use pressures of up to 1000 bars to inject
fuel into the combustion chamber. High pressure is needed because the heat addition
process takes place at a compressed state, so in order for the fuel to inject well the pressure
has to be greater than the one that has been accumulated through compression. There are
several engineered direct injection combustion chambers. This goes to show that the actual
design of compression ignition engines is not as critical as the design considered for spark
ignition engines. Swirl is the most important air motion in the Diesel engine. The importance of
swirl is that it mixes the air and fuel so that combustion can increase. The direction of swirl is at
a downward angle so that proper mixing can take place. The compression ratio for direct ignition
engines is usually between 12 : 1 and 16 : 1. Indirect ignition engines have a pre-combustion
chamber where the air to fuel mixture is first stored. The purpose of the separate chamber is to
speed up the combustion process in order to increase the engine output by increasing the
engine speed. The two basic combustion systems are the swirl and pre-combustion chambers.
Pre-combustion chambers depend on turbulence to increase the combustion speed and swirl
chambers depend on the fluid motion to raise combustion speed. In divided chambers the
pressure required is not as high as the pressure required for direct ignition engines. The
pressure required for both type of divided chambers is only about 300 bars. With all Diesel
engines there is some type of aid to help combustion. Electrical components aid in the initiation
of the combustion process by using an electrical source, such as a car battery, to heat
themselves and transfer the energy to the mixture for combustion. Cold starting a Diesel engine
is very difficult without the use of these tabs that conduct an electric current. When electrical
elements heat up and the air to fuel mixture comes in close contact with the tab then a
combustion occurs. The Diesel engine has high thermal efficiencies, and therefore low fuel
consumption. The disadvantage of Diesel engines is their low power output, relative to their
weight, as compared with spark ignition engines.

Induction and Exhaust:

In internal combustion engines the induction and exhaust processes give importance to the
performance and efficiency of the engine. In the two stroke engine the flow is regulated by the
piston covering and uncovering ports, but in the four stroke engine the induction and exhaust
processes are controlled through valves. The four types of valves used are poppet, sleeve,
rotary, and disc valves.

Valves:
The most commonly used valve is the poppet valve. The poppet valve has a straight cylinder
rod and its end has the shape of a mushroom. The advantages of the poppet valve are that it is
cheap, it has good ow properties, good seating, it is easy to lubricate, and it has good heat
transfer to the cylinder head. Rotary and disc valves are sometimes used, but contrary to
poppet valves, they have heat transfer, lubrication, and clearance problems. The other type of
valve is the sleeve valve. The sleeve valve has some advantages over the poppet valve, but its
disadvantages discontinued the use of it. The use of sleeve valves was best suited for
aerospace engines before the introduction of the gas turbine engine. The advantages of sleeve
valves were that they eliminated the \hot spot associated with the poppet valve." Other
advantages were that it produced higher outputs and higher efficiencies due to a higher
compression ratio, which was due to the use of low octane fuel. The disadvantages of the
sleeve valve were the cost and difficulty to manufacture, the lubrication and friction between the
cylin-der wall and sleeve valve, and the heat transfer from the piston through the
sleeve and oil flim to the cylinder. A camshaft is used in the mechanism that operates the
valves. Engines that use overhead poppet valves (ohv) use a camshaft that \is either mounted
in the cylinder block, or in the cylinder head." (Stone, p.233) Overhead camshafts (ohc) use
chain or toothed belts to provide its drive. Gear drives are also possible to use but they would
be expensive, noisy, and cumbersome. The best belts are toothed belts because the rubber
damps out torsional vibrations. The other type of valve system is the twin or double overhead
camshaft. This mechanism is used when the need for two inlet and two exhaust valves are
needed. High performance spark ignition engines or large compression ignition engines use the
double overhead camshaft mechanism. One camshaft operates the inlet valves and the other
camshaft operates the exhaust valves. The disadvantage of having two camshafts operate four
valves is the cost of having a second camshaft, the more involved machining, and the
difficulty of providing an extra drive. The British Leyland four valve pent- roof mechanism got rid
of the problem of having two camshafts operating four valves by introducing a single camshaft
operating all four valves with the aid of a rocker arm. Figure 5.1 shows the mechanism
proposed by Leyland. In this mechanism the camshaft comes in direct contact with the inlet
valves and through a rocker the exhaust valves. The advantages of four valves per combustion
chamber result in \larger valve throat areas for gas low, smaller valve forces, and larger valve
seat area." (Stone, p.236) The reason for having smaller valve forces is because a lighter valve
with a lighter spring will reduce the hammering effect on the valve seat.

Valve Timing:
Valve timing is characterized by the camshaft and valve mechanism. There are two timing
processes. Both of these processes involve inlet low and exhaust interaction, but the difference
between the two is the time of interaction. In compression ignition engines and conventional
spark ignition engines the valve overlap is only 15 of the crank angle but in high performance
spark ignition engines the valve overlap is 65 of the crank angle. Figure 5.2 shows the valve
timing diagrams for small valve overlap and large valve overlap for the four stroke engine. In
diagram (a), which corresponds to the small valve overlap, the inlet valve opens before top dead
center (bdc) and does not close until 45degree after bottom dead center (abdc). The reason for
the rapid closure abdc is because the pressure needs to increase rapidly. If the inlet valve
closed later in the compression stroke then there would not be enough pressure build up. Also
after the piston moves to BDC following the induction stroke the the piston will start the
compression stroke. If the inlet valve is open for to long of a time then the air and fuel mixture
will be pushed out by the piston face. In compression ignition engines this will make cold
starting the engine difficult. The compression stroke will then initiate until hitting top dead center,
which will then lead to the power stroke. At about 40degree before bottom dead center (bbdc)
the exhaust valve will open, so that the combustion products have enough time to leave the
chamber. By having the exhaust valve open 40_ bdc, the problem arises of wether or not
opening the valve bbdc will cut away from the power stoke and therefore cause the
engine to be less efficient. At 40degree bbdc the power stroke is almost furnished and as a
matter of fact only 12 % of the stroke is lost. Another reason for opening the exhaust valve 40
degree bbdc is because the valve is not fully opened until 120_ after starting to open. The cycle
repeats again when the piston is 5 degree btdc.

The valve overlap of the high performance spark ignition engine is best described by diagram
(b). The disadvantages of having a large overlap is due to the mixture caused by the exhaust
and air and fuel mixture. Since there is a large valve overlap some unburnt fuel will cross ow
from the inlet manifold into the exhaust valve and therefore the efficiency will be reduced.
Exhaust residuals are a concern in large valve overlap engines. An increase level of residual in
the combustion chamber has a significant effect on the combustion process. With a high level of
exhaust residual the efficiency of the engine will decrease since the engine will be doing work
on both burned and unburned fuel instead of doing on as much unburnt fuel instead of doing
work on as much unburnt fuel as possible. The level of residuals increase with a)decreasing
absolute inlet manifold pressure, b)reducing compression ratio, c)increasing valve overlap,
d)decreasing speed, and e)increasing exhaust back pressure.

Combustion Reactions:
Internal combustion engines obtain their energy from the combustion of hy- drocarbon fuel with
air. The chemical energy stored in the fuel is converted to energy that the engine can use in the
through hot gases within the chamber. The combustion process involves the chemical reaction
of hydrocarbon fuel with oxygen to produce water vapor and CO2. The maximum amount of
chemical energy from the hydrocarbon fuel is when it reacts with stoi-chiometric oxygen. The
meaning of stoichiometric oxygen is de_ned as the amount of oxygen that is needed to convert
all of the carbon in the fuel to CO2 and all of the hydrogen to H2O. The simplest chemical
reaction using the simplest hydrocarbon with stoichiometric oxygen is:
 CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O....... (6.1)

For this reaction to be complete it would take two moles of oxygen to react with one mole of
methane to produce one mole of carbon dioxide and two moles of water vapor. The
hydrocarbon fuel used in engines is not a simple fuel like methane but rather consists of
isooctane and various additives. The chemical reaction involving isooctane and oxygen is:
C8H18 + 12.5O2 8CO2 + 9H2O............ (6.2)

The above two chemical reactions involve the reaction of a hydrocarbon with oxygen. Since it
would be extremely expensive to use pure oxygen the atmosphere is used as a rich source of
oxygen. The hydrocarbon reacts with air which is composed of many substances. Nitrogen and
oxygen are the two most found substances in air with a nitrogen composition of 78%, by mole,
and oxygen composition of 21%. The stoichiometric combustion of isooctane with air is then:

C8H18 + 12.5O2 + 12:5(3:76)N2 8CO2 + 9H2O + 12.5(3.76)N2 ............(6.3)

Combustion can occur with an either lean or rich mixture. If the mixture is for example 150% of
stoichiometric then there will be an excess amount of air and the products will involve excess
oxygen. This is called a lean mixture since there is a deficiency is fuel. If on the other hand the
mixture is 80% of stoichiometric then there will be excess fuel and carbon monoxide (CO) will
be in the end product. This is a rich mixture since the misture has excess of fuel. Carbon
monoxide is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas which can be further burned to form CO2. If
there is a further deficiency in oxygen then more CO will go into the atmosphere as pollution.

Octane Number:
The octane number of a fuel describes how well it will or will not self ignite. The numerical scale
is set by testing fuels. The fuel at question is compared to other fuels that have set standards.
One fuel that is used for the test is isooctane (2,2,4 trimethylpentane), which is given the octane
number (ON) of 100. The other fuel used for the test is n-heptane, which is given the ON of 0.
The higher the octane number of the fuel the less likely it will self-ignite. In SI engines self-
ignition will occur when the fuel ignites before the use of the spark due to high tempeartures.
When self-ignition occurs in SI engines pressure pulses are genereted. This high pressure
causes damage to the engine. This activity of self-ignition is called knock. Engines with low
compression ratios can use low octane fuels since the temperatures and pressures are lower.
High compression engines must use high octane fuel to avoid self-ignition and knock. Figure 4
shows the relationship between the compression ratio and the octane number.
 Fig: Compression ratio vs. Octane number

Fuels that were used earlier had low octane numbers so therefore engines with low
compression ratios were used. As technology advanced the engine design advanced. Engines
were designed with higher compression ratios so higher pressures and temperatures were
attained. fuel had to be manufactured to have higher octane numbers. The structure of the fuel
depicts the value of the octane number. For example hydrocarbon components that have long
chains have low ON. On the other hand components with more side chains have higher ON.
Also fuel components with ring molecules have high ON. One additive that was used to raise
the ON of fuels was TEL, (C2H5)4Pb. A few milliliters of TEL into several liters of fuel and the
ON would rise several points in a very predictable manner. When TEL was _rst used it was an
additive that was manually put into the fuel tank at the gas station. The turbulance created by
the pouring was enough to create the mixture. Handling of the TEL by people at gas stations
was harmful due to the toxic vapors and the harm that TEL could do the skin. Because of
its harm to people, TEL was blended into the gasoline at re_neries. This however created a
need for more pumps and storage facilities for the new gasoline which was now divided into
high-octane and low-octane gasoline. Figure 5 shows the relationship between the ON and the
TEL added to the the gasoline.

Fig: Octane number vs. TEL

The problem with TEL is the lead content that ends up in the exhaust.Lead is a very toxic
engine emission, and its pollution to the atmosphere ended in the early 1990's. The elimination
of leaded gasoline created problems for older cars and other older engines. When lead is
introduced into combustion one of the results is lead deposited into the walls of the combustion
chamber. This lead reacts with the hot walls and forms a very hard surface. When older engines
were manufactured they were engineered to have softer steels in the walls, heads, and valve
seats. When the engines were operated using leaded fuels the idea was that these parts would
become heat treated and hardened during use. When these engines are operated with
unleaded fuel the hardening process is not there and the parts wear through use. There are now
TEL substitutes for older vehicles such as alcohols and organomanganese compounds.

Cetane Number:
Diesel fuels are usually characterized by their molecular weight. There are low and high
molecular weight fuels, each with different characteristics. Usually the greater the refining done
on the fuel the less viscous, lower molecular weight, and higher cost of the fuel. The less
refining done on the diesel fuel the more viscous, higher molecular weight, and lower cost of the
fuel. Numerical scales exist that denote whether a diesel fuel is high or low in molecular weight.
The scale ranges from one (1) to _ve (5) or six (6), with subcategories using alphabetical letters
(e.g. 3B, 2D). The lower the number the lower the molecualr weight of the diesel fuel. Fuels with
lower numbers are typically used in CI engines, while the high numbered diesel fuels are used
in large, massive heating units. Diesel fuels can be divided into two extreme categories; light
and heavy diesel fuel. Light diesel fuel has a molecular weight of about 170 and is approximated
by the chemical formula C12.3H22.2 . Heavy diesel fuel has a molecular weight of about 200
with approximately a chemical formula of C14.6H24.8. In CI engines combustion starts with the
self ignition of the air and fuel mixture. There are di_erent fuels which have di_erent ignition
characteristics. Ignition delay is a property of CI engines that is dependant on the fuel used. The
cetane number (CN) is a quanti_able number that gives a fuel the property of wether it will self
ignite early or late. The higher the CN the shorter the ignition delay. On the other hand the lower
the CN the longer the ignition delay. The CN ratings are established through testing. The two
fuels used for the test are n-cetane (hexadecane), C16H34, and heptamethyl- nonane (HMN),
C12H34. The n-cetane is given the cetane number of 100, while HMN is given the number of
15. The CN is then determined using equation 6.4.

CN = (percent of n-cetane) + (0.15)(percent of HMN) .........................(6.4)

The degree of CN of a fuel gives certain characteristics to the engine. Normal cetane numbers
range on the order of 40 to 60. For a given engine, if the CN is too low then ignition delay will be
too long. If ignition delay is prolongated then extra fuel \will be injected into th ecylinder" before
the _rst fuel is ignited \causing a very large, fast pressure rise at the start of combustion."

This fast pressure rise will cause low thermal e_ciency. If the CN of the fuel is too high then
combustion will start too soon in the compression stroke. Early combustion will cause a
pressure rise before top dead center, and more work will be required.