Module 2

Metal forming
Metal Forming

▪ The shaping of a component by the application of external forces is

known as the metal forming process.

▪ Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing processes in

which plastic deformation is used to change the shape of metal
workpieces.

▪ These processes have been designed to exploit a remarkable property

of some engineering materials known as plasticity, the ability to flow as
solids.
Metal Forming

▪ Depending on the type of metal forming process, the metal is

subjected to compressive, tensile, bending, and shear stresses.

▪ To be successfully formed, a metal must possess certain properties.

▪ Desirable properties include low yield strength and high ductility.

▪ Ductility is increased, and yield strength is reduced when the working

temperature of the metal is raised.
Classification of
Metal Forming
 o Stress
o Stress at a point
o Elastic deformation
Mechanical Behaviour o Plastic deformation
of Materials o Tensile stress-strain curve
o Flow stress
o Yield criterions
Stress
▪ Stress is a measure of internal resisting force developed when an
external force is applied to a body.

▪ It is defined as force per unit area.

▪ Stress cannot be physically measured; Strain is measured and stress

values are calculated.

▪ Stress is proportional to strain for small deformations.

▪ The body is assumed to be continuous, homogeneous and isotropic.

Stress

▪ In general, a given plane may have 1 normal stress and 2 shear stress
acting on it.
Stress at a point

𝜎xx 𝜏xy 𝜏xz

𝜎= 𝜏yx 𝜎yy 𝜏yz
𝜏zx 𝜏zy 𝜎zz

𝜏xy = 𝜏yx, 𝜏xz = 𝜏zx, 𝜏yz = 𝜏zy

▪ Six stress components are required to define stress at a point.

State of Stress in 2 Dimensions
(Plane Stress)

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎= + cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏xy sin 2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏 = sin 2𝜃 − 𝜏xy cos 2𝜃
2
Engineering stress strain curve
 Yield point
Elastic limit

Proportional limit

Plastic strain, OC = 0.002 or 0.2%

Elastic deformation

▪ Stretching during elastic regime is

related to stretching of chemical
bonds.

▪ Elastic modulus is dependent on the

nature of chemical bonds that exist in
the material.
 𝑷 𝛛
𝝈𝒕 = 𝜺=
𝑨 𝒍

▪ For an isotropic solid stress is related to strain by Hooke’s Law

▪ For an anisotropic solid generalized Hooke’s Law is used

(21 elastic constants required).
Plastic deformation

▪ The theory of plasticity deals with

the behaviour of materials at strains
where Hooke’s law is no longer valid.

▪ Plastic deformation is not a

reversible process.

▪ Amount of residual plastic strain = 𝜀2

Recoverable elastic strain = 𝜀1 − 𝜀2
▪ The volume and mass of metal are conserved, and the metal is
displaced from one location to another.

▪ The mechanism of plastic deformation of metals is related to

imperfections in the solid.

▪ Dislocations are defects in the crystal structure of materials that play a

key role in plastic deformation. When a material is subjected to stress,
dislocations move, allowing layers of atoms to slip past each other,
resulting in plastic deformation.
Dislocations
▪ A slip plane containing a dislocation requires
much lower shear stress to allow slip than a
plane in a perfect lattice.

▪ Dislocations explain the discrepancy between

the actual and theoretical strengths of metals.

▪ When a dislocation moves, less atomic bonds

have to break at a time than if all the bonds
on the plane break at once.
▪ Original lattice ▪ Elastic deformation ▪ Plastic
(No permanent deformation
change in positions of (Atoms in the
atoms) lattice are forced
to move to new
positions)
Dislocations
Dislocations
▪ Dislocations encounter obstacles such as other dislocations,
precipitates, or grain boundaries, which impede their movement.

▪ As plastic deformation continues, dislocations accumulate and form

structures like dislocation pile-ups, tangles, and networks. These
structures create internal stress fields within the material that oppose
further dislocation movement

▪ The dislocation structures generate a backstress, which is an internal

stress that opposes the applied external stress.

▪ This backstress increases the material's resistance to further

deformation in the same direction.
Strain hardening/Work hardening
▪ The presence of a dislocation lowers the shear stress required to
cause slip.

▪ However, dislocations can be entangled and interfere with each other

or impede by barriers.

▪ The higher shear stress required to overcome entanglements and

impediments results in an increase in the overall strength and
hardness of the metal, and is known as strain hardening.

▪ When a metal is plastically deformed it undergoes strain hardening.

Bauschinger effect
▪ Consider a specimen that is deformed plastically
beyond the yield stress in one direction and is
unloaded to zero stress and then reloaded in the
opposite direction (compression).

▪ The yield stress on reloading will be less than the

original yield stress, and the phenomenon is called
the Bauschinger effect.

▪ Backstress developed during the initial

deformation assists the movement of dislocations
in the opposite direction.
True stress-strain curve/ Flow curve
▪ Engineering stress and strain:

𝑃 △𝐿 𝜎𝑒
𝜎𝑒 = 𝜖𝑒 = 𝐸=
𝐴0 𝐿0 𝜖𝑒

Initial area Initial length

▪ True stress and strain:

𝐿
𝑃 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿 𝐿
𝜎𝑡 = 𝑑𝜖𝑡 = → 𝜖𝑡 = න = 𝑙𝑛
𝐴 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿0
𝐿0
Variable
area
 △𝐿 𝐿 −𝐿0 𝐿
𝜖𝑒 = = = -1
𝐿0 𝐿0 𝐿0

𝐿 𝐿
𝜖𝑒 + 1 = We know, 𝜖𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛
𝐿0 𝐿0

𝜖𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝜖𝑒

𝜎𝑡 = 𝜎𝑒 1 + 𝜖𝑒
Problem 1
A tensile specimen with a 12 mm initial diameter and 50 mm gauge
length reaches maximum load at 90 kN and fractures at 70 kN. The
minimum diameter at fracture is 10 mm. Determine the engineering
stress at maximum load (the ultimate tensile strength) and the true
fracture stress. Also determine the true strain at fracture and engineering
strain at fracture.

Ans: 796 MPa, 891 MPa, 0.365, 0.44

▪ Strain hardening is an
important factor in
metal forming.

▪ If the portion of the

true stress–strain curve
representing the plastic
region were plotted on
a log–log scale, the
result would be a linear
relationship.
▪ The relationship between true stress and true strain in the plastic
region can be expressed as

▪ This equation is called the flow curve. (Hollomon equation)

▪ K = Strength coefficient (MPa).

▪ n = Strain hardening exponent (slope of the line). At the onset of

necking, n =  Prove that at the onset of necking, n = 

▪ For any metal, the values of K and n depend on temperature.

Problem 2
A material has a true stress–true strain curve given by

σ = 690 𝜖 0.5MPa.

Calculate the true ultimate tensile strength and the engineering UTS of
this material.

Ans: True UTS = 488 MPa, Engineering UTS = 296 MPa.

▪ Perfectly elastic ▪ Elastic, perfectly plastic (n=0) ▪ Elastic and strain
hardening (n > 0)
Flow stress

▪ Due to strain hardening, the stress required to continue deformation

must be increased to match the increase in strength.

▪ Flow stress is defined as the instantaneous value of stress required

to continue deforming the material.

▪ It is the yield strength of the metal as a function of strain.

Average flow stress
▪ The average flow stress is the
average value of stress considering
the initial strain to the final value
that occurs during deformation.

▪ The average flow stress is

determined by integrating the flow
curve equation.
Problem 3
The strength coefficient is 550 MPa and strain hardening exponent is
0.22 for a certain metal. During a forming operation, the final true strain
that the metal experiences is 0.85. Determine the flow stress at this
strain and the average flow stress.
Problem 4
The strength coefficient is 241 MPa and strain hardening exponent is
0.40 for a metal used in a forming operation in which the work piece is
reduced in cross-sectional area by stretching. If the average flow stress
on the part is 138 MPa, Determine the amount of reduction in cross-
sectional area experienced by the part.
Problem 5

The flow stress (in MPa) of a material is given by

σ = 500 𝜖 0.1

Where, ε is true strain. The Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material

is 200 GPa. A block of thickness 100 mm made of this material is
compressed to 95 mm thickness and then the load is removed.
Determine the final dimension of the block (in mm).
Recrystallization

▪ If a metal is heated to a sufficiently elevated temperature and

deformed, strain hardening does not occur.

▪ Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain.

▪ The formation of new strain-free grains is a process called

recrystallization, and the temperature at which it occurs is about
one-half the melting point (0.5 Tm).
▪ Recrystallization is a temperature-dependent characteristic of metals
that can be exploited in manufacturing.

▪ By heating the metal to the recrystallization temperature before

deformation, the amount of straining that the metal can endure is
substantially increased.

▪ The forces and power required to carry out the process are
significantly reduced.

▪ Forming metals at temperatures above the recrystallization

temperature is called hot working.
 Temperature in metal forming
▪ Strength and strain hardening are both reduced at higher temperatures.

▪ This results in lower forces and power during forming.

▪ Temperature ranges used in metal forming can be distinguished as:

o Cold working ( T = RT or slightly above RT, T ≤ 0.3 Tm)

o Warm working ( T > RT, but T < Recrystallization temp, 0.3 Tm -0.5 Tm

o Hot working ( T ≥ Recrystallization temp, 0.5 Tm -0.75 Tm

Strain rate sensitivity
▪ The flow stress of a metal is a function of temperature.

▪ At the temperatures of hot working, flow stress depends on strain

rate. The effect of strain rate on strength properties is known as
strain rate sensitivity.

▪ As strain rate is increased, resistance to deformation increases.

▪ In cold working, strain rate has only a small effect on flow stress.
In hot working, the effect can be significant.
▪ A more complete expression for flow stress as a function of both
strain and strain rate would be

A = Strength coefficient, combining the effects of K and C values.

A, n, and m are dependent of temperature.
Hot working
Advantages Disadvantages
• No strain hardening • Heat energy is needed
• Lesser forces are required for • Poor surface finish of material due to
deformation scaling of surface
• Greater ductility of material is available, • Poor accuracy and dimensional control
and hence more deformation possible. of parts
• Favorable grain size is obtained leading • Poor reproducibility and
to better mechanical properties of interchangeability of parts
material • Handling and maintaining of hot metal
• Equipment of lesser power is needed is difficult and troublesome
• No residual stresses in the material. • Lower life of tooling and equipment.
Cold working
Advantages Disadvantages
• No heating is required • Higher forces are required for
• Better surface finish is obtained deformation.
• Better dimensional control is achieved; • Heavier and more powerful equipment
therefore no secondary machining is is required.
generally needed. • Less ductility is available.
• Products possess better reproducibility • Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-
and interchangeablity. free.
• Better strength, fatigue, and wear • Strain hardening occurs ( may require
properties of material. intermediate annealing ).
• Directional properties can be imparted. • Undesirable residual stresses may be
• Contamination problems are negligible. produced
Warm working Advantages over hot forming

Advantages over cold forming • Lesser amount of heat energy

requirement
• Lesser loads on tooling and
• Better precision of components
equipment
• Lesser scaling on parts
• Greater metal ductility
• Lesser decarburization of parts
• Fewer number of annealing operation
( because of less strain hardening ) • Better dimensional control
• Better surface finish
• Lesser thermal shock on tooling
• Lesser thermal fatigue to tooling, and
so greater life of tooling.
Isothermal forming
▪ When the hot workpiece comes in contact with cold forming tool,
certain regions in workpiece cools down and regains strength.
▪ This results in irregular flow patterns in the metal during
deformation, leading to high residual stresses & possible surface
cracking.
▪ An isothermal forming operation is performed in such a way as to
eliminate surface cooling and thermal gradients in the workpart.
▪ This is accomplished by preheating the forming tools. This weakens
the tools and reduces tool life, but it avoids the problems caused by
thermal gradient on the workpiece.
Yield criterions

▪ To determine the onset of plastic deformation.

▪ When a material is subjected to a single type of stress, it is easy to

predict when the yielding is likely to occur.

▪ However, if the material is subjected to a complex stress system, then it

is difficult to predict the yield.

▪ Therefore Yield criterions are used.

Tresca’s criterion
(Maximum shear stress criterion)
▪ According to this theory, an element subjected to complex state of stress yield when
the maximum shear stress of the component at any point exceeds the shear strength
at yield point (𝝉𝟎) in simple tension test.

▪ Yielding occurs when, 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝉𝟎

𝝈𝟎 (σ0 = flow stress or yield
▪ From a simple tension test, 𝝉𝟎 = ,
𝟐 strength in uniaxial tension)
𝝈𝟏 −𝝈𝟐
▪ we know 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐

𝝈𝟏 −𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟏 −𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟎 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈𝟎
= 𝝉𝟎 or =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
 𝛔2
𝝈𝟎

-𝝈𝟎
𝝈𝟎
−𝛔1 𝛔1

−𝝈𝟎
−𝛔2

▪ The yield locus is Hexagon and it represents elastic region.

▪ If a point with coordinates falls outside the hexagon, it indicates the yield
condition.
▪ Applicable for ductile material.
Vonmises criterion
(Distortion energy criterion)
▪ According to this theory, yielding of an element subjected to a complex state of
stress occurs when the maximum distortion energy (shear strain energy) stored at
a point in the material exceeds the distortion energy at the yield point under
simple tension.

▪ The total strain energy has components corresponding to strain energy due to
changes in volume and strain energy due to distortion.

▪ Criterion of yielding is given by:

1
σ0 = ⋅ [(𝜎1 −𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 −𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )2 ]
2
For bi − axial stress, σ0 = 𝜎1 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 2 𝛔2 σ
0

For a component in pure shear, 𝜎1 = 𝜏, 𝜎2 = − 𝜏

−σ0
σ0 = 3 𝜏 or σ0 = 3𝜏0, −𝛔1
σ0
𝛔1

−𝛔2 −σ0

𝜏0= 0. 577 σ0
▪ The yield locus is an ellipse.

The shear strength at yield point (𝝉𝟎) in pure shear is less than the yield stress in
uniaxial tension (𝝈𝟎 )
 Isotropic and Kinematic hardening
𝛔2 σ
0 𝛔2 σ
0

−σ0
−σ0
σ0
−𝛔1 𝛔1 σ0
−𝛔1 𝛔1

−𝛔2 −σ0
−𝛔2 −σ0

Isotropic hardening Kinematic hardening

▪ Isotropic models are fine for representing material that is only to be loaded once – or
is only to be reloaded in the same direction cyclically. when loading is tension-
compression-tension in nature kinematic hardening model is used.
 o Forging
Bulk Deformation o Rolling
processes in o Extrusion
Metal Forming
o Drawing
Bulk deformation process
▪ The deformation may occur in all regions of the workpiece
concurrently, as in forging, or sequentially, as in rolling, extrusion or
drawing.

▪ All the bulk deformation processes require contact between the

working surfaces (dies or rolls) and the workpiece.

▪ Metals can be formed either cold or hot.

o Cold working – Strain hardening is important
o Hot working – Strain rate is important
Forging
▪ Forging is a deformation process in
which the work is compressed
between two dies, using either
impact or gradual pressure to form
the part.

▪ Forging refines the grain structure

and improves physical properties of
the metal.

▪ Engine crankshafts, connecting rods etc. are made through forging

 Direction of grain flow lines (orientation of grains) in three different processes

▪ In forging, controlled development of grain flow lines that closely

follow the outline of the component is obtained.
Advantages of forging process

▪ The continuous grain flow lines increase the overall toughness of the forged part
and decrease its susceptibility to fatigue and corrosion failures.

▪ Improvement in physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness)

▪ Forging yields parts that have a high strength-to-weight ratio.

▪ Forging produces products with higher structural integrity, which are consistent
from piece to piece, without any porosity, voids, inclusions and other defects as in
the case of casting.

▪ A variety of shapes can be forged.

Classification of forging process
The forging process can be classified based on:
▪ Working temperature
o Hot forging
o Warm forging
o Cold forging
▪ Method of force application
o Forging hammer (Impact load)
o Forging press (Gradual load)
▪ Degree to which the flow of the work metal is constrained by the dies
o Open die forging
o Impression forging or Closed die forging
o Flashless forging or True closed-die forging or Precision forging
Open die forging

▪ It is also known as upsetting.

▪ Work is compressed between two flat dies, allowing the metal to flow laterally
without constraint

▪ Open-die forging is carried out under ideal conditions of no friction between work
and die surfaces, then homogeneous deformation occurs.
Impression forging

▪ Workpiece takes the shape of the die cavity when forged between two shaped dies.

▪ Die surfaces contain a cavity or impression called a gutter to accommodate the

excess volume of material to ensure that the die is completely filled.

▪ The excess volume of metal fills into the gutter and produces a projection called
flash on the forges part and is later removed through machining.
Flashless/closed die forging

▪ The work piece is completely contained within the die.

Precision forging
▪ Precision forging is used to reduce the
number of additional finishing
operations (hence cost).

▪ Precision forging requires special and

more complex dies, precise control of
the blank’s volume and shape, and
accurate positioning of the blank in the
die cavity.

▪ Also, because of the higher forces

required to obtain fine details on the
part, precision forging requires higher
capacity equipment.
Analysis of open die forging
Case1: Cold forging

▪ As the deformation proceeds the cylinder becomes shorter and the diameter
increases.

𝐴0 ℎ0 = 𝐴 ℎ = 𝐴𝑓 ℎ𝑓 ho = Starting height
ℎ0 h = Height at some intermediate
𝜀 = ln point in the process
ℎ hf = Final height of the work
▪ The forming force required to continue the compression at any given height h
during the process can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding cross-
sectional area by the flow stress

𝐹 = 𝑌𝑓 𝐴

𝐹 = 𝐾 𝜀𝑛𝐴

𝑛 𝑛
ℎ𝑜 𝐴
𝐹 = 𝐾 𝑙𝑛 𝐴 𝐹 = 𝐾 𝑙𝑛 𝐴
ℎ 𝐴𝑜
▪ Product of stress and strain gives work per
unit volume

▪ Area under the true stress-strain curve for

any strain 𝜀1 is the energy per unit volume,
u of the deformed material.

𝜀1

𝑢 = න 𝜎 ⅆ𝜀
𝑜

𝜀1
𝐾𝜀 𝑛+1
= න 𝐾𝜀𝑛 ⅆ𝜀 u =
𝑛+1
𝑜
▪ Total work required for metal deformation is

𝐾𝑉𝜀𝑛+1
W=
𝑛+1

▪ Average Power consumed per cycle is

1 𝐾𝑉𝜀𝑛+1
Pav = tav = Average time per cycle.
𝑡𝑎𝑣 𝑛+1

Above equations are useful for an estimate of the deforming force and power necessary
to size the mechanical equipment for open die forging operation.
Case2: Cold forging with friction

▪ Friction is present between the die an workpiece.

▪ The tendency for the two surfaces in relative motion to adhere to each other
rather than slide is known as sticking friction.

▪ Horizontal platen friction causes the cylinder to assume a barrelled shape.

▪ Barreling effect is more significant as the diameter to height ratio of
the work part increases, due to the greater contact area at the work–
die interface.

• When performed on a hot work part with cold dies, the barreling
effect is more.
• This results from a higher coefficient of friction typical in hot working.
• Heat transfer cools the metal, and its resistance to deformation
increases.
• The hotter metal in the middle flows more readily than the cooler
metal at the ends.
▪ A shape factor (𝐾𝑓) is applied to account for the effects of the D/h ratio and friction.

𝐹 = 𝐾𝑓𝑌𝑓 𝐴 0.4 𝜇𝐷
𝐾𝑓 = 1 +
ℎ
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑓 𝐾 𝜀 𝑛 𝐴

𝜇 =Coefficient of friction
D = Work part diameter or other dimensions representing contact length with
die surface.
h = work part height
 v 1 ⅆℎ
𝐹 = 𝑌𝑓 A = C 𝜀ሶm A 𝜀ሶ = =
ℎ ℎ ⅆ𝑡

▪ Total work required for metal deformation is

ℎ ℎ
ⅆh
𝑊 = න 𝐹 ⅆℎ = C V𝜀 ሶ m න
ℎ
ℎ0 ℎ0

𝑊 = C V𝜀ሶm𝜀1

▪ Average Power consumed per cycle is

1 tav = Average time per cycle.
Pav = C V𝜀ሶm𝜀1
𝑡𝑎𝑣
Case4: Hot forging with friction
▪ Strain rate effect is important and shape factor (𝐾𝑓) is applied to account for the
effects of the D/h ratio and friction.

0.4 𝜇𝐷
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑓𝑌𝑓 𝐴 𝐾𝑓 = 1 +
ℎ

𝐹 = 𝐾𝑓 𝐶 𝜀 ሶ m 𝐴

𝜇 =Coefficient of friction
D = Work part diameter or other dimensions representing contact length with
die surface.
h = work part height
Load-stroke diagram
Problem 6
In an open-die forging process, a disc of diameter 200 mm and height
60 mm is compressed without any barreling effect. The final diameter
of the disc is 400 mm. The true strain is
Problem 7
A solid cylindrical workpiece made of 304 stainless steel is 150mm in
diameter and 100 mm high. It is reduced in height by 50%, at room
temperature, by open-die forging with flat dies. Calculate the forging
force required by assume that the coefficient of friction is 0.2. Take K =
1275 MPa and n = 0.45
Estimate the capacity of a press required for this operation in tonnes.
Also determine the work done and the average power consumed per
cycle if the average time per cycle is 20 seconds.
Problem 8
The diameter of a 10 cm long cylinder made of 1045 steel is increased to 7
cm from an initial diameter of 5 cm by upsetting at 700oC using platens
moving at a velocity of 20 mm/s. Calculate (a) average stress on the platens
and (b) maximum force necessary, assuming homogeneous deformation.
(Select relevant data from tables given below)
Problem 9
A cylindrical work piece is subjected to a cold upset forging operation. The
starting piece is 75mm in height and 50 mm in diameter. It is reduced in the
operation to a height of 36 mm. The work material has a flow curve defined
by K = 350 MPa and n = 0.17. Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1.
Assume strain at the start of yielding is 0.2%.
Determine the force (i) at the start of the stroke, ie., h = 75 mm (ii) at h = 62
mm, (iii) at h = 49 mm, and (iv) at the end of stroke, ie., h = 36 mm.
Also plot the load stroke curve.
Ans:
245,410 N
649,303 N
955,642 N
1,467,422 N
Problem 10
A cylindrical part is warm upset forged in an open die. The initial
diameter is 45 mm and the initial height is 40 mm. The height after
forging is 25 mm. The coefficient of friction at the die-work interface is
0.20. The yield strength of the work material is 285 MPa, and its flow
curve is defined by a strength coefficient of 600 MPa and a strain-
hardening exponent of 0.12. Determine the force in the operation (a) just
as the yield point is reached (yield at strain = 0.002), (b) at a height of 35
mm, (c) at a height of 30 mm, and (d) at a height of 25 mm.
Problem 11
A hot upset forging operation is performed in an open die. The initial size
of the workpart is: Do = 25 mm, and ho = 50 mm. The part is upset to a
diameter = 50 mm. The work metal at this elevated temperature yields at
85 MPa (n = 0). Coefficient of friction at the die-work interface = 0.40.
Determine (a) final height of the part, and (b) maximum force in the
operation.
Problem 12
A 302 stainless steel (Strength constant = 1200 MPa, Strain rate strength
constant = 170 MPa, strain hardening exponent = 0.5, strain rate sensitivity
exponent = 0.1) cylinder of height 12 cm and diameter 7 cm at room
temperature is compressed to a height of 2 cm between large platens
under cold working conditions Calculate the force necessary and estimate
the capacity of the press required (MN).

If the same initial cylinder of height 12 cm and diameter 7 cm is

compressed to a height of 7 cm at 1000oC by a platen moving at 2 cm/s,
calculate the forging force and estimate the capacity of the press required
(MN).
Problem 13
The diameter of a 10 cm long cylinder made of 1045 steel is increased to 7 cm from
an initial diameter of 5 cm by upsetting at
(i) 700oC and (ii) 1000oC
using platens moving at a velocity of 20 mm/s. Calculate for each case, (a) average
stress on the platens and (b) maximum force necessary, assuming homogeneous
deformation. (Select relevant data from tables given below)
(Identify whether it is hot working or cold working and proceed)
Typical material properties
Material Yield Ultimate Hot Strain rate Strain rate Strength Strain Percentage
strength, tensile working strength sensitivity constant, hardening elongation
MPa strength, temp. constant, exponent MPa exponent
MPa range oC MPa
1015 steel 300 450 900-1260 120 0.10 620 0.18 35
1045 steel 410 700 850-1200 180 0.07 950 0.12 22
Die design
The design of forging dies requires a knowledge of the strength and ductility of the
work piece material, its sensitivity to deformation rate and temperature, its
frictional characteristics, and the shape and complexity of the workpiece.

▪ Draft - taper on the sides of the part required to remove it from the die.

▪ Gutter - permits excess metal to escape without causing the forging load to reach
extreme values.

▪ Land – Narrow region present around the die cavity that promotes inward flow
of metal and ensure complete filling of cavity with minimum flash formation.

▪ Parting line - The parting line is the plane that divides the upper die from the
lower die.
Forging equipments
Various types of forging machines are available, and are categorized
based on:

▪ Nature of load application

▪ Capacity (tonnage)
▪ Speed of operation and speed–stroke characteristics
Forging Hammers ▪ Hammers derive their energy from the potential
energy of the ram, which is converted into
kinetic energy.

▪ Hammers are energy limited

▪ Hammers operate at higher speeds compared to

presses

o Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from

falling weight of a heavy ram

o Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram

by pressurized air or steam
Forging Presses
▪ Presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden impact, to accomplish the
forging operation.

▪ Forging presses include:

(a-b) Mechanical presses - converts rotation of drive motor into linear motion of ram
(c) Screw presses - screw mechanism drives ram
(d) Hydraulic presses - hydraulic piston actuates ram
Forging operations

▪ Coining
▪ Heading
▪ Piercing
▪ Roll forging
▪ Hubbing
▪ Swaging
Coining

▪ Coining is a special application of closed-die forging.

▪ Fine details in the die are impressed into the top and bottom surfaces of the work
part.

▪ There is little flow of metal in coining, yet the pressures required to reproduce the
surface details in the die cavity are high.
 Heading

▪ Heading is essentially an upsetting operation performed on the end of a rod or wire

in order to increase the cross-section.

▪ Typical products are nails, bolt heads, screws, rivets, and various other fasteners.

▪ Heading can be carried out cold, warm, or hot.

▪ An important consideration in heading is the tendency for the bar to buckle

Piercing

▪ This is a process of indenting (but not breaking through) the surface of a workpiece
with a punch, in order to produce a cavity or an impression.

▪ The workpiece may be confined in a container, such as a die cavity or may be

unconstrained.

▪ A common example of piercing is the indentation of the hexagonal cavity in bolt

heads. Piercing may be followed by punching to produce a hole in the part