The Tension Test

• Engineering Stress-Strain curve, True Stress-Strain curve

• Instability in Tension
• Stress distribution at the neck
• Ductility measurements in Tension test
• Effect of Strain rate on flow properties
• Effect of temperature on flow properties
• Influence of testing machine on flow properties
• Constitutive equations
• Stress relaxation testing
• Notch tensile test
• Extraction of elastic and plastic material properties of
different materials from uniaxial loading experiments

1
 Engg. stress and Engg. strain
Engineering stress (S) is defined as the load (P) divided by the original
area (A0). Mathematically, it is written as,
𝐏
S= (1)
𝐀𝟎
Engineering strain (e) is defined as the ratio of the change in length to
the original length of the specimen.
If L0 and L1 are the initial and final length of the specimen, then engg.
strain (e) is given by,
𝐋𝟏 − 𝐋𝟎 𝐋𝟏
e= = −1 (2)
𝐋𝟎 𝐋𝟎
During plastic deformation, volume is constant. Hence, we can write
A0L0 = A1L1 (3)

𝐋𝟏 𝐀𝟎
OR, = (4)
𝐋𝟎 𝑨𝟏

𝐀𝟎
Therefore, e = −1 (5) 2
𝑨𝟏
 Continue…
In the elastic region, stress is proportional to the strain.

The specimen undergoes gross plastic deformation when the

load exceeds the yield strength of the material.

The offset yield strength is specified at a strain of 0.2 or 0.1

%. Because it is difficult to find the exact yield strength of
material.
Engg. stress-strain curve
After yield strength, the stress required to continue plastic
deformation increases with increase in strain of the material.
Metal strain hardens during plastic deformation.
As the specimen elongates, the cross sectional area decreases uniformly along the
gage length. Initially the strain hardening is more to compensate the decrease in area.
Finally, a point is reached where the decrease in cross sectional area is greater than
the increase in load arising from strain hardening. The above point is reached at some
point in the specimen which is weaker than the rest of the specimen.

All further deformation is localized to this weakest area during further deformation.
3
Continue…
The stress-strain curve follows the path O-A-A’ then recoverable
σ P
elastic strain on unloading is b = E1 = A 1E
0

The permanent plastic deformation is the offset a.

If the specimen is loaded and unloaded along the path O-A-B-B’.

The elastic strain would be greater than at point ‘A’ because the
load P2 > P1 but the elastic deformation (d) would be less than
plastic deformation (c).

Tensile strength: It is the maximum load divided by the original

cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Pmax
Su = A
0
Yield stress: It depends on the sensitivity of strain measurements.
A gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior occurs. It is
hard to define with precision. Hence, it is reported as offset yield
strength. Also known as proof stress in Great Britain.
Offset yield strength: Stress corresponding to the intersection of
the stress-strain curve and a line parallel to the elastic part of the
curve offset by a specified strain. It is usually specified as a strain
4
of 0.2 or 0.1 percent.
Continue…
True elastic limit: It is based on microstrain measurements at strains on order of 2x10-6
Proportional limit: It is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is
obtained by observing the deviation from the straight line portion of the stress-strain curve.

Ductility: It is a relative term.

Lf − L0
Ductility at fracture: e f= , the value of efdepends on the gage length of the specimen.
L0
Smaller the gage length, greater is the contribution to the overall elongation from the necked
region and the higher will be the value of ef. Therefore, when reporting values of percentage
elongation, the gage length L0 always should be given.

The reduction of area does not suffer this difficulty. Reduction of area values can be converted
into an equivalent zero-gage-length elongation, e0. From the constancy of volume relationship
L A0 1 A0 − Af
for plastic deformation, AL= A 0L0, we obtain = = where q =
L0 A 1−q A0

L − L0 q
Then e 0 = =
L0 1−q
Modulus of elasticity (E): The slope of the linear portion of the elastic stress-strain curve is the
modulus of elasticity. Modulus of elasticity is determined by the binding forces between the
atoms. It cannot be changed without changing the basic nature of the material. It is structure
insensitive properties of the material.
Continue…
Resilience: The ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and to return it
when unloaded is called resilience. Mathematically, it is expressed as

1 S2
UR = 2 𝑆0 𝑒0 = 2E0

Example: Mechanical springs (High yield strength and low modulus of elasticity)

Toughness: It is the ability of the material to absorb the energy in the plastic regime without
causing rupture. It is the total area under the stress-strain curve. It comprises both strength
and ductility.
Toughness:
Structural steel > High carbon spring steel

Resilience:
High carbon spring steel > Structural steel

6
 True stress and True strain
True stress () is the load at any instant divided by the cross-sectional
area over which it acts. True stress is given by,
𝐏
 = (6)
𝐀

𝐏 𝐀𝟎 𝐀𝟎
OR,  = = S( ) = S(1+e) [use eq. (5)] (7)
𝐀𝟎 𝐀 𝐀

True strain () is defined as the change in length to the instantaneous

length of the specimen. True strain () is given by,

𝐋𝟏 𝐝𝐋 𝐋
= 𝐋𝟎 𝐋
= ln( 𝟏) (8)
𝐋𝟎

𝐋𝟏
From eq. (3), = (1+e)
𝐋𝟎
Therefore,  = ln(1+e) (9)
7

Eq. (7) and (9) are applicable only to the onset of necking.
Continue…
Beyond maximum load, the true strain will be calculated based on the actual area or diameter.
Mathematically, it can be written as,

A D
 = ln( A0) = 2ln( Do) (10)

Before maximum load: true stress-strain curve is always left to the engg. curve.

After maximum load: true stress-strain curve is always right to the engg. curve.
8
Continue…
True stress at maximum load:
It corresponds to the true tensile strength.
Necking begins at maximum load at a value of strain where the true
stress equals the slope of the flow curve. If u , u and Au denote true
stress, true strain at maximum load and cross sectional area,
respectively then
Pmax
u = (10)
Au

A
u = ln( 0 ) (11)
Au

A0
Eliminating Pmax yields, u = Su = Sue ε u (12)
Au
True fracture stress:
It is the load at fracture divided by the cross-sectional area at fracture.
This stress should be corrected for the triaxial state of stress existing in
the tensile specimen at fracture. 9
Continue…
True fracture strain:
It is defined as the true strain based on the original area A0 and the area
after fracture, Af.
A 1
f = ln( 0 ) = ln( ) (13)
Af 1−q

True uniform strain:

It is the strain up to maximum load. Mathematically, it can be written
as,
A
u = ln( 0 ) where Au is the area at maximum load.
Au

True local necking strain (n):

It is the strain required to deform the specimen from maximum load to
fracture.
Au
n = ln( ) (14)
Af
10
Continue…
The flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic deformation can be
expressed by the simple power curve relation,
 = Kεn (15)
where K = strength coefficient at  = 1 and n = strain hardening exponent

n = 1 (elastic solid), n = 0 (perfectly plastic solid)

Generally, n value lies between 0.1 to 0.5 for metals.

Rate of strain hardening (d/d) is not identical with the strain hardening exponent.
11
12
 Instability in tension
Necking begins at maximum load during tensile testing of the specimen.

Ideal plastic material: No hardening occurs means it becomes unstable during tension
and begins to neck as soon as yielding took place.

Real material undergoes strain hardening means load bearing capacity increases as the
deformation increases. As the specimen elongates, the cross section area of the
sample decreases.

At necking: The increase in stress due to the decrease in the cross sectional area of the
specimen becomes greater than the increase in load carrying ability of the metal due
to strain hardening.

The condition of instability leading to localized deformation is defined by the condition

dP = 0 (1)

but P = A, then dP = dA + Ad (2)

Use eq. (2) in eq. (1), then we have dA + Ad = 0 (3)
13
Continue…
dσ dA
Arranging, eq. (3), we have =− (4)
σ A

During plastic deformation, volume is constant.

Hence, dv=0 (5)

OR, AdL+ LdA = 0

dL dA
OR, =− = d (6)
L A

dσ dσ
Use eq. (6) in eq. (4), yields = d OR = (7)
σ dε

On differentiating eq. (15) with respect to , we have

dσ εn σ
= nKn-1 = nK =n (8)
dε ε ε

Comparing eq. (7) and (8), we have, n =  where  = εu

n =  (For diffuse necking) 14
Continue…
dL
dσ dσ de dσ (L0 ) dσ L dσ
L.H.S of Eq. (7) can be written as, = = = ( ) = (1+e)
dε de dε de (dL) de L0 de
L
dσ
(1+e) =
de

dσ σ
OR, = (9)
de 1+e

Eq. (7) and (9) are known as Considere’s criterion.

Necking in a cylindrical specimen is symmetrical

around the tensile axis if the material is isotropic.

A different type of necking behavior is found if the

tensile specimen is dog bone shaped.
 Continue…
Sheet specimen:

Width > Thickness

Two types of flow instability.

(1) Diffuse necking and (2) Localized necking

Diffuse necking: Its extent is much greater than the sheet thickness.

Analogous to the neck formed in a cylindrical tensile specimen.

It may terminate into fracture or followed by a second instability process called

localized necking.

Localized necking: The neck is a narrow band with a width equal to the sheet
thickness inclined at an angle to the specimen axis, across the width of the specimen.

There is no change in width measured along the trough of the localized neck. It
corresponds to a state of plane strain deformation. 16
 Continue…
Here the decrease in specimen area with increasing strain is restricted to the thickness direction

Thus, dA = wdt (10)

From eq. (5) dv=0

OR, AdL+ LdA = 0 [use eq. 10]

OR, wtdL + Lwdt = 0

dL dt
OR, = − (11)
L t

If 1, 2 and 3 represent the direction of axial strain, width strain and the thickness strain, then

from constancy of volume, d1 = -2d2 = -2d3

dL dt −dε
But, d1 = = d and d3 = = 2
L t

dL dε
Eq. (11) becomes, =
L 2

dL dA dε
= − = (12) 17
L A 2
Continue…
dσ dA dε
From eq. (4) =− =
σ A 2

dσ σ
OR, = (13)
dε 2

On differentiating eq. (15) with respect to , we have

dσ εn σ
= nKn-1 = nK =n (8)
dε ε ε

Comparing eq. (13) and (8), we have, 2n =  where  = εu

The criterion for localized necking expresses the fact that the specimen area decreases with
straining less rapidly than diffuse necking.

The above derivation is done applying for the power law-law curve.

18
Example
Q. If the true stress vs. true strain curve is given by σ = 14000.33 , where stress is in MPa, what
is the ultimate tensile strength of the material?

Ans: The uniform elongation occurs up to a strain where n = u

Hence, the uniform strain is 0.33.

The true stress at maximum load (σu) = 14000.33 = 1400(0.33)0.33 = 971 MPa,

We know, u = ln (1+eu). Then, 1+eu = 1.39

σu 971
Su = = 1.39 = 698 MPa
1+eu

The ultimate tensile strength of the material is 698 MPa.

19
 Stress distribution at the neck
Neck formation introduces a complex triaxial state of stress. It produces radial and
transverse stress which raises the value of longitudinal stress required to cause plastic
flow.

Therefore, the average stress determined at the neck is determined

By dividing the axial tensile load by the minimum cross sectional area
at the neck. The above calculated stress is higher than the stress
required to cause flow if simple tension prevailed.

Bridgman made a mathematical analysis which provides a

Correction to the average axial stress to compensate for the introduction of
transverse stresses. The analysis was based on the following assumptions:

1. The contour of the neck is approximated by the arc of the circle.

2. Cross section of the necked region remains circular throughout test.
3. The von Mises’ yielding criterion applies.
4. The strains are constant over the cross section of the neck.

20
Continue…
According to Bridgman’s analysis, the uniaxial flow stress corresponding to that which would
exist in tension test if necking had not introduced triaxial stress is

The Bridgman correction factor as a function of the neck shape

21
 Ductility measurements in Tension test
The elongation from a tensile specimen depends on the gage length of the specimen
or the dimensions of its cross section.

Total extension = uniform extension up to necking + localized extension once necking

begins.

Uniform extension depends on the metallurgical condition of the material (through n).
The effect of specimen size and shape on the development of the neck.

Shorter the gage length, the greater is the influence of localized deformation at the
neck on the total elongation of the gage length.

The extension of the specimen at fracture can be expressed by

Lf − L0 =  + eu L0 (1)

Where  is the local necking extension and eu L0 is the uniform extension.

The tensile elongation is given by,

L −L α
ef = f 0 = + eu (2) 22
L0 L0
Continue…
It is observed that geometrically similar samples develop geometrically similar necked
regions.

According to Barba’s law,  =  A0 (3)

Lf − L0  A0
Hence, eq. (2) becomes ef = = + eu (4) [After using eq. (3) in eq. (2)]
L0 L0

Eq. (4) indicates that critical geometrical factors for which the similitude must be
maintained is L0 / A0 for sheet specimens or L0 / D0 or round bars.

Generally, elongation and reduction in area measures different types of material

behavior.
Uniform elongation is dependent on the strain hardening capacity of the material.

Reduction of area is more a measure of the deformation required to produce fracture

and its chief contribution results from the necking process.

Because of the complicated stress state in the neck, values of reduction of area are
dependent on specimen geometry and deformation behavior. It is the most structure 23
sensitive ductility parameter.
 Effect of Strain rate on flow properties
The rate at which strain is applied to a specimen can have an important influence on
the flow stress of the material.

dε
Strain rate is defined as, ε = (1)
dt

Increasing strain rate increases the flow stress of the material. Strain rate dependence
of strength increases with increasing in temperature.

The yield stress and flow stress at lower plastic strains are more dependent on strain
rate than the tensile strength.

dL
If the cross head velocity is v = . The strain rate expressed in terms of conventional
dt
linear strain is e.

de d(L−L0 )/L0 1 dL v
e= = = = (2)
dt dt L0 dt L0

The conventional strain rate is proportional to the cross velocity.

24
Continue…
The true strain rate (ε) is given by,

L
dε d[ln L ] 1 dL v
0
ε= = = = (3)
dt dt L dt L

The relationship between the true strain rate and conventional strain rate is given
below,

v L0 de 1 de e
ε= = = = (4)
L L dt 1+e dt 1+e

Eq. (3) indicates that for a constant crosshead speed the true-strain rate will decrease
as the specimen elongates. To maintain a constant true strain rate, the deformation
velocity must increase accordingly, which is given by,

v = εL0 exp(εt) (5)

Assignment 1: Derive eq. (5) from eq. (3)

Eq. (5) is no more applicable if the plastic flow becomes localized or non-uniform
along the gage length. 25
Continue…
When plastic flow becomes localized, then the instantaneous cross section of the deforming
region is monitored using closed loop control. A constant true strain rate is obtained if the
specimen area changes as
A = A0exp(−εt) (5)

The general relationship between flow stress and strain rate, at constant strain and temperature
is given by,

σ=C ε m (6)
,T

Where m is the strain rate sensitivity. The value of ‘m’ can be obtained from the slope
of the plot of logσ vs. logε.

Practically, the value of m is determined by measuring the change in flow stress

brought by the change in ε at a constant  and T.
σ
𝜕lnσ 𝜀 𝜕σ ∆logσ logσ2 −logσ1 log σ2
1
m= = = = = (7)
𝜕lnε ,T 𝜎 𝜕ε ,T ∆ logε logε2 −logε1 ε2
log ε
1
Strain rate sensitivity of metals is quite low at room temperature but m value increases with
temperature especially at temperatures above half of the absolute melting point.
In hot-working conditions, m values of 0.1 to 0.2 are common. 26
Continue…

Strain rate change test to determine the strain rate sensitivity. (Also known as strain rate
jump test)

27
Example
Q. The parameters for commercially pure aluminum are as follows at a true strain of 0.25.
294 K 713 K
C 70.3 MPa 14.5 MPa
m 0.066 0.211

Determine the change in flow stress for a two order of magnitude change in strain
rate at each of the temperatures.

Ans: At 294 K, σa = C ε m = 70.3 1 0.066 = 70.3 MPa

,T

m 0.066 σb
σa = C ε ,T = 70.3 100 = 95.3 MPa , then = 1.35
σa

m 0.211
Similarly, at 713 K, σa = C ε ,T = 14.5 1 = 14.5 MPa

m 0.211 σb
σa = C ε ,T = 14.5 100 = 38.3 MPa , then = 2.64
σa

28
Continue…
Strain rate sensitivity is a good indicator of changes in deformation behavior. It
provides a key link between dislocation concepts of plastic deformation and the
macroscopic measurements made in the tension test.

The velocity of dislocation motion is dependent on applied stress according to the

relation,

m ′
v= Aσ (8)

where A: Constant, m′ : Stress exponent

Strain rate is related to the velocity of mobile dislocations by

ε = bρv (9)

where b: Burgers vector, ρ: dislocation density and v: velocity of dislocation

𝜕lnσ 1 𝜕lnε
From eq. (7) m = OR, =
𝜕lnε ,T 𝑚 𝜕lnσ ,T

1 𝜕lnε 𝜕lnv 𝜕lnρ 29

OR, = = + (10)
m 𝜕lnσ 𝜕lnσ 𝜕lnσ
Continue…
1 𝜕lnρ
Eq. (10) becomes, = m′ +
m 𝜕lnσ

1 𝜕lnρ
OR, m′ = − (11)
m 𝜕lnσ

Thus, if there is no change in the mobile dislocation density with increasing stress,
1
then m′ = . This hardly is a reasonable assumption.
m

However, if 1/m is plotted as a function of strain, the curve extrapolated to zero gives a
value close to m′

The strain rate sensitivity may be quite low in metals at room temperature. However,
in other materials it is quite appreciable. The extreme case is a Newtonian viscous
solid, where the flow stress is described by

σ = ε (12)

Comparing eq. (12) with eq. (6), we find that m =1

High strain rate sensitivity is a characteristic of superplastic metals and alloys.30

 Superplasticity
Superplasticity refers to refers to extreme extensibility with elongations usually
between 100 and 1000 percent. Sometimes it is more than 1000 percent.

Conditions or Superplasticity:

(a) Grain size or interphase spacing of the order of 1 µm.

(b) High temperature and low strain rate.

Superplasticity results suppression of necking with high values of m.

Example: Hot glass (m =1) which can be drawn from the melt into glass fibers without
the fibers necking down.

In a normal state, the geometric softening that constitutes the formation of a neck is
dσ
opposed by strain hardening and as long as >σ
dε

In superplastic material, the rate of strain hardening is low (high temperature or

structural condition) but necking is prevented by the presence of strain-rate
31
hardening.
Continue… m
From eq. (6), we know σ = C ε ,T (1)

P m
OR, σ = =C ε
A

P 1/m 1 1/m
OR, ε = (2)
C A

From the definition of true strain rate

1 dL 1 dA
ε= = − (3)
L dt A dt

dA 1 1/m
1−(m) P
Combining eq. (3) and (2), we have, − = Aε = A
dt C

dA P 1/m 1
OR, − = (4)
dt C A(1−m)/m

Eq. (4) indicates that as long as m < 1, smaller the cross sectional area then more
rapidly the area is reduced.
32
When m = 1, the deformation is newtonian viscous.
Continue…
For the Newtonian viscous, dA/dt is independent of A and any incipient neck is simply
preserved during elongation and does not propagate inward.

As m approaches unity, the rate of growth of incipient necks is drastically reduced.

Rate of decrease of area on cross sectional Tensile elongation with strain rate sensitivity
area for different values of m 33