Ancient Egypt and the Near East

Chapter 7 Geography and the Early Settlement of Egypt, Kush, and Canaan
Chapter 8 The Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs
Chapter 9 Daily Life in Ancient Egypt
Chapter 10 The Kingdom of Kush
Chapter 11 The Ancient Hebrews and the Origins of Judaism
Chapter 12 The Struggle to Preserve Judaism

(map caption)
Routes of the Ancient Hebrews, About 1950–538 B.C.E.

Geography and the Early Settlement of Egypt, Kush, and Canaan

(Caption)
The Nile River provided fresh water and fertile land for those living along its banks.

7.1 Introduction
In Unit 1, you learned about early hominids and the empires of Mesopotamia. In this unit, you will
explore three civilizations that arose in Africa and southwestern Asia. They were the Egyptian, Kush,
and Hebrew civilizations.
The Egyptians settled along the Nile River, in the northeast corner of Africa. Their civilization lasted
from around 3100 BCE. to 350 CE.
The Kushites settled to the south of Egypt, along the southern part of the Nile. Their civilization
began around 2000 BCE. and lasted until 350 CE.
The Hebrews settled northeast of Egypt, in Canaan, in about 1800 B.CE. Over time, they developed
a unique civilization that thrived until their capital city was destroyed in 70 CE.
Why did these people settle where they did? Their choices were greatly affected by environmental
factors. Three important environmental factors were water, topography (the shape of the land), and
vegetation (plant life). These factors depended upon physical features that were part of each area’s
geography. Physical features include such things as rivers, mountains, valleys, deserts, climate, and
the fertility of the soil.
In this chapter, you will learn why water, topography, and vegetation were so important to early
human settlement. Then you’ll explore the geography of ancient Egypt, Kush, and Canaan. You’ll find
out how environmental factors in these places affected where people chose to live.

(Caption)
Use this map as a graphic organizer to learn more about the geography and settlement of ancient
Egypt, Kush, and Canaan.

7.2 Environmental Factors and Early Human Settlement

Environmental factors influenced where people chose to settle in ancient times. Three important
environmental factors were water, topography, and vegetation.

Water
The most important environmental factor in early human settlement was water. Physical features like
rivers, lakes, and inland seas are good sources of fresh water.
Water is important for many reasons. People need fresh drinking water to live. They also bathe and
wash things in fresh water. Bathing and washing help to prevent disease.
 Water is also a source of food. People catch the fish that live in rivers, lakes, and seas. They hunt
water birds and other animals that gather near water. In addition, farmers need water to grow their
crops. For this reason, farmers often settled near rivers. The river’s natural flooding could help to
irrigate their farms. Farmers could also dig canals or trenches to direct the river’s water to their crops.
As you’ve learned, farmers in Mesopotamia dug canals for this purpose.
Water can also be used for transportation. Cities and towns often used rivers as “highways.” People
traveled in boats to visit relatives and trade goods. Towns near the sea could trade goods with
countries far away.

Topography
A second environmental factor was topography. Topography refers to the shape of the land. It
includes features like mountains, hills, plains, and deserts.
The topography of an area was important for early human settlement. Farmers usually settled in flat,
open areas such as plains and valleys. Large, flat spaces gave them room to grow crops. Also, the rich
soil in coastal plains and river valleys was excellent for growing crops.
Mountains and deserts were less friendly to human settlement. Steep mountains were hard to cross.
Their jagged peaks and rocky land made farming difficult. Deserts were hot and dry. They contained
very little water for farming. The intense heat and lack of water made travel difficult. People who settled
in mountains and deserts faced many challenges.

(Vocabulary)
topography the surface features of a place or region, such as mountains or deserts
vegetation the plants of a place or region

Vegetation
A third environmental factor was vegetation, or plant life. There are many kinds of vegetation, such
as trees, bushes, flowers, grass, and reeds. The crops people grow are also a type of vegetation.
Many physical features affect vegetation. Mild weather, regular rain, and fresh water are good for
plant life. The areas around rivers and lakes are usually green and lush. Mountains are often covered
with thick groves of trees. Deserts, being dry and hot, have very little vegetation.
The vegetation in an area influenced early human settlement in several ways. Most important, plants
were a source of food. People ate both wild plants and crops they had planted. But vegetation had
other uses as well. People learned to make many useful products out of plants, including medicine,
baskets, rope, tools, and even paper. Trees provided shade from the hot sun. And plants and flowers
helped to make a place beautiful.

Water, topography, and vegetation were important wherever people settled in the ancient world.
Let’s look now at how these environmental factors influenced the early settlements of Egypt, Kush, and
Canaan.

(Caption)
Can you identify three environmental factors in this photograph? Why might they be important to the
people living in this place?

7.3 Environmental Factors and the Early Settlement of Egypt and Kush
The Egyptians and Kushites both settled near the Nile River. The Egyptians lived along the northern
part of the river. The Kushites lived to the south.
Why did settlements in these areas cluster around the Nile? Let’s look at the physical features of
Egypt and Kush and then see how environmental factors favored settlement near the Nile.
Physical Features of Egypt and Kush
The most important physical feature in ancient Egypt and Kush was the Nile River. Flowing north
from deep in Africa, the Nile created a long, fertile valley that ended in a marshy delta by the
Mediterranean Sea.
The Nile River valley was surrounded by the Libyan Desert, the Arabian Desert, and the Nubian
Desert. These sandy deserts were extremely hot and dry. Most people avoided them, yet the deserts
did play one important role in the settlement of Egypt and Kush. They formed a natural barrier that
helped protect people living in the Nile River valley. The deserts did not support large settlements, and
few invaders wanted to cross them.
On the north, Egypt was bordered by the Mediterranean Sea. Settlers could not drink its sparkling
salt water, but the sea was rich in fish and other kinds of life. It was also a waterway that linked ancient
Egypt to other civilizations.
To the east of Egypt and Kush was a long, thin channel of very salty water called the Red Sea. The
climate in this area was hot and dry. Much of the land near the Red Sea was desert.

(Caption)
Africa’s Nile River is the longest river in the world. It is more than 4,100 miles long and flows from south
to north, draining into the Mediterranean Sea.

(Vocabulary)
delta an area of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river

(Map Title)
Key Physical Features of Ancient Egypt and Kush

Environmental Factors and Human Settlement in Egypt and Kush

Environmental factors in ancient Egypt and Kush greatly favored settlement near the Nile River.
Most important, the Nile was a source of fresh water in an area that was mostly desert.
The lack of water in the deserts made them useless for farming. But in the Nile River valley, the river
provided natural irrigation and fertilization. Every summer, the river overflowed its banks. The
floodwaters soaked the dry ground. After several weeks, the waters went down. A thin ribbon of silt
(rich soil) was left behind. This soil was perfect for farming.
Where there is fresh water, there are usually fish to catch and animals to hunt. The abundant wildlife
in the Nile region included fish, ducks, geese, hippos, crocodiles, giraffes, and ostriches.
The topography of the river valley also encouraged human settlement. In the south, parts of the Nile
ran through narrow valleys and hills. But there were also wide areas of flat land around deep bends in
the river. These flat areas were good for farming. In the north, wide plains were watered by the Nile’s
annual flooding.
Vegetation was rare in the dry deserts, but it was plentiful in the Nile River valley. Useful plants
included reeds and a tough water plant called papyrus. People wove reeds into baskets and roofs for
their huts. They used papyrus to make rope and paper. And the rich farmland made it easy to grow
crops like wheat and barley.

(Caption)
Deserts are natural barriers against invaders. Would you want to walk for days across this hot, dry
desert to fight those who live on the other side?

(Vocabulary)
fertilization the process of adding fertilizer, or plant food, to soil
papyrus a tough water plant used to make paper and rope in ancient times

7.4 Environmental Factors and the Early Settlement of Canaan

Canaan, where the ancient Hebrews settled, was a diverse land. Canaan’s physical features and
environmental factors made settlement easier in some areas than in others.

Physical Features of Canaan

Canaan’s physical features included plains and valleys, hills and mountains, deserts, and bodies of
water.
In the west, coastal plains bordered the Mediterranean Sea. To the north, the Lebanon Mountains
rose steeply from the coast. The southern part of this range gave way to the lower hills of Galilee.
The Jordan River flowed down from a mountain range through the middle of Canaan, heading south
through the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea. The land around the narrow river valley included hills,
grassy slopes, and mountains. To the east was the hot, dry Syrian Desert. In southwestern Canaan
was the Negev Desert. Rain soaked this area during the winter months, giving the Negev more water
than most deserts.

Environmental Factors and Human Settlement in Canaan

In Canaan, just as in Egypt and Kush, water was a key environmental factor. The wet, fertile plains
near the Mediterranean Sea were farmed in very ancient times. The Mediterranean also allowed
traders from many lands to visit Canaan.
Other bodies of water played a role in the settlement of Canaan. The Sea of Galilee was actually a
freshwater lake. It had plentiful fish, and fertile land was nearby. Another large lake, the Dead Sea, was
so salty that nothing grew in it, not even plants. The area near the Dead Sea was hot, dry, and not very
good for farming.
The most important source of fresh water was the Jordan River. People hunted, fished, and farmed
along its banks. But unlike the Nile, the Jordan did not flood regularly, so its valley was not as fertile as
the Nile’s.

(Caption)
While parts of the Jordan River valley were lush, the area was not as fertile as the Nile River valley.

(Map Title)
Key Physical Features of Ancient Canaan

Canaan’s varied topography greatly influenced patterns of settlement. Farmers found it easiest to
live in the coastal plains and near the Jordan River. But in many areas, the hilly land and dry soil made
growing crops difficult. As a result, many people, including the ancient Hebrews, became herders rather
than farmers. Herders tended flocks of sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, and camels. Unlike farmers,
herders were nomads, wandering from place to place in search of good land for their animals to graze.
The mountains and deserts were the hardest areas to settle. Mountainous land was difficult to farm,
and the deserts were too dry for farming. Still, some people did settle in these areas. Nomads
sometimes herded cattle and camels in the Negev and Syrian Deserts.
In general, Canaan’s hot, dry climate discouraged abundant plant life. Vegetation was most plentiful
near the Jordan River. Some places had light forests. Others had only short, scrubby plants.
Grasslands were common, though, and herders made good use of them to feed their animals.

7.5 Chapter Summary

 In this chapter, you learned about three environmental factors that influenced the settlement of
ancient Egypt, Kush, and Canaan. In Egypt and Kush, most people farmed in the fertile Nile River
valley. In Canaan, many people, including the ancient Hebrews, were nomads. They followed their
herds in search of good grazing land. In the next chapter, you will learn more about ancient Egypt and
meet some of its rulers.

(Caption)
The Negev is not as dry as most deserts. After the winter rains, colorful flowers bloom there every
spring.

(Vocabulary)
nomad a person who moves from place to place with no permanent home

The Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs

(Caption)
Twin statues of the pharaoh Ramses II guard an ancient Egyptian temple.

8.1 Introduction
In the last chapter, you learned how early Egyptians settled in the Nile River valley. In this chapter, you
will visit ancient Egypt and meet four of its leaders, called pharaohs.
In 1922, archeologists discovered the tomb of a pharaoh known as King Tutankhaten, or King Tut.
Inside a small burial chamber, they found three coffins nested inside each other. The smallest coffin
was made of solid gold. It held the king’s mummy. (A mummy is a body that has been preserved after
death to keep it from decaying.) On the mummy’s head was a magnificent golden mask. Jewelry and
good luck charms lay on the mummy and in the wrappings that protected it. Other rooms of the tomb
were filled with statues, weapons, furniture, and even a chariot.
The treasures in King Tut’s tomb provided an amazing glimpse into ancient Egypt. Other pharaohs
also left behind fabulous riches and artwork. Many of them built great monuments to celebrate their
accomplishments. Like King Tut’s tomb, these artifacts have much to teach us about this ancient
civilization.
In this chapter, you will learn about three important periods in ancient Egyptian history. They are
called the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. Then you will meet four of the
pharaohs who ruled during these periods. You will learn about their achievements and explore some of
the monuments they left behind.

(Caption)
Use this postcard as a graphic organizer to help you learn about ancient Egyptian pharaohs and their
achievements.

8.2 Ancient Egypt and Its Rulers

Ancient Egypt enjoyed three long periods of stability and unity under the rule of pharaohs. Historians
call these periods the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom.
The Old Kingdom lasted from about 2700 to 2200 B.C.E. During this time, early pharaohs set up a
strong central government. They also built great pyramids as tombs for themselves. Some historians
call this time the Age of Pyramids.
The Middle Kingdom (about 2000 to 1800 B.C.E.) is sometimes called the Period of Reunification
because it followed years of chaos and disunity. During this era Egyptians made many great
achievements in literature, art, and architecture.
 The New Kingdom (about 1600 to 1100 B.C.E.) is often called Egypt’s Golden Age. During this time
of peace and stability, Egypt’s power reached its height. Pharaohs increased trade and built gigantic
monuments.
As in Mesopotamia, religion played a central role in Egypt’s social and political order. The pharaohs
were believed to be gods. They owned all the land and were responsible for the people’s well-being.
They were kings, generals, and religious leaders, all at once.
After they died, the pharaohs were thought to enter an afterlife that would never end. Their great
tombs were built to last forever.
The pharaohs built other monuments to glorify their power and success. The map shows the
locations of some of the greatest monuments. Let’s find out more about these structures and the
pharaohs who built them.

(Vocabulary)
pyramid a huge, triangular-shaped monument of ancient Egypt built around a tomb

(Map Title)
Important Monument Sites in Ancient Egypt
8.3 Pharaoh Khufu: The Pyramid Builder
The pharaoh Khufu ruled from about 2551 to 2528 B.C.E., during the Old Kingdom period. Today he
is best known as the builder of a famous pyramid.
Not much is known about what Khufu was like. Some stories describe him as a cruel, harsh ruler.
Others say he was powerful but kind.
We do know that Khufu helped establish the pharaoh as a central authority. For example, he kept
strict control over Egypt’s food supply. This involved overseeing the harvest and storing extra grain. He
controlled a large network of government officials who carried out his laws. Khufu emphasized his
supreme power by declaring himself a god.
Khufu and other Old Kingdom pharaohs had magnificent pyramids built as tombs for themselves and
their families. Khufu himself was responsible for the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza. It is one of
the wonders of the ancient world.
The Great Pyramid sat at the center of a huge complex of temples, statues, monuments, and smaller
tombs. It was made of more than 2 million stone blocks that fit together perfectly. Inside, tunnels led to
several burial chambers. The king’s chamber had six roofs to hold up the weight of the stones above it.
Building the Great Pyramid was an amazing feat. No one knows exactly how the Egyptians did it.
The pyramid took more than 20 years to complete. Khufu maintained full control of the building project.
He organized and fed thousands of workers. The completed pyramid was a stunning monument to
Egyptian engineering.

(Caption)
Khufu began construction on the Great Pyramid as soon as he became pharaoh.

(Caption)
This three-inch-high ivory statue is a portrait of Khufu.

8.4 Pharaoh Senusret I: Patron of the Arts

The pharaoh Senusret I ruled from about 1971 to 1926 B.C.E., during the Middle Kingdom. He was a
strong leader who ruled a stable, unified Egypt. Art, literature, and architecture flourished during his
reign.
 Craftspeople thrived under Senusret’s rule. The pharaoh controlled mines loaded with gold, copper,
and gems such as purple amethyst. Craftspeople fashioned these materials into beautiful pieces of
jewelry. Bracelets and necklaces were often highly detailed. They were then decorated with stones like
turquoise.
Some of the greatest works in Egyptian literature were written during Senusret’s reign. “The Story of
Sinuhe” tells of a young official named Sinuhe who overhears a plot to kill the pharaoh. Fearing for his
own life, Sinuhe flees Egypt. He thrives in his new land, but he grows very homesick. When a new
pharaoh calls him home, Sinuhe returns joyfully.
Senusret’s greatest accomplishments were in religious architecture. He built and improved many
temples, shrines, and religious monuments.
Perhaps Senusret’s finest architectural achievement was the White Chapel. (A chapel is a small
temple.) It was made of alabaster, a hard white stone. Some historians think the chapel was originally
covered in a thin layer of gold.
Beautiful artwork decorated the chapel’s pillars. Carved scenes showed the pharaoh with various
gods. Birds, animals, and Egyptian symbols were also depicted.
Senusret wanted his memory to live on through his monuments. But almost none of his buildings
survived the passage of time. A later pharaoh took the White Chapel apart and used the pieces in a
monument of his own. Archeologists later discovered the pieces and reconstructed the White Chapel.

(Caption)
This statue of Senusret shows him clutching an ankh in each hand. The ankh was the Egyptian symbol
of immortality, or eternal life.

8.5 Pharaoh Hatshepsut: Promoter of Egyptian Trade

The pharaoh Hatshepsut ruled from about 1473 to 1458 B.C.E. Hatshepsut was Egypt’s first female
pharaoh. Under her rule, Egyptian art and architecture flourished. She was also known for encouraging
trade.
One of Hatshepsut’s greatest accomplishments was simply gaining power. Never before had Egypt
been ruled by a woman. At first she shared power with her male relatives. However, she soon took over
as sole ruler.
Hatshepsut strengthened her position in several ways. She filled her government with loyal advisors.
She demanded the same respect as a male ruler. Sometimes she wore men’s clothing. She even wore
the fake beard that was worn by male pharaohs. Artists were often instructed to portray her as a man.
She also spread stories that her father was a god.
As pharaoh, Hatshepsut promoted trade with other countries. Her biggest trade expedition was to
the African kingdom of Punt, at the southern end of the Red Sea. Five ships sailed to Punt bearing gifts
and trade goods. In all, over 200 men made the voyage.
Hatshepsut left behind a stunning monument to her reign, a great temple at Dayr al-Bahri. The main
part of the temple was built into a cliff above the Nile River. At the entrance were two tall, thin
monuments called obelisks. The entrance was also graced by 200 sphinx statues. The sphinx is a
mythical creature with the body of a lion and the head of a man.
Scenes from Hatshepsut’s reign decorated the temple walls. Detailed carvings portrayed the great
voyage to Punt. The carvings showed the wondrous things that the pharaoh’s traders had brought back
to Egypt.

(Caption)
Hatshepsut actively encouraged trade. During her reign, trade helped spread Egyptian influence along
the Nile and in nearby lands in the Middle East (western Asia).

8.6 Pharaoh Ramses II: Military Leader and Master Builder

The pharaoh Ramses II ruled from about 1290 to 1224 B.C.E., during the New Kingdom. Called
Ramses the Great, he is one of the most famous pharaohs. He reigned for more than 60 years, longer
than almost any other pharaoh. He is best known for his military leadership and for building numerous
monuments.
Ramses did everything in a big way. He had over 100 wives and more than 100 children. He wasn’t
shy about glorifying himself, either. He had hundreds of statues of himself erected all around Egypt.
Some of them were over 60 feet high.
Ramses was a fearless soldier from a young age. He fought alongside his father in various battles.
He was made a captain in the Egyptian army at the age of 10.
Ramses tried to defend an Egyptian empire that extended north into Canaan. His most famous
military campaigns were against the Hittite Empire in Anatolia (now the country of Turkey). The Hittites
constantly threatened Egypt’s northern borders. In his most famous battle, Ramses reached a standoff
with the Hittites even though he was badly outnumbered.
Ramses was also a peacemaker. He and the Hittites signed the world’s first peace treaty. This
peace lasted until the Hittite Empire collapsed around 1190 B.C.E.
One of Ramses’ most impressive projects was the temple complex at Abu Simbel. The main temple
was carved into the side of a cliff on a bank of the Nile River. A smaller temple honored his favorite
wife, Nefertari.

(Caption)
This painting shows Ramses II attacking a Hittite fort.

Four giant seated statues of Ramses framed the entrance to the main temple. The figures were
sculpted right out of the rock face of the cliff. They are among the finest examples of Egyptian art.
The inside of the temple was also remarkable. Visitors passed through three large rooms, called
halls, to reach the temple’s main room. The room’s altar contained statues of Ramses and three
Egyptian gods. The temple was built so that twice a year the sun lined up with the entrance. Beams of
sunlight would shine down the halls and light up the statues.
Ramses built more temples and monuments than any other pharaoh in history. When he died, he
was buried in a tomb that he had had constructed for himself. His is one of the best-preserved
mummies ever found.

8.7 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, you learned about three long periods of stability in ancient Egypt: the Old Kingdom,
the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. You explored the accomplishments of four pharaohs who
ruled during these times. Khufu built the Great Pyramid. Senusret encouraged Egyptian art and
literature. Hatshepsut, Egypt’s first female pharaoh, promoted Egyptian trade. And Ramses the Great
was a superior military leader and builder of monuments.
Pharaohs were at the top of Egyptian society. In the next chapter, you’ll learn about the rest of
Egypt’s people and what daily life was like in the New Kingdom.

(Caption)
This is the mummy of Ramses II. Egyptians believed that preserving the bodies of the dead was
necessary for the afterlife.

Daily Life in Ancient Egypt

(Caption)
Grand festivals brought together ancient Egyptians of every social class.

9.1 Introduction
In Chapter 8, you learned about four Egyptian pharaohs. In this chapter, you will meet other
members of Egyptian society. You’ll learn what life was like for Egyptians during the New Kingdom
(about 1600 to 1100 B.C.E.).
Each year, when the Nile River flooded its banks, all of Egypt celebrated the Opet Festival. Work in
the fields stopped while the people joined in a festival honoring the pharaoh and his patron, the god
Amon-Re.
Almost everyone in Egyptian society took part in the festival. Priests decorated a statue of the god
with jewelry. They put the statue in a shrine and placed the shrine on a ceremonial boat called a
barque. The beautifully decorated boat was made by artisans, or craftspeople. High government
officials competed for the honor of carrying the barque on poles through town. Peasant farmers lined
the streets to watch the procession. Scribes made a written record of the celebration.
The Opet Festival brought all these groups together. But in everyday life, they belonged to very
different social classes. These classes made up a social pyramid, with the pharaoh at the top and
peasants at the bottom. In between were government officials, priests, scribes, and artisans. The daily
life of each class was quite different.
In this chapter, you will learn more about Egypt’s social pyramid. Then you’ll explore the work and
daily life of the various classes in Egyptian society.

(Caption)
Use this illustration as a graphic organizer to help you learn more about the Egyptian social pyramid.

9.2 Ancient Egypt’s Social Pyramid

Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid. At the very top of this social pyramid was the
pharaoh, Egypt’s supreme ruler. Egyptian religion strengthened the pharaoh’s authority. Pharaohs were
looked upon as gods, and their word was law.
Below the pharaoh were several layers of social classes. The classes near the top of the pyramid
had the fewest people and enjoyed the highest status. The classes nearer the bottom had more people
and lower status.

Egypt’s Social Classes

Government officials and priests belonged to the top two classes in the social pyramid under the
pharaoh. They were the most powerful groups in Egypt.
Government officials carried out the orders of the pharaoh. Most of them came from noble families.
They were powerful and wealthy, and they enjoyed a high quality of life.
Priests were also a powerful group, because religion touched every part of people’s daily lives. The
priests were in charge of the temples and religious rituals. They also oversaw the important ceremonies
surrounding death and burial.
Next on the social pyramid were scribes. The scribes held a respected position in society. They
recorded information for government and religious leaders. It took many years of schooling to become a
scribe.
Artisans occupied the next layer of the social pyramid. This group included craftspeople like
carpenters, metal-workers, painters, sculptors, and stone carvers. Artisans were highly skilled, but they
had little social status.
At the bottom of the social pyramid were the peasants. They were the largest social class. Peasants
worked the land, providing Egypt with a steady food supply. When they weren’t farming, they worked on
the pharaoh’s massive building projects.
(Caption)
Ancient Egyptian society was organized like a pyramid. The groups near the top had the most power
and status.

(Vocabulary)
artisan a craftsperson
peasant a person who does farmwork for wealthy landowners

(Art Caption of Pyramid)

Pharaoh
Government Officials
Priests
Scribes
Artisans
Peasants

Life in Egypt’s Social Classes

Egypt’s social pyramid was fairly rigid. People usually belonged to the same social class as their
parents. Most people had little chance to move to a higher class. People in different classes had some
things in common, but in other ways their lives were quite different.
Egyptians in all social classes cherished family life. Most Egyptians married within their social group.
Children were highly valued.
Men and women had different roles within the family. Men were the heads of their households. They
worked to support the family. Fathers often trained their sons from an early age to take on their line of
work. Women typically managed the home and raised the children. Noblewomen had servants or
slaves to help them. Lower-class women had to do the work themselves.
Men were in charge of Egyptian society, but women enjoyed more freedom and rights than most
women in the ancient world. They could own land and run businesses. They could ask for divorces and
represent themselves in legal matters. Some women in the middle and upper classes worked as
doctors, government officials, or priestesses. Both women and men enjoyed a better quality of life the
higher they were on the social pyramid.
The Egyptians believed that their class system created a stable, well-ordered society. Each group
had its own role to play. Let’s take a look at the duties and daily lives of the various social classes
during the time of the New Kingdom.

(Caption)
Egyptian women enjoyed more freedom and rights than most women in the ancient world. A few
women even became pharaohs.

9.3 Government Officials

Government officials belonged to the highest class on Egypt’s social pyramid, after the pharaoh.
Their job was to assist the pharaoh in his or her role as supreme ruler of Egypt.
Government officials usually came from the pharaoh’s family or other upper-class families. Most of
them inherited their positions from family members. However, trusted servants from the royal court
sometimes rose to power.

Important Government Officials

Three important officials were the vizier, the chief treasurer, and the general of the armies. Each had
his own duties.
 The vizier had more power than anyone except the pharaoh. The vizier advised the pharaoh and
carried out his commands. He appointed and supervised most of the other government officials.
The vizier also served as a kind of chief judge. Judges often brought him their toughest cases. A
vizier was expected to be fair and not show special favor to either side in a dispute. One vizier had this
advice for those who would follow him: “Regard one you know like one you don’t know, one near you
like one far from you.” In works of art, viziers often were shown wearing white, the color of neutrality.
The chief treasurer looked after the government’s wealth. His main duty was to collect taxes. Egypt’s
economy was based on goods rather than money. People paid their taxes in grain, cows, cloth, silver,
and even beer.
After the pharaoh, the general of the armies was the top military commander in Egypt. He advised
the pharaoh in matters of war and national security, such as how to protect Egypt’s borders from
invaders. He also helped the pharaoh make alliances with other kingdoms.

(Caption)
This is a statue of Imhotep, an early and powerful vizier in ancient Egypt. Imhotep was famous for his
role in designing and building great monuments.

(Vocabulary)
vizier a high-ranking government official
alliance an agreement between nations to work together for common interests

Lives of Luxury
High government officials led lives of luxury. Most were nobles who had great wealth, fine homes,
and plenty of time to socialize.
The lavish banquets enjoyed by these wealthy Egyptians illustrate their luxurious lifestyle. A good host
made every effort to provide the best food. Cooks roasted ducks, geese, pigeons, quail, antelope, wild
sheep, and goats. Dishes were piled high with figs, dates, grapes, and coconuts. Bread, cakes, honey,
and plenty of beer and wine completed the meal.
Guests at banquets dressed in fine linen clothing. Both men and women wore perfume. The women
often wore ropes of beads. They painted their nails, lined their eyes with makeup, and wore lipstick.
At the start of a banquet, the guests usually offered the host long blessings. They wished the host
many riches, great happiness, a long life, and good health. The host often simply responded with
“Welcome, welcome,” or “Bread and beer,” as a way of saying, “Come and eat!”
The feast began with men and women sitting on opposite sides of the room. Important guests were
given chairs with high backs. Everyone else sat on stools or cushions. Servants, who were nearly all
women, waited on the guests. There were no forks or spoons, so people ate with their fingers.
While the guests ate, musicians, dancers, and acrobats provided entertainment. Most of the
musicians were women. They played flutes, harps, rattles, and lutes (a guitarlike instrument). Guests
often clapped along with the music.

(Caption)
This painting shows women at a banquet.

9.4 Priests
Like government officials, priests were powerful and highly respected in Egyptian society. A large
network of priests served under the pharaoh, who was considered the highest-ranked priest of all.

The Duties of Priests

 Priests had different jobs. The High Priest advised the pharaoh and oversaw all religious
ceremonies. Temple priests were in charge of the many temples scattered throughout Egypt. Other
priests handled more common concerns and requests. They gave advice and performed healings.
Women were allowed to be priestesses in Egypt. They were generally considered to be equal to
male priests. Their main duty was to oversee temples that were devoted to music and dancing.
Temple priests played an especially important role in Egyptian religion. Every temple was home to
an Egyptian god or gods. A temple priest’s main job was to take care of the god.
A temple’s god was thought to live in a statue. The statue was housed in a holy room called a
sanctuary. Only a priest who had purified (cleansed) himself could enter the sanctuary. There were
many things a priest had to do in order to be purified. He had to avoid certain foods, such as fish, that
were associated with the lower classes. He had to cleanse his body by bathing three or four times a
day in holy pools. He also had to shave off his body hair. And he had to wear clothes made of linen
cloth, because animal products like leather and wool were considered unclean. Once he was purified,
the priest could perform his sacred duties.

(Caption)
Priests shaved their heads as an act of cleanliness and to show their religious purity.

The Priests’ Role in Burial Practices

Priests had a special role to play in burial practices. Egyptians believed in a life after death. They
thought the spirits of the dead needed their bodies in the afterlife. For this reason, they preserved
bodies from decay through embalming. Priests oversaw this sacred work.
The embalming process had many steps. First, the embalmers removed the body’s organs, such as
the brain, lungs, and liver. They used hooks to pull the brain out through the nostrils. Only the heart was
left in the body. Egyptians believed that the gods used the heart to judge a dead person’s soul.
The organs were packed in jars to preserve them. The organs and body were dried out with a
special salt called natron.
After about 70 days, the embalmers washed and oiled the body. Then they wrapped it in hundreds of
yards of linen. They decorated the wrapped body, or mummy, with jewelry and protective charms. Often
they placed a mask over the head. Finally, they spread a black, gooey gum over the body and wrapped
it a final time.
The mummy was then ready for burial. The mummy was placed in a wooden box which was then put
inside a large stone coffin, called a sarcophagus. Because the ancient Egyptians believed that the
afterlife was much like life in this world, the box or coffin was buried along with other items. These
included food and drink, furniture, statues, gold, jewelry, clothes, games, and mirrors.
Not all Egyptians could afford such complicated burials. But even poor Egyptians wrapped their dead
in cloth and buried them with jars of beer, loaves of bread, and other items they thought would be
needed in the afterlife.

(Caption)
The process of embalming a body produced a mummy, such as those shown here.

(Vocabulary)
embalm to treat a dead body with preservatives to prevent it from decaying
sarcophagus a large stone coffin

9.5 Scribes
 Scribes were one level below priests in the social pyramid. Scribes were Egypt’s official writers and
record keepers. They were highly respected and well paid. Most scribes worked for the government.
Others worked for priests or nobles.
Only men were allowed to be scribes. They came from all classes of society. Becoming a scribe was
one of the few ways that men could rise above their parents’ social class.

Scribe Schools
Boys who wanted to become scribes had to attend scribe school. The schools were run by priests.
Most students came from artisan or merchant families. A very few came from the peasant class.
Schooling started around the age of five. Students typically spent 12 years or more learning
hieroglyphs, the symbols used in the Egyptian system of writing. The system was very complicated.
Most students first mastered a simpler form of writing and then worked their way up to hieroglyphs.
Students had to memorize over 700 hieroglyphs. They spent as many as four years copying the
signs over and over. They practiced their writing on pieces of wood, flakes of stone, and even broken
bits of pottery. When they were good enough, they were allowed to write on papyrus, a type of paper
made from the papyrus plant.
Students in scribe schools did not have an easy life. Classes sometimes lasted from dawn until
sunset. Teachers were strict and often treated their students harshly. They frequently yelled at students
for being lazy or not paying attention. Beatings were common. One stern schoolmaster wrote, “A
youngster’s ear is on his back; he only listens to the man who beats him.”

(Caption)
This engraving shows students in a scribe school working at their writing.

(Vocabulary)
hieroglyph a symbol used in hieroglyphics, a system of writing developed in about 3000 B.C.E.

The Work of the Scribes

Ancient Egyptians made all kinds of records, so scribes held a wide variety of jobs. They kept
records of the grain and food supply. When a government census counted the people living in Egypt,
they recorded the results. Some scribes calculated and collected taxes. Legal scribes recorded court
cases and helped enforce laws. Military scribes kept track of the army’s soldiers and food supply, and
the number of enemies killed in battle.
Every scribe used the same tools. For pens, a scribe used finely sharpened reeds. For paper, he
used a sheet of papyrus laid out on a writing tablet. The tablets were made of wood or stone. Each
tablet contained two wells, one for black ink and one for red ink. A small container held water that was
used to wet the ink.
A scribe carried his tools with him wherever he traveled. His tablet hung from a cord slung over his
shoulder. Leather bags and cases attached to the tablet held his other tools.
Scribes also carried rolls of papyrus. This paper was a remarkable invention of the Egyptians. To
make it, they first cut the inner part of the papyrus plant into strips and soaked the strips in water for
several days until they were soft. Then they laid the strips out in a crisscross pattern between two
sheets of cloth. The papyrus strips were pressed together until the cloth had absorbed all the water.
Finally, the papyrus strips were pressed one more time to form a sheet of paper.

(Caption)
This relief shows two scribes. Only men were allowed to be scribes, although women were sometimes
taught to read and write.

(Vocabulary)
census an official count of the population or number of people living in an area

9.6 Artisans
Below the scribes on the social pyramid were the artisans. Egypt’s artisans were highly skilled
laborers who created some of the most beautiful art objects in the ancient world. Yet, unlike scribes,
they rarely got the respect they deserved. Only the select few who became master craftsmen were
sometimes honored for their work.

Types of Artisans
Artisans specialized in any one of a number of crafts. Workers in this class included carpenters,
jewelers, leatherworkers, metalworkers, painters, potters, sculptors, and weavers. Artisans made many
beautiful objects, including stunning jewelry and elegant furniture. Painters portrayed scenes of
Egyptian daily life. Most artisans were men, but some women wove fabric, beaded clothing, and made
perfume.
The most skilled artisans were the stone carvers. They produced the statues, engravings, and reliefs
found in Egyptian temples, tombs, and monuments.
Stone carvers played an important role in tomb building. The belief in an afterlife inspired wealthy
Egyptians to order elaborate tombs for themselves. Stone carvers helped equip the tombs with artwork
to honor and preserve the dead. They created statues of the deceased, highly detailed wall engravings,
and stone coffins.
Stone carving was hard, time-consuming work. The carvers often worked with very hard rock, such
as granite. They used a hard type of rock called dolerite to pound out the object’s initial shape. Next,
they refined the shape and carved in details using stone tools and copper chisels. Then they smoothed
and polished the object using quartz sand. Painters often added color to the finished product.

(Caption)
Stone carvers were some of the most skilled workers in the artisan class.

The Daily Life and Work of Artisans

Artisans were a class in the middle of Egyptian society. They and their families lived in modest
homes. Their houses were usually rectangular and barely 10 yards long. Three rooms stretched from
front to back. The first room was used either as a workroom or to house animals. The living room came
next. The final room was divided into a kitchen and a bedroom. The roof was sometimes used as a
place to work or sleep.
Artisans typically worked side by side in large workshops. They usually worked for 10 days at a
stretch before taking time off. The workers depended entirely on their employers for food. In hard times
when food was in short supply, artisans often went hungry.
Pharaohs called upon hundreds of artisans at a time to work on royal projects. Artisans created the
fine artwork that often covered temples, royal tombs, and other monuments. They worked in large
groups to complete engravings, paintings, and hieroglyphics.
Despite artisans’ skill and creativity, the upper classes often viewed them as little more than
common laborers. Even the most talented artists were almost never allowed to sign their work. But
some artists did receive recognition. Employers sometimes threw a banquet for their favorite artist.
Occasionally they honored an artist by letting him portray himself in a painting or an engraving.

(Caption)
This painting shows different kinds of artisans at work. Look carefully. What do you see?

Peasants

Peasants made up the lowest and largest class in Egypt’s social pyramid. They were generally
considered unskilled laborers. Yet Egyptian society depended on their work. Peasants grew the crops
that supplied everyone with food. When they weren’t busy working the fields, they helped build
monuments like the pyramids.
The Three Seasons of the Nile
Peasant life revolved around the Nile River and its three seasons: the flooding season, the planting
season, and the harvest season.
The flooding season lasted from June to September. During this time, the Nile overran its banks and
fertilized the fields. Farmers had to wait for the waters to go down before they could work the fields. In
the meantime, they labored on royal projects, such as building pyramids and temples.
In October, the planting season began and farmers sowed their fields with seeds. The biggest crops
were wheat and barley, which were used to make bread and beer.
Peasants worked in pairs to sow the fields. The farmer softened the earth with a plow pulled by
cattle. A second person, often the farmer’s wife, followed behind to scatter the seeds. Throughout the
season, farmers carefully irrigated the land.
The harvest season began in March. Usually the farmer’s entire family helped with the harvest. The
men cut down the plants with sickles (metal blades with short wooden handles). Then the women and
children gathered the tall stalks of grain.
During harvesttime, everyone worked from dawn to dusk. Peasants often sang songs to make the
long hours of labor go more quickly. Sometimes musicians played in the fields while the workers sang.

(Caption)
This painting shows two peasant farmers sowing their land. Peasants worked hard to supply Egyptians
with food.

The Daily Lives of Peasants

Peasants had the fewest comforts of any of the social classes. They lived in simple houses made of
mud bricks. Their furniture was usually limited to woven mats.
The peasants’ diet was simple. A typical meal might include onions, cucumbers, fish, homemade
bread, and water or beer. Peas and lentils were also common. Unlike the upper classes, peasants
rarely ate meat. In times of famine, they often had to boil tough papyrus plants for food.
Peasants spent most of their lives working, but they did have some time for fun. Men enjoyed a river
game that involved knocking each other off papyrus rafts. Holidays were celebrated before planting and
after the harvest. Peasants also took part in festivals honoring the Egyptian gods.
An important time of year for peasants was the end of the harvest season. As a reward for their hard
work, they were allowed to gather up as much leftover grain as they could and keep it for food. But they
could also be punished for a poor harvest.
Farmers had to pay taxes in the form of crops. If a farmer’s harvest came up short and he couldn’t
pay the required tax, he was brutally beaten.

9.7 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, you learned about Egypt’s social pyramid. Each social class had its own role to play
in society. You learned about the work and daily lives of government officials, priests, scribes, artisans,
and peasants. In the next chapter, you will travel south along the Nile and explore the civilization of
Kush.

(Caption)
This painting shows peasants cutting and gathering the wheat harvest.
(Vocabulary)
famine a severe shortage of food

The Kingdom of Kush

(Caption)
A painted fragment of a tomb wall shows Kushites bearing gifts for the pharaoh.

10.1 Introduction
In the last chapter, you learned about daily life in Egypt during the New Kingdom. In this chapter, you
will learn about Egypt’s neighbor to the south, the African kingdom of Kush.
The civilization of Kush thrived from about 2000 B.C.E. to 350 C.E. Kush and Egypt had a close
relationship throughout much of Kush’s long history. Signs of their close ties can be found in pictures on
the walls of some Egyptian tombs and temples.
A good example is the tomb of Hatshepsut, Egypt’s first female pharaoh. If you entered the tomb,
you would see many painted scenes of Egyptian life. But step a little closer, and you might notice that
not all the people in the paintings are Egyptian. Some look a little different. They have darker skin and
curly hair. These people are Kushites. In some scenes, the Kushites appear to be bearing gifts. In
others, they look as if they are armed with bows and arrows. As these images suggest, Egypt and Kush
had a complicated relationship. Sometimes it was peaceful. Often it was not.
In this chapter, you will learn more about the relationship between Egypt and Kush. You will
discover how each culture influenced the other. You will also learn how Kush created its own unique
civilization.

(Caption)
Use this illustration as a graphic organizer to explore the history of the kingdom of Kush.

10.2 The Egyptianization of Kush

Next to Egypt, Kush was the greatest ancient civilization in Africa. Like its neighbor to the north,
Kush grew up around the fertile banks of the Nile River. Kush was known for its rich gold mines. In fact,
another word for Kush is Nubia, which comes from nub, the Egyptian word for gold.
Kush’s location and natural resources made it an important trading hub, or center. Kush linked
central and southern Africa to Egypt. Pharaohs sent expeditions on ships south along the Nile to buy, or
sometimes steal, goods. The Egyptians traded grain, beer, and linen for Kush’s gold, ivory, leather, and
timber. They also bought slaves.
Several times Egypt raided Kush or took control of parts of its territory. During the New Kingdom
period (about 1600–1100 B.C.E.), Egypt’s power was at its height. Egypt used its power to conquer
Kush. Kush was forced to pay tribute to Egypt in the form of gifts. The pharaoh appointed a governor to
make sure the tribute was paid every year. The Kushites gave the governor gold, cattle, ivory, ebony,
ostrich feathers, and slaves.
While Kush was under Egypt’s control, its society became “Egyptianized.” Kushites spoke and wrote
in Egyptian. They worshiped Egyptian gods and wore Egyptian-style clothes. Kush’s famed archers
were hired to fight in Egypt’s army. Princes from Kush’s royal families were sent to Egypt to be
educated.
Around 1100 B.C.E., Egypt’s New Kingdom collapsed. After this, Kush regained its independence.
However, Egyptian culture persisted. About 900 B.C.E., a new line of Kush kings was established. But
even these kings continued to follow Egyptian traditions.
(Caption)
While Egypt controlled Kush, the Kushites brought gifts to Egypt’s governor as tribute. Sometimes the
gifts included exotic animals such as giraffes and monkeys.

(Vocabulary)
archer a person who shoots with a bow and arrow

(Map Title)
Egypt and Kush, 1600-1100 B.C.E.

10.3 Kush Conquers Egypt

After the collapse of the New Kingdom, Egypt fell into political chaos. At least 10 Egyptian kingdoms
fought each other for power. The constant fighting made Egypt weak and unstable.
In the mid 700s B.C.E., Kush took advantage of Egypt’s weakness. Kushite armies invaded Egypt. In
about 730 B.C.E., the kings in northern Egypt surrendered to Kush’s King Piye.
After conquering Egypt, Piye declared himself pharaoh. One of his titles was “Uniter of the Two
Lands.” The kingdom of Kush now extended 1,500 miles. It reached from the Kushite city of Meroë, on
the southern Nile, to the Mediterranean Sea.
In Egypt, Piye and his family became the 25th dynasty, or line of rulers. Kushite pharaohs ruled
Egypt for nearly a century. Historians have traditionally called them the “black pharaohs.”
The Kushite pharaohs did not want to tear Egypt down. Instead, they wanted to revive Egypt’s past
glory. They built magnificent new temples and pyramids in both Egypt and Kush. One of the most
beautiful was the temple at Jebel Barkal. It was modeled after the temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel.
(You visited Ramses’ temple in Chapter 8.)
By the 670s B.C.E., Egypt was being threatened by the Assyrians. As you read in Chapter 6, the
Assyrians created a powerful empire in Mesopotamia. In 671 B.C.E., an Assyrian king invaded Egypt.
For many years the Kushites tried to fight off the Assyrians. But the Assyrians used their advanced iron
weapons to drive the Kushites out of Egypt. By the mid 650s B.C.E., the last of the Kushite pharaohs
had returned to Kush.

(Caption)
This painting shows Egyptian royalty bowing and offering gifts to King Piye. In the past, Kush had been
forced to pay tribute to Egypt. Now Egypt had to pay tribute to Kush.

(Vocabulary)
dynasty a family or group that rules for several generations

10.4 The Kush Capital of Meroë

A new dynasty followed the Kushite pharaohs in Egypt. About 590 B.C.E., Egypt invaded Kush and
destroyed its capital city, Napata. The Kushites decided to make Meroë their new capital. Meroë was
300 miles south of Napata, safely out of Egypt’s reach.
Meroë’s location helped Kush remain an important center of trade. Traders used the Nile, the Red
Sea, and overland routes to transport their goods. These routes all took them through Kush. As a
result, Kushites traded with many lands. Some, like other African kingdoms and Arabia, were nearby.
But Kush also traded with such distant lands as Rome (on the peninsula of Italy), India, and possibly
even China.
Meroë was a large and wealthy city. It became the center of a Kushite civilization that lasted for
nearly 1,000 years. At its height, the city thrived as a great center of industry as well as culture. It
became especially well known for producing iron. The Assyrians had triumphed over the Kushites in
Egypt because of their superior knowledge of iron technology. The Kushites were determined to equal
the Assyrians.
Meroë had everything needed to produce iron. It had a rich supply of iron deposits. It also had plenty
of forests, which provided the wood needed to make charcoal. The charcoal was used to heat the iron
deposits. Once the hot iron separated from the rock, it was cooled in the Nile’s waters.
Ironworkers in Kush made a variety of things. They crafted weapons such as spears, arrows, and
swords. They also created tools to make farming faster and easier. These tools included axes for
quickly clearing forests and hoes for loosening soil.

(Caption)
Kushites used iron to make many useful objects. Here we see Kushite ironworkers crafting spearheads.

10.5 Kush Returns to Its African Roots

After splitting away from Egypt, Kush returned to its African roots. Artwork, clothing, and buildings no
longer imitated Egyptian styles. Kushites worshiped an African lion-god instead of Egyptian gods. They
wrote and spoke a native language, called Meroitic (after Meroë), which had its own alphabet.
Kush art and architecture flourished. Artisans made beautiful pottery, cloth, and gold and silver
jewelry. Rulers built grand palaces, temples, and pyramids.
Kush also revived the African practice of female leadership. Powerful kandakes, or queen mothers,
ruled Meroë. The kandakes usually co-ruled with their sons or husbands. They were considered
goddesses and were very powerful.
One of the greatest kandakes was Queen Amanirenas. She defended Kush against the powerful
Romans in 24 B.C.E. (You will learn about the Romans later in this book.) The Romans had taken over
Egypt. Now they were demanding tribute from Kush. Amanirenas and her son, Prince Akinidad, led an
attack that destroyed several Roman forts on Kush’s borders.
After three years of fierce fighting, Rome signed a peace treaty with Kush. Kush no longer had to
pay tribute to Rome.
Under Amanirenas, Kush had defeated the most powerful empire in the world. The kingdom of Kush
survived for nearly 400 more years. In 350 C.E., Kush fell to invaders from the African country of
Ethiopia.

10.6 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, you learned about the African kingdom of Kush. Egypt and Kush had close ties for
centuries. Each country invaded and conquered the other. Kushite pharaohs ruled Egypt for nearly a
century. After the Kushites left Egypt, Kush created its own, more African, culture. In the next chapter,
you will learn about Egypt’s northeastern neighbors, the ancient Hebrews.

(Caption)
Amanirenas and her son, Akinidad, watch a Roman fort burn. Amanirenas fought side by side with her
soldiers, even losing an eye in battle.

(Vocabulary)
kandake a powerful female leader who co-ruled Kush with her husband and sons
treaty a written agreement by which two or more states agree to be peaceful

The Ancient Hebrews and the Origins of Judaism

(Caption)
Moses presents the Ten Commandments, setting forth the laws of Judaism.

11.1 Introduction
In Chapter 10, you learned about Egypt’s southern neighbor, the African kingdom of Kush. In this
chapter, you will learn about a group of people who lived northeast of Egypt: the Hebrews.
The Hebrew civilization developed gradually after 1800 B.C.E. and flourished until 70 C.E. The
people who became the Hebrews originally lived in Mesopotamia. Around 1950 B.C.E., they moved to
the land of Canaan (modern-day Israel).
The Hebrews were the founders of Judaism, one of the world’s major religions. As you will learn in
the next chapter, the Hebrews eventually became known as the Jews. Judaism is the Jewish religion.
The origins of Judaism and its basic laws are recorded in its most sacred text, the Torah. The word
Torah means “God’s teaching.” The Torah consists of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. (Christ-
ians refer to the Hebrew Bible as the Old Testament.)
In this chapter, you will read about some of the early history of the Jewish people told in the Bible.
You will meet four Hebrew leaders —Abraham, Moses, and kings David and Solomon—and learn
about their contributions to the development of Judaism.

(Caption)
Use this illustration as a graphic organizer to help you remember important figures in the history of the
ancient Hebrews and the development of Judaism.

11.2 What We Know About the Ancient Hebrews

Historians rely on many artifacts to learn about the ancient Hebrews and their time, including the
Torah.

The Torah
Historians use the Torah to understand the history of the Jewish people and the development of
Judaism. As often happened in ancient times, this history was handed down orally from generation to
generation. Later it was written down.
In addition to the Torah, historians look for a variety of other sources of information about early
Jewish history. To help them understand the events and ideas of the time period, they examine
archaeological artifacts, as well as other written records.

The Early History of the Hebrews

According to the Torah, the ancestor of the Hebrews, a man named Abraham, lived near Ur in
Mesopotamia. Around 1950 B.C.E., Abraham and his clan migrated to the land of Canaan. Settling in
Canaan, the Hebrews herded flocks of sheep and goats.
About 1800 B.C.E., many Hebrews moved to Egypt. According to the first book of the Torah, they
fled Canaan because of a famine. For a time they prospered in Egypt, but eventually they were made
slaves. In time, one of their leaders, Moses, led the Hebrews in their escape from Egypt.
For 40 years, says the Torah, the Hebrews wandered in the wilderness, until they settled once again
in Canaan. By 1000 B.C.E., the Hebrews had set up the kingdom of Israel in Canaan under King David
and his son, King Solomon. David forged the Hebrews into one united nation. Solomon built a
magnificent temple in the capital city of Jerusalem.

(Caption)
One wall of Solomon’s temple in Jerusalem remains standing. Today, Jewish people travel from around
the world to pray at the Western Wall. This rabbi is reading the Torah at the wall.
11.3 Important Hebrew Leaders
The Hebrew Bible tells about events in the lives of early Jewish leaders. Four key leaders were
Abraham, Moses, David, and Solomon.

Abraham
Abraham is called the “father of the Hebrews.” One central idea of Judaism is the belief in a single
God. According to the Torah, it was Abraham who introduced this belief to the Hebrews. This was a
new idea in the ancient world. At the time, most people worshiped many gods and goddesses.
According to the Torah, God told Abraham to move his family from Mesopotamia to Canaan. God
also promised Abraham that He would make him the father of a great nation and that He would bless
this nation. Abraham did as he was told, and his descendants became known to us as the Jewish
people.

Moses
The greatest leader of the Hebrews was Moses. The Torah tells how he led his people out of slavery
in Egypt. Moses told the Hebrews that God would lead them to Canaan, the “promised land,” in
exchange for their faithful obedience.
Moses also gave Judaism its fundamental laws. The Torah tells how God gave Moses 10 important
laws engraved on two stone tablets. These laws became the foundation of Judaism.

Kings David and Solomon

After escaping from Egypt and wandering in the wilderness, the Hebrews came once more to
Canaan. It was here that they created a united kingdom under King David and his son, Solomon.
King David established Jerusalem as a holy city. King Solomon built Jerusalem’s first great temple.
The city of Jerusalem and its temple became powerful symbols to the Hebrews of their faith in God.
Let’s learn more about each of these four important leaders by looking at some history from the
Hebrew Bible.

(Caption)
The ancient Hebrew leaders Abraham, Moses, and David were honored more than 2,000 years later in
these statues, carved in the 13th century for Chartres Cathedral in France.

11.4 The Life of Abraham: Father of the Hebrews

The father of the Hebrews was a man named Abraham. Originally called Abram, he was born about
2,000 B.C.E. in the city of Ur in Mesopotamia. The people of Ur worshiped many gods. But Abram
came to believe there was only one true God. This belief in one God would set Judaism apart from
other ancient religions. And Abram’s special relationship to God would become the foundation of the
Hebrew faith.

Abraham’s Covenant with God

According to the Torah, the faith that would become Judaism began with a sacred agreement, or
covenant, between God and Abram. The Torah says that God visited Abram when he was an old man.
God told him, “Leave your own country and your father’s house, and go to a country that I will show
you.” God promised to make Abram the father of a great nation of people.
Abram obeyed. Around 1950 B.C.E. he gathered his many relatives and went west into the land of
Canaan.
When Abram was 99 years old, the Torah says, God spoke to him again: “I will make a covenant
between myself and you.” God promised to favor and protect Abram’s descendants, meaning his
children and the generations that would follow. In return, Abram agreed that he and his people would
always devote themselves to God.
 As a mark of their covenant, God gave Abram a new name, Abraham, which means “father of
many.” God also promised the land of Canaan to Abraham’s people. For Jews, Canaan became the
“promised land.” According to the Torah, the covenant meant that Jews would set an example for how
God wanted people to live.

(Vocabulary)
covenant an agreement or promise
descendant a daughter or son, granddaughter or grandson, and so on

(Map Title)
Abraham’s Route from Mesopotamia to Canaan

Abraham’s Sacrifice
According to the Torah, God tested Abraham’s faith and obedience many times. The final test was
the hardest.
It was common at that time to offer animals as a sacrifice to the gods. An animal such as a sheep
would be killed and then burned on an altar. In his old age, Abraham had finally fathered a son, Isaac.
The Torah says that one day God tested Abraham by telling him to make a sacrifice of his son.
Abraham dearly loved his son. Yet his devotion to God was so complete that he brought Isaac to a
mountain to be sacrificed. At the last minute, God sent an angel to stop Abraham from killing his son.
Abraham had proved his faith and obedience, and God renewed the promise to him. God said, “I will
make your descendants as many as the stars of heaven.”
According to the Torah, God kept the promise. The Hebrews flourished. The nation was made up of
12 tribes that were descended from Abraham’s grandson, Jacob, whom an angel from God had named
Israel.
Abraham made many contributions to the development of Judaism. He was the ancestor of the
Jewish people. He introduced the belief in a single God. Because of his covenant with God, Jews
believed they should set an example of how to live. Their reward was the promised land. These beliefs
became a central part of Judaism.

(Caption)
This fresco painting was created in 1726 by the artist Giovanni Battista. It is titled The Sacrifice of
Isaac.

(Vocabulary)
sacrifice a gift of an animal for slaughter as a way to honor gods

11.5 The Life of Moses: Leader and Prophet

The greatest leader of the Hebrews was the prophet Moses. The Torah tells the story of how Moses
led the Hebrews out of slavery in Egypt and gave them God’s laws to live by.

The Exodus from Egypt

By the time of Moses, around 1250B.C.E., a large group of Abraham’s descendants were living in
Egypt. There, the Torah says, the Hebrews “increased in number and became very powerful.” Fearful
of their growing strength, the pharaoh turned them into slaves. But God heard the cries of the enslaved
Hebrews. According to the Torah, God told Moses, “I will send you to the pharaoh, and you shall free
my people.”
Moses went before the pharaoh and told him to let the Hebrews go free. When the pharaoh refused,
God punished Egypt with 10 terrible plagues. In one plague, insects called locusts devoured the crops.
In another, the waters of the Nile turned to blood. Finally, God sent an angel to kill the firstborn son in
every Egyptian family.
Weeping over his own dead son, the pharaoh gave in. Moses began to lead the Hebrews out of
Egypt.
But the pharaoh soon changed his mind. The Egyptian army chased after the Hebrews and nearly
caught up with them at the edge of the Red Sea. Calmly, Moses raised his staff (walking stick), and the
waters of the sea parted. The Hebrews crossed safely to the other side. When the Egyptians tried to
follow, the waters flooded over the army, drowning the soldiers. The Hebrews escaped.
The Torah calls the flight from Egypt the Exodus, which means “departure.” It became a central
event in the history of the Hebrew people.

(Caption)
The Torah tells the story of Moses parting the waters of the Red Sea. For Hebrews, this miracle proved
that God was watching over them.

(Vocabulary)
prophet a person who speaks or interprets for God to other people
plague a terrible disaster affecting many people and thought to be sent by God as a punishment
Exodus the escape of the Hebrews from Egyptian slavery

The Ten Commandments

After leaving Egypt, the Torah says, the Hebrews wandered through a wilderness for 40 years.
During this time, God gave Moses the laws that became the foundation of Judaism. These laws are
called the Ten Commandments
Moses received the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai, the “Mountain of God.” Moses had gone
up the mountain alone to pray. When he returned, he was carrying two tablets of stone. Engraved on
the tablets were the Ten Commandments.
Some of the commandments spelled out the Hebrews’ duties to God. For example, the first
commandment was, “You shall have no other God before me.” During their wanderings, some of the
Hebrews had begun to worship other gods. This commandment reminded them of their promise to
worship only one God. Another commandment told them to set aside one day a week, the Sabbath, for
rest and worship.
Other commandments laid down basic moral laws (laws about the right way to live). For example,
one said, “You shall honor your father and mother.” Other commandments forbid stealing, lying, and
murdering.
The Ten Commandments state Judaism’s basic laws. By obeying the commandments, Hebrews
would fulfill their part of the covenant with God. That responsibility was to make God’s moral laws
known to the world. In turn, God would protect them.
Moses made several key contributions to the development of Judaism. First, he led the Exodus out
of Egypt. Jews have celebrated this event ever since as proof that God would watch over them.
Second, Moses gave Judaism its fundamental laws, the Ten Commandments. Third, he forged the
Hebrews into a united people devoted to a single God.

(Vocabulary)
Ten Commandments the ten laws said to be given to Moses by God
Sabbath the seventh day of the week to be used for rest and worship, according to one of the Ten
Commandments

(Map Title)
The Exodus from Egypt
11.6 The Lives of David and Solomon: Kings of Israel
After their wanderings in the wilderness, the Hebrews settled once more in Canaan. The Hebrew
Bible tells how they built a kingdom and a great temple under two kings, David and Solomon.

David Founds the Kingdom of Israel

In David’s time, about 1000 B.C.E., the Hebrews were at war with a rival tribe, the Philistines.
According to the Hebrew Bible, the Philistines promised to be the Hebrews’ slaves if someone could
beat their fiercest warrior, the giant Goliath.
David was not yet a grown man, but he was outraged at Goliath’s mockery of the Hebrew God.
Bravely he stepped forward. His only weapon was a slingshot. With one mighty throw, he felled Goliath
with a stone.
David’s courage and faith were rewarded later, when God made him king. According to the Hebrew
Bible, God said, “The Hebrew kingdom will remain with him and with his children and his children’s
children forever.”
As king, David completed the defeat of the Philistines as well as other enemies. He united the two
parts of the Hebrews’ land, Israel and Judah, into a single kingdom known as Israel. He created a
strong central government. He gave the new kingdom its own army, courts, and government officials.
David himself served as the nation’s chief priest.
David chose the city of Jerusalem for his capital. Under David, Jerusalem became the center of
Israel’s political and religious life. David brought the Hebrews’ most sacred object, the Ark of the
Covenant, to Jerusalem. The Ark was a wood and gold chest that held the Ten Commandments. As
the home of the Ark, Jerusalem became a holy city.

(Caption)
In this painting, Kind David leads a procession to bring the sacred Ark into Jerusalem.

(Vocabulary)
Ark of the Covenant the chest containing the Ten Commandments, written on stone tablets, that the
Hebrews carried with them during their wanderings after their flight from Egypt

Solomon Builds the Great Temple of Jerusalem

After David’s death, his son, Solomon, became king. Solomon built a magnificent temple in
Jerusalem to house the Ark of the Covenant and to be the center of Jewish worship. According to the
Hebrew Bible, he told God, “Thus all the peoples of the earth will know Your name.”
Building the temple was a huge undertaking and cost the Hebrews greatly. Solomon forced his
people to work on the construction of the temple. More than 3,000 officials were needed to oversee the
project. And Solomon taxed his people heavily to buy gold, cedar wood, copper, and other materials.
Solomon’s methods angered many Hebrews. Near his death, their resentment exploded. In 931
B.C.E., the northern tribes broke away and became a separate kingdom of Israel. David and Solomon’s
descendants ruled the southern kingdom of Judah.
David and Solomon had made important contributions to Judaism. They laid the foundation for the
Jewish people to be governed by kings for more than 400 years. David established Jerusalem as a holy
city. And Solomon built the first great Temple of Jerusalem. After David and Solomon, Jerusalem would
always be a holy city to the Jews and a powerful symbol of their faith.

11.7 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, you read about the ancient Hebrews and the origins of Judaism. Through the stories
of Abraham, Moses, David, and Solomon, you learned how Judaism developed. In the next chapter,
you will learn how the Hebrews became known as Jews and how they kept their ancient religion alive
outside of Judah and Israel.

(Caption)
Solomon built a magnificent temple in Jerusalem. Today the site of the Temple is the holiest place in
the world to Jews.

The Struggle to Preserve Judaism

(Caption)
Roman soldiers destroy the Temple of Jerusalem and carry off sacred treasures.

12.1 Introduction
In the last chapter, you read about the origins of Judaism. In this chapter, you will discover how
Judaism was preserved even after the Hebrews lost their homeland.
As you have learned, the Hebrew kingdom split in two after the death of King Solomon. Weakened
by this division, the Hebrews were less able to fight off invaders.
The northern kingdom of Israel was the first to fall. In 722 B.C.E., the Assyrians conquered Israel.
The kingdom’s leaders were carried off to Mesopotamia.
In 597 B.C.E., the kingdom of Judah was invaded by another Mesopotamian power, Babylon. King
Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon laid siege to the city of Jerusalem. The Hebrews fought off the siege until
their food ran out. With the people starving, the Babylonians broke through the walls and captured the
city. In 586 B.C.E., Nebuchadrezzar burned down Solomon’s great Temple of Jerusalem and all the
houses in the city. Most of the people of Judah were taken as captives to Babylon.
The captivity in Babylon was the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. The word diaspora means “a
scattering.” Never again would most of the followers of Judaism be together in a single homeland.
Yet the Jews, as they came to be known, were able to keep Judaism alive. In this chapter, you will
first learn about four important Jewish beliefs Then you will read about the Jews’ struggle to
preserve Judaism after they had been forced to settle in many lands.

(Caption)
Use this T-chart as a graphic organizer to explore the struggle to preserve Judaism.

12.2 The Central Beliefs and Teachings of Judaism

The religious and moral ideas of Judaism have left a lasting mark on Western civilization. Let’s look
at four central beliefs and teachings of Judaism that remain very influential today.

Monotheism
Most people in ancient times believed in many gods. The Hebrews were different. They believed that
there is only one God, a belief called monotheism. Judaism is the world’s oldest monotheistic religion.
Judaism teaches that God is all-powerful and all-knowing. God is also the source of morality
(standards of right and wrong). Jews believe in a solemn duty to honor and obey God. Many Jews feel
they have a personal relationship with God. They speak to God through prayer and feel that God is
close to them in their daily lives.

Following God’s Law

Following God’s law is central to Jewish life. The Torah instructs Jews how to lead a life that pleases
God.
 As you have learned, Judaism’s oldest laws are the Ten Commandments. The commandments tell
how to honor God. For example, one commandment tells Jews to set aside a holy day, the Sabbath,
every week. The Sabbath is a day of rest and prayer. The commandments also lay down laws of right
and wrong, such as “You shall not steal” and “You shall not murder.”
Over time, Jewish religious leaders developed a much larger set of laws. For example, there were
rules about how to prepare food and what foods should be avoided. Many religious practices
developed, such as the celebration of Passover. These holy days honor God’s rescue of the Hebrews
from Egypt. Jews strive to be faithful to these rules and practices.

(Caption)
In this painting, Moses holds the stone tablets on which are written the Ten Commandments. Following
the law of God is a central part of Judaism.

(Vocabulary)
monotheism the belief that there is only one God

Equality and Social Justice

Beginning with the Ten Commandments, Judaism has always been concerned with moral values of
right and wrong. Two important values are equality and social justice.
Unlike some other ancient peoples, the Hebrews did not view their leaders as gods. They believed
that there is only one God, and even kings had to obey God’s laws. Judaism teaches that all people
who keep the laws are equal in God’s sight.
Belief in equality goes hand in hand with a concern for social justice. Many stories and sayings in the
Torah teach about treating everyone fairly. For example, in one passage Jews are told, “You shall open
wide your hand to your brother, to the needy and to the poor.” Caring for the less fortunate people in
society is a basic value in Judaism.

The Importance of Study

Study of the Torah is very important in Judaism. Jews also study interpretations of the Torah made
by scholars and rabbis
At first, decisions interpreting the Torah were passed down orally. In the 200s C.E., Jewish scholars
began writing the Talmud, which contains this oral tradition along with learned commentaries. The
Talmud became a basic source of Jewish law. Later rabbis wrote their own commentaries on both the
Torah and the Talmud.
Throughout history, Jews have kept their reverence for study and learning. Many Jews stay in touch
with Jewish history, law, and traditions through reading and discussion. They also pass on their
knowledge to other members of the faith.

(Caption)
Jewish scholars today study and discuss the Torah as one way of understanding and practicing their
religious beliefs.

(Vocabulary)
rabbi a religious teacher who studies and teaches others about Jewish law
Talmud the collection of ancient Jewish writings that interpret the law of the Torah

12.3 Foreign Domination and the Jewish Diaspora

The fall of Judah in 597 BCE. and the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 586 BCE.
threatened the survival of Jewish beliefs. Thousands of Hebrews entered captivity in Babylon. The
Jewish Diaspora had begun. From this time on, the followers of Judaism would be scattered in
many lands. Those who did return home found their land dominated by foreign rulers. It would
not be easy to keep Judaism alive.

Rule by the Babylonians, Persians, and Greeks

The Hebrew captives in Babylon lived there for half a century. In this time of sorrow, great
prophets rose up to encourage the people to remain faithful to Judaism.
It was after this time that the Hebrews came to be known as Jews. The Babylonians called
their captives “Judaeans,” after their homeland of Judah. The name was later shortened to
“Jews.”
In 539 B.C.E., the Babylonians were conquered by the Persians. The Persian king, Cyrus,
released the Jews from captivity. Many Jews returned to Judah, where they immediately set
to work building a new temple. Others stayed behind in Babylon. Since then, Jews outside
their homeland never stopped praying to return.
For nearly 400 years, Judah was ruled by foreigners, first the Persians and later the Greeks.
Sometimes the foreign rulers were kind. More often they were harsh.
The Greek rulers tried to force the Jews to worship idols of Greek gods in the temple. In
168 B.C.E., the Jews rebelled and started a war that lasted 27 years. In 164 B.C.E., they
drove the Greeks from Jerusalem and reclaimed and repurified the temple. Jews today
celebrate Hanukkah to honor this victory.

(Map Title)
Jewish Diaspora, About 931-538 B.C.E.

Rule by the Romans

For 88 years after the war with the Greeks, the Jews living in Judah had an independent
kingdom.
Then, in 63 BCE., they were conquered by the Romans.
The Romans were building a great empire, and they were quick to stamp out any sign of
rebellion. More than 50,000 Jews were brutally executed under their rule. But the Romans
did allow the Jews to practice their religion and to govern some of their own affairs. In 22
B.C.E., King Herod, who was allowed to rule in Judah, announced a huge project to rebuild
the temple in Jerusalem so that it would be even more magnificent than Solomon’s temple.
The work took 46 years to complete.
In 66 C.E., the Jews rose up against the Romans. For three years, they managed to
keep the Romans out of Jerusalem. Then, in 70 C.E., a Roman military leader named Titus
led an army of 60,000 soldiers against the Jews. The Jews fought back fiercely, but they
were hopelessly outnumbered. They watched in horror as the Romans destroyed
Jerusalem and its great temple. All that remained of the temple was its western wall. To
this day, Jews consider this wall sacred.
The Roman victory began the final scattering of the Jewish people from their homeland.
The Romans seized Jewish land and forbade the Jews from entering Jerusalem. Although
some Jews always remained in the land of Israel, thousands were sent to other parts of the
Roman Empire.
The Jews had lost their homeland and their holy city. Yet Judaism not only survived, it
flourished.
Next you will learn how the Jews preserved their faith and way of life.

(Caption)
The Western Wall in modern-day Jerusalem was part of a network of supporting walls that
 surrounded the temple destroyed by the Romans.

(Vocabulary)
execute to kill Preserving and Passing On the Teachings of Judaism
After losing their homeland, their holy city, and the great temple that was the heart of
their faith, the Jews faced a great struggle to preserve their religion. Jews were scattered
among many gentile, or non-Jewish, lands. With creativity and dedication, they found a
variety of ways to keep Judaism alive.

Rabbi Yohanan ben Zaccai

One individual who helped to preserve Judaism was a rabbi, or religious teacher, named
Yohanan ben Zaccai. When the revolt against Rome broke out in 66 CE., ben Zaccai was
afraid Judaism would not survive. He worried that the Jewish rabbis would die in the fighting.
If they were lost and the temple was destroyed, Judaism would be left with nothing.
Ben Zaccai begged the Jews to surrender in order to save Judaism. When they refused,
he decided to approach the Romans for help.
Ben Zaccai faked his death and was smuggled out of Jerusalem in a coffin. He met with
Vespasian, a Roman general, and pleaded for the chance to start a Jewish school in the
small town of Yavneh.
Together with other rabbis, ben Zaccai was allowed to start his school.

(Vocabulary)
gentile non-Jewish

(Map Title)
Jewish Diaspora in the Roman Empire, About 200 C.E.

When Jerusalem fell, Yavneh became the center of Jewish life. Ben Zaccai and 71 other
rabbis created a new religious lawmaking body. They also made Yavneh a training ground for
other rabbis. Teachers from around the world came to Yavneh to study. Then they returned to
their communities to share what they had learned. In this way, the rabbis at Yavneh made sure
that Jews still had leaders to guide them.

New Teachers and Practices

In addition to training other rabbis, the rabbis at Yavneh introduced new practices to ensure
that the teachings of Judaism would be passed on.
Traditionally, only religious leaders were allowed to read from the Torah. The Yavneh
rabbis decided that any adult male could read from the sacred text. As a result, Jews no
longer needed a trained leader to learn about Jewish history and law.
The rabbis also made the synagogue more important in Jewish life. A synagogue is a
house of worship. But it is also a place to study and to hold meetings and social gatherings.
The rabbis told Jews to build a synagogue wherever there were at least 10 adult male Jews.
By building synagogues, Jews could strengthen their communities and their faith.
These new practices helped Jews preserve their religion in communities around the world.
Over the centuries, rabbis studied and commented on Judaism’s sacred texts, and
developed other new practices. Jews often faced prejudice and persecution but kept their
faith.
In 1948, a new Jewish state, Israel, was created in part of the lands once ruled by David
and Solomon. Jews from many countries settled in Israel. For others, the traditions
established over many centuries allowed their religion to thrive in many non-Jewish lands.