EDEN TECHNICAL TRILINGUAL KINDER GARDEN AND

SCHOOL

Science Guide:9th grade III Partial Date:____________

14.1 Compounds and Mixtures

Molecules and Compounds

Molecules:
A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest unit of a
chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. Molecules can consist
of two or more atoms of the same element (e.g., O₂) or different elements (e.g., H₂O).

Compounds:
Compounds are substances formed when two or more different elements are
chemically bonded together. They have different properties from the elements they
are made from. For example, water (H₂O) is a compound composed of hydrogen and
oxygen.

Exercises with Molecular Mass

Molecular Mass Calculation:
1.
Find the molecular mass of H₂O:
2.
1. Hydrogen (H): 1 amu × 2 = 2 amu
2. Oxygen (O): 16 amu × 1 = 16 amu
3. Total Molecular Mass = 2 + 16 = 18 amu
3.
Find the molecular mass of CO₂:
4.
1. Carbon (C): 12 amu × 1 = 12 amu
2. Oxygen (O): 16 amu × 2 = 32 amu
3. Total Molecular Mass = 12 + 32 = 44 amu
Pure Substances and Mixtures
Pure Substances:
A pure substance has a fixed composition and distinct properties. It can be an element
or a compound. For example, distilled water and table salt are pure substances.
Mixtures:
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances where each retains its own
properties. Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Homogeneous Mixtures:
These mixtures have a uniform composition throughout. Examples include
saltwater and air.

 
Heterogeneous Mixtures:
These mixtures have a non-uniform composition. Examples include salad and
sand.

Comparison of Mixtures and Compounds

Mixtures:

o Can be separated by physical means (e.g., filtration, evaporation).
o Components retain their individual properties.
o Example: Sand and salt.

Compounds:

o Must be separated by chemical means (e.g., heating, chemical reactions).
o Components lose their individual properties.
o Example: Water (H₂O) is different from hydrogen and oxygen gases.
Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Ionic Bonds:
Formed when one atom gives up one or more electrons to another atom. This creates
ions (charged atoms) that attract each other. Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl).
Covalent Bonds:
Formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. This bond usually
occurs between nonmetals. Example: Water (H₂O).
Exercises with Ionic and Covalent Bonds
1.
Draw the ionic bond formation for NaCl:
2.
o Sodium (Na) loses an electron to become Na⁺.
o Chlorine (Cl) gains an electron to become Cl⁻.
o The resulting Na⁺ and Cl⁻ attract each other to form NaCl.
3.
Draw the covalent bond formation for H₂O:
4.
o Oxygen shares electrons with two Hydrogen atoms to form O-H bonds.
Lewis Structures
Lewis Structures:
A Lewis structure shows how atoms are bonded in a molecule and the lone pairs of
electrons. The octet rule is used to determine the arrangement of electrons.
Drawing a Lewis Structure:
1. Determine the total number of valence electrons.
2. Draw the basic structure with single bonds between atoms.
3. Distribute remaining electrons to satisfy the octet rule (8 electrons) for each atom.
Example: Draw a Lewis structure for CO₂:
 Carbon (C) in the center.
 Two Oxygens (O) on either side.
 Each Oxygen shares two pairs of electrons with Carbon to complete the octet.
Electronegativity
Electronegativity:
A measure of an atom’s ability to attract and hold onto electrons in a chemical bond.
The higher the electronegativity, the more strongly an atom attracts electrons.
 Example: Fluorine (F) has a high electronegativity, making it very effective at attracting
electrons.
Common Ions
Common Ions:
 Cations (Positive ions): Formed when atoms lose electrons. Example: Na⁺, Ca²⁺.
 Anions (Negative ions): Formed when atoms gain electrons. Example: Cl⁻, O²⁻.
Metallic Bond
Metallic Bond:
A bond formed between metal atoms where electrons are shared freely among a
lattice of metal cations. This "sea of electrons" contributes to properties like
conductivity and malleability.
Example: In metals like copper (Cu) or iron (Fe), metal atoms share their outer
electrons, creating a strong bond.
Naming Compounds
Naming Ionic Compounds:
 Name the cation (metal) first, followed by the anion (non-metal).
 Example: NaCl is named Sodium Chloride.
Naming Covalent Compounds:
 Use prefixes to indicate the number of each atom (e.g., mono-, di-, tri-).
 Example: CO₂ is named Carbon Dioxide.
Exercises
1.
Name the following ionic compounds:
2.
o KBr (Potassium Bromide)
o MgO (Magnesium Oxide)
3.
Name the following covalent compounds:
4.
o N₂O₅ (Dinitrogen Pentoxide)
o SF₆ (Sulfur Hexafluoride)
Chapter 14.2: Chemical Bonds: Forces
Within Molecules
1. Common Ions
Definition: Ions are charged particles formed when atoms gain or lose electrons.
Char Formu
Ion
ge la
Sodium +1 Na⁺
Chlorid
-1 Cl⁻
e
Calcium +2 Ca²⁺
Oxide -2 O²⁻
2. Ionic Crystals
Definition: Ionic crystals are formed by the electrostatic attraction between positive
and negative ions in a lattice structure.
Diagram of Ionic Crystal:
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+ - + - - + - + + - + - - + - +
3. Formula Mass
Definition: Formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula
unit.
Example Calculation:
For NaCl:
 Sodium (Na): 22.99 u
 Chlorine (Cl): 35.45 u
 Formula Mass = 22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 u
4. Metallic Bonding
Definition: Metallic bonding involves a "sea of electrons" that are free to move
around, providing conductivity and malleability.
Diagram of Metallic Bonding:
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++++++
e e e e e+ + + + + +
5. Naming Compounds
 Covalent Compounds: Use prefixes to denote the number of each type of atom (e.g., CO₂ is
carbon dioxide).
 Ionic Compounds: Name the cation first and then the anion (e.g., NaCl is sodium chloride).
6. Chemical Formulas
 Chemical Formula: Shows the types and numbers of atoms (e.g., H₂O).
 Molecular Formula: Indicates the actual number of each type of atom in a molecule (e.g.,
C₆H₁₂O₆).
 Structural Formula: Shows the arrangement of atoms in a molecule (e.g., H-O-H for water).
Chapter 14.3: Forces Between Molecules
1. Types of Intermolecular Forces
 Dipole-Dipole Force: Attraction between polar molecules.
 London Forces: Weak attractions caused by temporary dipoles in nonpolar molecules.
 Hydrogen Bonds: Strong dipole-dipole attraction where hydrogen is bonded to N, O, or F.
Diagram of Intermolecular Forces:
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H-O-H H-O-H
| |
| |
H-O-H H-O-H
2. Effects of Intermolecular Forces
 Unit Cell: Smallest repeating unit in a crystal lattice.
 Melting Point: Temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid.
 Vapor Pressure: Pressure exerted by vapor in equilibrium with its liquid.
 Boiling Point: Temperature at which a liquid boils.
Chapter 14.4: Solution Chemistry
1. Formation of Solution
The Solution Process:
 Dissolution: Solvent molecules surround and interact with solute particles, separating them.
Rate of Dissolving:
  Stirring, temperature, and surface area affect the rate at which a solute dissolves.
Solubility Terms:
Term Definition
Soluble Able to dissolve in a solvent.
Insoluble Unable to dissolve in a solvent.
Precipitate Solid that forms from a solution.
2. Solution Concentration
 Mole: A unit measuring the amount of substance.
 Molarity (M): Moles of solute per liter of solution.
 Molality (m): Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
 Normality (N): Equivalent of solute per liter of solution.
Exercises:
1. Calculate the molarity of a solution with 2 moles of solute in 1 liter of solution.
2. Determine the molality of a solution with 3 moles of solute in 0.5 kg of solvent.
Chapter 15: Chemistry in Action
15.1 Introduction to Chemical Reactions
Evidence of a Chemical Reaction:
 Color change, gas production, precipitate formation, temperature change.
Chemical Equations:
 Balanced Chemical Equation: Shows the same number of each type of atom on both sides of
the reaction.
Example:
2H2+O2→2H2O2H₂ + O₂ \rightarrow 2H₂O2H2+O2→2H2O
15.2 Chemical Thermodynamics and Reaction Rates
 Chemical Thermodynamics: Study of energy changes during reactions.
 Energy Changes:
o Exothermic Reaction: Releases heat (e.g., combustion).
o Endothermic Reaction: Absorbs heat (e.g., photosynthesis).
Diagram of Energy Changes:
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Reactants Products
| |
|______________|
Energy is released/absorbed
 Entropy: Measure of disorder; second law of thermodynamics states that entropy always
increases in an isolated system.
15.3 Salts, Acids, and Bases
Definitions:
 Salts: Ionic compounds formed from the neutralization of an acid and a base.
 Acids: Donate protons (e.g., HCl).
 Bases: Accept protons (e.g., NaOH).
Neutralization Reactions:
HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2OHCl + NaOH \rightarrow NaCl +
H₂OHCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O
15.4 Oxidation, Reduction, and Electrochemistry
 Redox Reactions: Involve the transfer of electrons between substances.
Electrochemical Cells:
 Electrolyte: Substance that produces ions when dissolved.
 Example: Zn-Cu electrochemical cell.
15.5 Organic Chemistry
Key Concepts:
 Hydrocarbons:
o Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons (e.g., methane).
o Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with double bonds (e.g., ethene).
o Aromatic Compounds: Contain benzene rings (e.g., benzene).
 Functional Groups:
o Alcohols: Contain -OH group.
o Carboxylic Acids: Contain -COOH group.
Diagram of Hydrocarbons:
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Methane (CH₄):
H
|H-C-H
|
H
Ethene (C₂H₄):
H H
\/
C=C
/\
H H
15.6 Biochemistry: The Chemistry of Life
Carbohydrates:
 Monosaccharides: Single sugars (e.g., glucose).
 Disaccharides: Two sugar units (e.g., sucrose).
 Polysaccharides: Complex carbohydrates (e.g., cellulose).
Lipids:
 Cholesterol: A type of lipid with LDL (bad) and HDL (good) forms.
Proteins:
 Amino Acids: Building blocks of proteins, linked by peptide bonds.
 Types of Proteins: Enzymes, structural proteins, etc.
Nucleic Acids:
 DNA: Stores genetic information.
 RNA: Messenger for protein synthesis.
Diagram of DNA Structure:
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Phosphate - Sugar - Base
| | |
-- -- --
Adenine - Thymine (A-T)
Cytosine - Guanine (C-G)