Strength of Materials: Theory and Examples
Strength of Materials: Theory and Examples
Strength of Materials: Theory and Examples
BY
R. C. STEPHENS
M.Sc.(Eng.), CEng., M.I.Mech.E.
FORMERLY PRINCIPAL LECTURER IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
WEST HAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
E D W A R D ARNOLD
© R. C. Stephens 1970
First published 1970
by Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd
41 Maddox Street
London W I R OAN
Reprinted 1971
This book is intended to cover the basic Strength of Materials of the first
two years of an engineering degree or diploma course ; it does not attempt
to deal with the more specialized topics which usually comprise the final
year of such courses.
The work has been confined to the mathematical aspect of the subject
and no descriptive matter relating to design or materials testing has been
included.
Each chapter consists of a concise but thorough statement of the theory,
followed by a number of worked examples in which the theory is amplified
and extended. A large number of unworked examples, with answers, are
also included.
The majority of examples have been taken, with permission, from
examination papers set by the University of London and the Institutions
of Mechanical and Civil Engineers; these have been designated U.Lond.,
I.Mech.E. and I.C.E. respectively. All questions were originally set in
Imperial units; they have now been converted to equivalent S.I. units but
are otherwise unchanged.
Over 500 questions have been solved and some errors in solutions are
inevitable. Notification of these would be gratefully acknowledged.
R. C. STEPHENS
ν
N O T E ON S . I . U N I T S
The fundamental units in the Système International d'Unités are the metre,
kilogramme and second, with the newton as the derived unit. Where mixed
quantities are involved in a problem, the solution has generally been
2
worked throughout in the basic units, e.g. for a given stress of 200 MN/m ,
the figure 200 X 10 N/m has been substituted and for a density of
e 2
vi
CHAPTER 1
S I M P L E S T R E S S AND S T R A I N
i.e. σ = - (1.1)
a
If the original length of the bar is I and under the effect of the force Ρ it
extends or compresses a distance x, then
change in length
strain =
original length
i.e. e = | (1.2)
1
2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
The deformed shapes of the bars are as shown dotted in Fig. 1.2; the
strain in directions perpendicular to that of the load is proportional to that
in the direction of the load and is of the opposite sign.
e r s r am
The ratio ^ ^ ^ j s c a j j e ( j p0isson's Ratio and is denoted by v.
axial stram
Thus if the axial strain is ε, the lateral strain is —νε.
i.e. (1.4)
i/
/
/
1/ p τ
FIG. 1.3
FIG. 1.4
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 3
When a shear stress r is applied to the faces AB and CD of an element of
the material, Fig. 1.4, a clockwise couple (τ X AB χ t) χ BC is applied to
the element, t being the thickness of the material. Since it does not rotate,
however, an equal anticlockwise couple must be applied by means of shear
stresses induced on faces AD and BC.
If the magnitude of these stresses is τ', then for equilibrium,
(r χ AB χ t) X BC = (τ' X BC χ t) X AB
Λ τ' = τ
Thus a shear stress in one plane is always accompanied by an equal shear
stress (called the complementary shear stress) in the perpendicular plane.
1.4 Hooke's Law. Hooke's Law states that when a load is applied to
an elastic material, the deformation is directly proportional to the load
producing it. Since the stress is proportional to the load and the strain is
proportional to the deformation, it follows that the stress is proportional to
the strain, i.e. the ratio stress/strain is a constant for any given material.
For tensile or compressive stresses, this constant is known as the Modulus
of Elasticity (or Young's Modulus) and is denoted by E.
Thus 0 * . . . . (1.6)
φ x/l ax
this force ie ^ dö.sin θ so that the total force normal to FIG. 1.7
X X is sin θ άθ = pdl
Jo
2
SIMPLE S T R E S S AND STRAIN 5
Longitudinal stress. The force tending to separate the right- and left-
hand halves is the pressure multiplied by the area of one end, Fig. 1.8,
2
i.e. Pi = px-d
4
This is resisted by the stress acting on the circumferential section, YY,
i.e, σι = . . . (1.9)
4*
FIG. 1.8
If the cylinder is made up from riveted plates and the efficiency of the
circumferential joints is r\z then the average stress in the joint is given by
(1.10)
It is evident from equations (1.8) and (1.10) that the efficiency of the
circumferential joints need only be half that of the longitudinal joints.
i.e. Ρ= ρ χ ΐ ί
4
This is resisted by the stress acting on the section XX,
π
pd
i.e. Ρ Χ τ < . (i-ii)
Tt
If the shell is made up from riveted
ndtplates and the efficiency of the joints
is η, then
pd
a— . (1.12)
6 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
αθ
2
σα σα
σα σα
FIG. 1.10 FIG. 1.11
Alternatively, the centre of gravity of the half of the rim above the
2/*
diametral plane X X , Fig. 1.11, is at a distance — from X X . The centrifugal
71
force on this part is then resisted by the stress a acting on the section X X ,
2
2r
i.e. « i X a X j i r x c ü X - = 2σα
π
from which 2 r2 .
mir
i.e. (1.14)
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 7
Also the sum of the loads carried by each part is equal to the applied load,
i.e. P1 + P 2 = Ρ
or σχαλ + σ2α2 = Ρ . . . (1.15)
χ
ι + 2
χ
= 0
h&é ~~ h *-^
(1.16)
ti1 Ά2
Equation (1.16) will still be applicable and hence σ1 and σ2 may be calcu-
lated. In many instances, however, it may be simpler to determine the
stresses due to the external load and temperature change separately and
then combine these values to obtain the resultant stresses, particular care
being taken over the nature of the separate stresses.
= — X volume (1.19)
2E FIG. 1.15
Mg(h χ) = — χ volume
friction in the material and its final position will be the same as when
gradually applied.
2
ol o
When h = 0, Μα χ Ε— == — 2Ε χ volume
Mg
from which σ=2
a
i.e. the maximum stress is twice that due to a gradually applied load of the
same magnitude.
1.11 Shear strain energy. Referring to Fig. 1.3, the work done by the
shearing force Ρ is \Px, assuming it to be gradually applied.
rl
But Ρ = τ X a and χ •
G
.*. U: X al
2G
X volume (1.21)
2G
1. A tension specimen of circular cross-section tapers uniformly from 20 mm
to 16 mm diameter over a gauge length of 200 mm. When an axial load of
40 JcN is applied, the extension measured on this gauge length is 0-4 mm. Find
the modulus of elasticity of the material.
Compare the strain energy in this specimen with that in a specimen of the
same material of uniform diameter 18 mm carrying the same load. (U. Lond.)
20mm D
FIG. 1.17
4
6
ol 127-4 χ 10 ax
extension of element = — = 2"Ζ Χ ~ΖΓ"
Ε χ Ε
10 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
6 1 0 6
1274 χ 10 f ' çb _ 31-85 χ 10
.". total extension of bar = 2
Ε J os x Ε
= 0-000 4 m
= 31-85 χ 10* = 79-6GN/m*
7
0-000 4 —
For a bar of uniform diameter 0-018 m, extension under a load of 40 kN
= « = 40 χ 103 χ 0-2 = Q - 0 0 0 3 m
9 5
2 9
- χ 0-018 x 79-6 χ 10
4
.'. ratio of strain energies = ratio of extensions for the same load
m 4
° - =1-012
0-000 395
2. A steel ball, radius r, has equal and parallel flats machined on opposite
#
sides so that the thickness across the faces is l 6r. Calculate the decrease in
thickness when an axial load W is applied to these faces.
Keferring to Fig. 1.18, ι \y
area of element
stress on element =
nrE
3. A straight steel bar of uniform cross-section, 1 m long, rotates at 2 500
revJ min about an axis at mid-length perpendicular to the length of tine bar. Find
2
the maximum stress and total extension if Ε = 200 GN/m and steel den-
z
sity = 7-8 Mg/m . (U. Lond.)
Tensile force on element
= centrifugal force on part of bar to right of element, Fig. 1.19
2
= Mœ r
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 11
1m
ί-
α*
FIG. 1.19
PI
Extension of element =
ÔÈ
6 2
_ 267-5 χ 10 a (0-25 - χ ) ax
9
α X 200 χ 10
3 2
= 1-338 X 10- (0-25 - x ) dx
r 0-5
3 2
Λ total extension = 2 χ 1-338 X 10~ (0-25 — x ) dx
Jο
3
= 0-229 Χ ΙΟ" m or 0-229 mm
9
4. Explain the meaning of the term 'efficiency of a riveted joint .
A cylindrical vessel having a diameter of 2 m is subjected to an internal
2
pressure of 1-25 MN/m . The vessel is made of steel plates 15 mm thick which
2
have an ultimate tensile strength of 450 MN/m . If the efficiencies of the
longitudinal and circumferential joints are 80 and 60 per cent respectivelyt
what is the factor of safety? (U. Lond.)
m , „ . „ . , , . . L . xl ^ strength of riveted joint
J
The efficiency of a riveted joint is the ratio —Λ— —·
strength oi undrilled plate
From equation (1.8), ac = pd
1-25 χ 2 2
= 104 MN/m
1
2 χ 0-015 χ 0-80
pd
From equation (1.10) a% = -f— pd
4tyc
1 - 25 X 2 2
= 69-5 MN/m
4 χ 0-015 X 0-60
450
Therefore factor of safety = Ϊ04 = 4-32
12 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
= Χ — = 2 370 rev/mm
0-5 2π
6. A brass rod 6 mm diameter and 1 m long is joined at one end to a rod of
steel 6 mm diameter and 1-3 m long. The compound rod is placed in a vertical
position with the steel rod at the top and connected top and bottom to rigid
fixings in such a way that it is carrying a tensile load of 3-5 kN.
An attachment is fixed at the junction of the two rods and to this a vertical
axial load of 1-3 kN is applied downwards. Calculate the stresses in the steel
and brass.
The temperature is then raised 30 deg C. What are the final stresses in the
steel and brass?
2
Es = 200 GN/m ;
6
a8 = 12 χ 10- /deg C;
2
Eh = 85 GN/m ;
ab 19 X 10- /deg C. (U. Lond.)
6
=
Let the forces in the steel and brass be P s and Steel 1-3m
Ph respectively, Fig. 1.20. Then, equating upward
and downward forces at the junction,
Ps=Ph + 1 300 .
The tension in the steel increases by (P s —
. (1) π
1-3 kN
1m
3 500) Ν and that in the brass decreases by Brass-
(3 500 - Ph) N. Since the overall length of the
77777,
rod remains unaltered, the increase in length of
the steel is equal to the decrease in length of FIG. 1.20
the brass,
4 340 2 2
and N/m = 153-5 MN/m
- χ 0-006
2
4
Let the compressive stress in the rod due to the increase in temperature
be a (which will be the same in the steel and brass since they both have the
same cross-sectional area). The reduction in overall length due to a must
be the same as the free expansion due to the temperature increase, since the
ends remain fixed,
σϊ8 olh
i.e ΕΛ Eh
1-3
( 1 - 3 x 1 2 x 1 0 - · + 1 X 1 9 Χ ΙΟ" )χ30
6
i.e 9 9
\ 2 0 0 x l 0 * 85xl0 y
2
from which a = 56-9 MN/m
2
Λ resultant stress in steel = 153-5 — 56-9 '= 96-6 MN/m
2
and the resultant stress in brass = 107-5 — 56-9 = 50-6 MN/m
7. Fig. 1.21 shows a round steel rod supported in a recess and surrounded
by a coaxial brass tube. The upper |
end of the rod is 0-1 mm below that 0-1 mm
of the tube and an axial load is
applied to a rigid plate resting on the
top of the tube. 30mm
(a) Determine the magnitude of the
maximum permissible load if the 45mrrJ
compressive stress in the rod is not to 3 0 0 mm 50mm
2
exceed 110 MN/m and that in the
2
tube is not to exceed 80 MN/m . -Brass
(b) Find the amount by which the
tube will be shortened by the load if , Steel
1
the compressive stress in the tube is -m
the same as that in the rod. 100 mm
2 J
£ 8 t e e l= 200GN/m ;
2
^braes = 100 GN/m . (U. Lond.) F i g . 1.21
14 S T R E N G T H OF M A T E R I A L S
The sum of the loads carried by the brass and steel is equal to the total
load,
i.e. P h + Ps = P
i.e. σα . . . . (1)
σΛ σΛ
Also I (24 - 12) χ ΙΟ- χ 50
6
210 χ ΙΟ
9
+ 70 χ ΙΟ
9
2
When aluminium wire becomes slack, σ& = 61-3 MN/m (compressive).
Therefore, since o*a is proportional to the change in temperature,
temperature rise =
0-1 + 7 8 χ 1 0 β ^9 5 \ =
ί^0·1
9-81M( (78Χ10Ψ
9
, 0-001 6 χ 25
75xl0 / 2x75xl0 4
from which M= 80-8 kg
16 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
10. A solid steel bar, 200 mm long, is 10 mm square over part of its length.
β 3
The remainder is circular, and alone has a volume of li: χ 10 ~ m . The bar
is subjected to a pull of 20 kN. Find the dimensions of the circular portion so
that the total strain energy may be a minimum, and find its value. Ε = 200
2
GN/m . (U. Lond.)
Let suffices 1 and 2 refer to the square and circular portions respectively,
Fig. 1.22.
Then
Λ 2 2
ax = _ 2 N/m = 200 MN/m
0-01
3
20 χ 10 N/m 2 0-08 2
and σ2 = MN/m
2
d
10 mm sq]
200mm
I
FIG. 1.22
u x r + r
= ï è - â * <
( Ί 2
nd
y
6
6
0-08 * 1 0 \
2
X 24
] X 24 X
χ 10-
e
10- j
But
π2 e
-d (0-2-x) = 24xl0-
4
6
2 96xl0-
Λ nd .
0-2-x
1_ 2
4 s x l 0 + | ^ ( 0 · 2 - ζ ) χ 1 0 | J xX2244xxl lO0 - « |
1 2 1 2 2
2Ë
12
10 2
{lOOx - 16x + 4}
Ï2Ê
άϋ
For the strain energy to be a minimum, — = 0,
ax
i.e. 200x - 16 = 0
or χ = 0-08 m
Λ length of circular portion = 0-12 m
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 17
0-2-0-12
.·. d = 0-025 5 ra or 25-5 mm
12
ΙΟ 2
U = ———————{100χ0·08
β1 — 16χ 0Ό8 -j- 4}
12χ200χ10 '
= 1-4 J
11. The maximum safe compressive stress in a hardened steel punch is limited t o
2
1 G N / m and the punch is used to pierce circular holes in mild steel plate 2 0 m m
thick.
2
(a) I f the ultimate shearing stress of the plate is 3 0 0 M N / m , calculate the
smallest diameter of hole t h a t can be pierced.
(6) I f the effective length of the punch is 7 5 m m , calculate the m a x i m u m strain
energy stored in the punch during the piercing operation. Assume the modulus of
2
elasticity for the material of the punch to be 2 0 0 G N / m . ( Ans. : 2 4 m m ; 84·8 J )
d2
FIG. 1.23
12. Fig. 1.23 shows a knuckle joint in a tie bar. Allowing stresses of 1 0 5 , 7 5
2
and 150 M N / m for tension, shearing and bearing respectively, obtain suitable
dimensions for Z), dv t and d2 if the load on the rod is 125 kN.
(Ans.: 39 m m ; 32-5 m m ; 12-8 m m ; 79 m m )
13. A steel bar 4 0 m m diameter and 4 m long is raised in temperature through
60 deg C, after which its ends a r e firmly secured. After cooling t o normal tem-
perature again, the length of the b a r is found t o be 1-2 m m less t h a n when a t its
highest temperature. Determine the t o t a l pull exerted by the cold b a r and the
2
intensity of stress in it. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m a n d α = 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 / d e g C.
2
(Ana.: 9 0 - 5 k N ; 72 M N / m )
14. A mild steel rod, 6 0 0 m m long, is 2 5 m m in diameter for 150 m m of its
length and 5 0 m m for the rest of its length. I t carries an axial tensile pull of
18 kN. W i t h the axial pull applied, the ends of the rod a r e secured by rigid fixings.
F i n d the temperature through which t h e rod must be raised t o reduce the axial
e 2
pull by two thirds. a 8 te e l = 11 X 1 0 " / d e g C; Ε steel = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(4ws.;4/degC)
15. A uniform rectangular slab of concrete, 2-5 m by 1-5 m, of mass 1 2 0 0 kg
rests on vertical columns a t the four corners. One of these columns m a y be
regarded as rigid and the others as three identical columns of the same length,
cross-section and elasticity. Assuming t h a t the slab m a y be treated as rigid and
18 STRENGTH OF M A T E R I A L S
t h a t it remains sensibly horizontal when the elastic columns are slightly coin-
pressed under load, determine the reaction a t each support. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3 924 Ν ; 3 924 Ν; 1 962 Ν ; 1 962 Ν )
16. A flat steel bar, 10 m long and 10 m m thick tapers from 60 m m a t one end
to 2 0 m m a t the other. Determine the change in length of the bar when a tensile
2
force Ρ = 12 kN is acting along its axis. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1-648 m m )
17. A boiler shell, 2 m mean diameter, is constructed of steel plate having an
2
ultimate tensile strength of 4 5 0 M N / m . I f the thickness of the shell plates is
20 mm, calculate the maximum internal gauge pressure to which the boiler m a y
be subjected, assuming a factor of safety of 6 and a longitudinal joint efficiency of
2
80 per cent. (Ans.: 1-2 M N / m )
18. Derive formulae to give the longitudinal and circumferential tensions in a
thin boiler shell, stating the assumptions made in your argument.
A cylindrical compressed air drum is 2 m in diameter with plates 12-5 m m thick.
The efficiencies of the longitudinal and circumferential joints are respectively 8 5
2
and 4 5 % . I f the tensile stress in the plating is t o be limited to 100 M N / m , find
2
the maximum safe air pressure, (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-063 M N / m )
19. Derive an expression for the tensile stress in a thin spherical shell of thick-
ness t and internal diameter d when subjected to an internal pressure p.
A thin spherical pressure vessel is required to contain 18 0 0 0 1 of water a t a
2
gauge pressure of 700 k N / m . Assuming the efficiency of all riveted joints t o be
75 per cent, determine the diameter of the vessel and the thickness of the plate.
2
The stress in the material must not exceed 140 M N / m . (Ans. 3·248 m ; 5-41 m m )
20. Derive a formula for the hoop stress in a thin cylinder having a mean radius
R and made of material of density m when rotating a t ω r a d / s about its axis.
W h a t is the most important assumption you make?
Apply this theory to find the maximum allowable speed in r e v / m i n for a fly-
wheel 1 -25 m external diameter and 5 0 m m thick. The material has a density of
3 2
7-3 M g / m and the hoop stress is limited to 2 0 M N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 834 r e v / m i n )
21. Deduce an expression for the centrifugal stress induced in a thin rotating
rim.
A thin rim 1-5 m mean diameter rotates a t 6 0 0 rev/min. The cross-section of
the rim is rectangular, 125 mm χ 12-5 m m thick, and the density of t h e material
3
of which it is constructed is 7-8 M g / m . Calculate the stress and force produced
2
in the rim. (Ans.: 17-34 M N / m ; 27-15 k N )
22. A thin rim, 1-5 m diameter and 150 m m wide, is made of steel plate 12-5 m m
thick. The rim is made in two halves with the joints parallel t o the axis. Determine
the centrifugal stress produced in the material a t a speed of 4 2 0 r e v / m i n . Density
3
of steel = 7-8 M g / m .
The two halves are fastened by three bolts on each side of each joint. The bolts
are 2 0 m m diameter and are in single shear. Determine the shear stress in each
2 2
bolt when the rim is rotating a t 4 2 0 rev/min. (Ans.: 8-5 M N / m ; 16-9 M N / m )
23. State Hooke's Law. Comment briefly on its limitations.
A straight rod of steel, 1 m long, of constant section, rotates a t 1 2 0 0 r e v / m i n
about an axis a t one end, perpendicular to its length. Calculate (a) the m a x i m u m
3 2
stress in the rod, (b) the extension. Density of steel = 7-8 M g / m ; Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 61-65 M N / m ; 0-205 5 m m )
24. Two elastic rods, A and B , of equal free length hang vertically 0-6 m a p a r t
and support a rigid bar horizontally. The bar remains horizontal when a vertical
2
load of 6 0 kN is applied t o the bar 0-2 m from A. I f the stress in A is 100 M N / m ,
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 19
2
find the stress in Β and the cross-sectional areas of the two rods ; Ε A = 2 0 0 G N / m ;
2 2 2 2
Ε Β = 130 G N / m . (I.CE.) (Ans.: 6 5 M N / m ; 4 0 0 m m ; 307-5 m m )
25. A wire strand consists of a steel wire 2-7 m m diameter, covered by six bronze
2
wires each of 2-5 m m diameter. The tensile modulus for the steel is 2 0 0 G N / m
2
and for the bronze 8 5 G N / m .
2
I f the working stress for the bronze is 6 0 M N / m , calculate the strength of the
strand, also the equivalent tensile modulus for the complete strand. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 2 5 7 5 Ν ; 104 G N / m )
26. A round steel bar, 2 8 m m diameter and 4 0 0 m m long, is placed concentric-
ally within a brass tube which has an outside diameter of 4 0 m m and an inside
diameter of 3 0 m m ; the length of the tube exceeds t h a t of the bar by 0-12 m m .
Rigid plates are placed on the ends of the tube through which an axial compressive
force is applied t o the compound bar. Determine the compressive stresses in the
2 2
bar and tube due t o a force of 6 0 kN. Esteei = 2 0 0 G N / m ; ^brasa = 100 G N / m .
2 2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 48-2 M N / m ; 54-1 M N / m )
36. Define Resilience. Show how t o calculate the resilience in a rod of uniform
section under a uniform direct stress.
A vertical tie, rigidly fixed a t the top end, consists of a steel rod 2-5 m long and
2 0 m m diameter encased throughout in a brass tube 2 0 m m internal diameter and
2 5 m m external diameter. The rod and casing are fixed together a t both ends.
The compound rod is suddenly loaded in tension by a mass of 1 Mg falling freely
through 3 m m before being arrested by the tie. Calculate the m a x i m u m stresses in
2 2
the steel and brass. E&tee\ = 2 0 0 G N / m ; #brass = 100 G N / m . (U. Land.)
2 2
(Ans.: 135 M N / m ; 67-5 M N / m )
CHAPTER 2
S H E A R I N G F O R C E A N D B E N D I N G MOMENT
i ι
+ w 2
the beam as shown in Fig. 2.1(c). This
is opposed by the bending resistance of J (b)
the part of the beam to the left of P.
In the case of the simply supported
beam shown in Fig. 2.2, the shearing force
at Ρ is either Rx — Wx or W2 — R2. (c)
These terms are equal since, equating
upward and downward forces on the FIG. 2.1
beam,
^ + R2 = W! + W2.
The bending moment at Ρ is either
Rxa — Wxxx or R2b — W2x2. These terms « - μ —
£
—
-% Negative \ Negative
shearing bending
(a) (b)
FIG. 2.3
(+ve)
3r
w
Maximum S.F. WT (-ve)
2
2 L
i f !_ B.M.
Maximum B.M.
2~*2
Wl
FIG. 2 . 6
4
(d) Simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load, w per unit
length, Fig. 2.7:
wl
S.F. at Ρ I - — x \ = wx
2 '
wl
B.M. at Ρ
~~2
w/unit length Ϊ
wl?
Maximum B.M. = —
8
Where both concentrated and
B.M.
distributed loads act on a beam,
the S.F. and B.M. may be calcu- a F j2i
_ dM
i.e. F •- (2.2)
da:
k
F+äF
; (
M
à
,* -
F ι
FIG. 2.8
D Λ
2
Β (a)
A
! 1*2
(b) S.F.
i d B.M.
FIG. 2.9
For a distributed load, Fig. 2.10(a), divide the load into strips (not
necessarily of equal width) and replace the load in each strip by a concen-
trated load of the same magnitude, acting through the centre of gravity of
that strip. Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams, Figs. 2.10(6) and (c) respec-
tively, for these concentrated loads as before. Project the bounding lines
of the strips to intersect the approximate diagrams obtained. The points of
intersection with these diagrams then give points on the true S.F. and
B.M. diagrams, which can then be connected by a smooth curve.
FIG. 2.10
Scales. The scale for the S.F. diagram is the same as the load scale.
If k = 1 m, the load scale is 1 m = ρ Ν and the length scale is
1 m = q m, then the B.M. scale is 1 m = pq Nm. If k = 2 m, the slope of
the lines in the diagram are halved and hence the scale is 1 m = 2pq Nm.
Thus in general, 1 m = kpq Nm.
26 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
4m
30kN 20kN
40kN/m 8
)kN/m
ι <
1m__ J 1m 1m
κ,
*2
FIG. 2.11
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 27
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 2.11(c).
If an additional load W is added at the centre, the bending moments at
the supports remain unchanged. The reactions are each increased by W/2,
so that the central B.M. is increased by
- 1 X - = —0-bW kN m
2
Therefore, when the central B.M. is increased to equal (numerically) the
B.M. at the right-hand support,
25 + 0-bW = 60
Λ W = 70 kN
D
!• x
•!
125
(bi
(c)
FIQ. 2.12
kN
28 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
= 3 ( x / t — i \ = 75 kN
= - 7 5 kNm
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs. 2.12(6) and (c).
3. A beam ABC is continuous over two spans, being supported as shown in
Fig. 2.13(a). A hinge, capable of transmitting shearing force but not bending
moment, is placed at the centre of span AB. The loading consists of a distri-
buted load, of total weight 20 kN, spread over the span AB, and a concentrated
load of 30 kN at the centre of span BC. Sketch the shearing force and bending
moment diagrams, indicating the magnitude of all important values.
(I.C.E.)
Uniformly distributed
30kN
1 D Β C
(a)
^ P^Hinge 4.I
'6m 3 Λ
15
i 5
I (b)
!
25
v30
ι-75
Fie. 2.13
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 29
The section of the beam AD is simply supported at A and D and hence
exerts a downward force of 5 kN on DBC at the point D.
Considering the section DBC as a simply supported beam with the over-
hanging portion carrying a concentrated load of 5 kN at D in addition to
the distributed load, the reaction at C is given by
Rc X 3 + 5 χ 3 + 10 χ 1-5 = 30 χ 1-5,
taking the moments about B ,
Λ Rc = 5 kN
.·. Rb = 45 - 5
= 40 kN
B.M. at 30-kN load = - 5 X 1-5
= - 7 - 5 kNm
B.M. at Β = - 5 χ 3 + 30 χ 1-5
= 30 kNm
B.M. at centre of AD = —5 χ 1-5 + 5 X 0-75
= - 3 - 7 5 kN m
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs. 2.13(6) and (c).
Then B.M. at £ a =
and B.M. at R2
= — - -w(l + a)(x - a)
30 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
= Α«,(1 + α ) ( α - 5 )
i.e. ^ = - [ ^ 1 + «)(«,-5)]*
2
from which 14a — 10a — 15 = 0
i.e. a = 2-23 m
2
2·23
.·. Mm&x = w χ ——2 =— 2486m;
— —————Ν—
——m
5. A beam, 8 m long, is simply supported at two points and haded with two
concentrated loads, two uniformly distributed loads and a couple, as shown in
Fig. 2.15(a). Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams. (U. Lond.)
Taking moments about Rl9
25 x 2 x 5 + 50 x 2 x 7 + 40 x 4 + 10 x 6
= 6Ä 2 + 100
.·. R2 = 178-5 kN
Λ Rx = 200 - 178-5
= 21-5 kN
B.M. at R2 = 50 χ 2 χ 1 = 100 kN m
B.M. at 40-kN load = 50 x 2 x 3 + 25 x 2 x 1 - 168-5 χ 2
= 13 kN m
B.M. immediately to left of couple
= -21-5 χ 2
= - 4 3 kN m
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs. 2.15(6) and (c).
Note that there is no discontinuity in the S.F. diagram at the point of
application of the couple but the shape of the diagram is affected by it due
to its effect on the reactions.
In going from right to left of the point of application of the couple, there
is a sudden change in B.M. of —100 kN m,
* T h e Β.Μ.Θ a t these points are of opposite sign.
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 31
40kN ,10kN
50kN/m
J (a)
(b)
(c)
FIG. 2.15
Ί-SkN m 2-25kN m
FIG. 2.17 FIG. 2.18
80.
kN
and Ä bb = 1 0 0 - ^ = ^ ° k N
3 3
30kN/m
26-67
S.F. = -wx — R* a
2
1 Χ Λ/"ν 80 5 80
kN
= - X - X 3 0 x r
2 6
B.M. = χ - — R&x
2 3
34 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1 £ 0. X 80 bx, ν Ο. Λ
= - X - x 3 0 x x x -
2 0
a; = —(z V — 32) kN m
2 6 3 3 6 '
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs. 2.20(6) and (c).
The maximum B.M. occurs when the S.F. = 0,
i.e. when χ = 3-267 m
5 2
A M m a x= - A | ^ ! ( 3 . 2 6 7 - 32)
= - 5 8 - 1 kNm
8. Fig. 2.21(a) shows the curve of upward distributed water pressure re-
action on a pontoon. This reaction is uniformly distributed over the central
9 m and decreases to zero at the two ends, the equation of this curve being
2
y = lex , where k is a constant.
The pontoon carries a uniformly distributed load of 50 hN/m run over the
central 7 m.
Sketch the S.F. and B.M. diagrams due to this loading and find the maximum
values of S.F. and B.M. (U. Lond.)
If ρ is the uniform upward force per metre on the central part of the
pontoon,
i.e.
total upthrust =
50 χ 7 :
9p + 2 χ fχ 3p
Up
.". V- 26-9 kN/m
Upthrust on parabolic part of curve = 26-9 - kx
2
w Ax = - 2 6 - 9 / χ + A
\
When χ = 3 m, F = 0, :.A = 26-9 X 2
;.F = -26-9^ -
27
M =
When χ = 3 m, M = 0,
.·. Β = 26-9 χ 2-25
Λ ~ ÏÔ8
S.F. at A : - 2 6 - 9 χ - 2 7m
53-8 kN 50kN/m
S.F. at Β = 53-8 + 26-9 X 1
80-7 kN
B.M. at A : - 2 6 - 9 χ 2-25
- 6 0 - 6 kNm
B.M. at Β = - 6 0 - 6 - 53-8 X 1
2
l
- 26-9 X -
-127-85 kNm
B.M. at C = 60-6 - 53-8 X 4-5
2
4-δ
- 26-9 X
2~
2
3-δ
+ 50x
2
269-1 kNm
14. A beam 2-4 m long is simply supported a t one end and a t a point 0-6 m
from the other. The beam carries a series of point loads a t intervals of 0-2 m
starting 0 4 m from the overhanging end with a load of 5 Ν and increasing by
increments of 5 Ν to a load of 6 0 N. In addition there is a uniformly distributed
load of 4 0 N / m . F i n d the position and magnitude of the maximum B.M.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 91*35 Ν m a t 0-768 m from simply supported end)
19. A beam 7 m long rests on two level supports A and B , 4 m apart with a i m
length of beam overhanging the right-hand support B . The beam carries a uni-
formly distributed load w N / m from A t o the right-hand end and a uniformly
distributed load nw N / m on t h a t p a r t of the beam t o the left of A. I f a point of
contra-flexure occurs a t a point 0-5 m t o the left of B , find the value of η and the
other point of contra-flexure. Also find the m a x i m u m B.M. between the points
of contra-flexure. Sketch and S.F. and B.M. diagrams. (7. Mech. E.)
7 9 L
(Ans.: - ; 2 m from Α ; — | Ν m a t 2-75 m from A )
21. Fig. 2.22 shows the dimensions of, and the loading carried by, a beam A B C .
The beam is encastré a t A, has a hinge a t Β and is supported on a roller bearing
a t C. Sketch and dimension the shearing force and bending moment diagrams,
and determine the position and magnitude of the m a x i m u m positive and negative
bending moments., (I.C.E.) (Ans.: 67-5 kN m, 1-5 m from C; 160 kN m a t A )
20kN 60kN/m
Β
1-
2 m
. 2m 2m t
FIG. 2.22
50kN
20kN/m lOkN/m
•
70kN
1m 1m 4m 4m
Η *i
FIG. 2.23
23. A horizontal beam 3-5 m long, is freely supported a t its ends and carries a
vertical load of 5 kN, 1 m from the left-hand end. A t a section 2 m from the left
end a clockwise couple of moment 3 kN m is exerted, the axis of the couple being
horizontal and perpendicular t o the longitudinal axis of the beam. Draw the
B.M. and S.F. diagrams and mark on them the principal dimensions. (7. Mech. E.)
(Ans.: 28-7 k N between A and D ; 57-4 kN m a t D )
38 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
30kN
FIG. 2.24
2 8 . A horizontal beam, 4 m long, is freely supported a t its two ends a t the same
level. A distributed load, increasing steadily from zero a t both ends t o a m a x i m u m
of 6 0 k N / m a t the middle, is supported by the beam. Draw the S . F . and B.M.
diagrams. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: M a x . S.F. = 60 kN a t each end; m a x . B.M. = 80 kN m a t centre)
2 9 . Prove relations between B.M., S.F. and intensity of loading on a beam.
A beam 8 m long is supported a t the ends and carries a distributed load which
varies uniformly in intensity from zero a t one end t o 30 k N / m a t a section 2 m
from the other end and over the remaining length is constant a t 3 0 k N / m .
Derive equations for S.F. and B.M. a t a n y section of the beam, and sketch
the S . F . and B.M. diagrams, marking on the diagrams the m a x i m u m values.
(U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 97-5 kN a t heavily loaded end; 160-5 kN m a t 4*58 m from
lightly loaded end)
BENDING STRESSES
FIG. 3.1
In the theory of bending, which relates the stresses and curvature of the
beam to the applied bending moment, the following assumptions are made :
1. The beam is initially straight and the radius of curvature is large in
comparison with the dimensions of the cross-section.
2. The material is homogeneous, elastic and obeys Hooke's Law.
3. The material has the same modulus of elasticity in tension and com-
pression.
4. The stresses are uniform across the width and do not exceed the limit
of proportionality.
5. The cross-section of the beam is symmetrical about the plane of
bending.
6. A transverse section of the beam which is plane before bending re-
mains plane after bending.
7. Every longitudinal fibre is assumed to be free to extend or contract
without being restrained by its neighbour.
The second moment of area of an element of area da, Fig. 3.2, about the
2
axis Y Y = x da
2
,". total second moment about Y Y χ da.
- ί
2
Similarly, total second moment of area about X X = j" y da.
The second moment of area about the axis ZZ (perpendicular to the
2
plane of the paper) = j*r da. This is termed the polar second moment of
area and is denoted by J .
(a)
FIG. 3.2 FIG. 3.3
If the area of the plane is a, the second moment of area may be written
2
in the form I = dk \ k is termed the radius of gyration and is the radius at
which the area would have to be imagined concentrated to give the same
value of / .
Values of / for s o m e simple c a s e s
(a) Kectangle, breadth b and depth d, Fig. 3.3(a) :
τ _
b d
* bd*
Ι ο ο =
Ύ
(kxx= i/2V3, k00 = d/V3)
(6) Circle, diameter d, Fig. 3.3(6):
= Zw
YY = -^r d
4
J(=
1
Z7j
64
( & X X
:
kYY = d/i, kZz = d/2V2)
3.3 Theorem of parallel a x e s . The second moment of area of a plane
about any axis is equal to the second moment about a parallel axis through
the centroid, together with the product of the area and the square of the
distance between the axes.
Let Ιχχ be the second moment of area of a plane about an axis X X
passing through the centroid G, Fig. 3.4. It is required to find the second
moment about a parallel axis 0 0 , distance h from X X .
BENDING STRESSES 41
about 0 0 6a
2
= (y + A) da
2 2
= (y + 2yh + h ) da
2
= y da +
2yh da
2
h da +
Λ for the whole area,
£
oo = Jy 2
da + 2h j y da + A J da
2
FIG. 3.4
2
= Ιχχ + aA + 2h X (total first moment of area about X X )
Since X X passes through the centroid of the section, the total first
moment of area about X X is zero.
2
Hence /oo=^xx+^ . . . . (3.1)
3.4 Theorem of perpendicular a x e s . Referring to Fig. 3.2 and de-
noting the second moments of area of the element about the axes X X , Y Y
and ZZ by d / x x, d / Y Y and dJ respectively, then
2 2 2
d^xx + d/γγ = y da + x da = r da = dJ
Therefore, for the whole area,
* χ χ + ί γ γ = «7 (3.2)
3.5 E q u i m o m e n t a l s y s t e m . It can be shown* that for the determina-
tion of the first and second moments of area of a triangle, its area α is
equivalent to three areas, each a/3, imagined concentrated at the mid
points of the sides. Since these areas are considered concentrated at par-
ticular points, they will have no second moment of area about their own
axes.
This principle can be extended to any area which can be divided into
triangles (see Examples 2 and 5).
3.6 S t r e s s due to bending. Fig. 3.5(a) represents the cross-section of
a beam, to which is applied a bending moment Μ, acting in a vertical plane
through the centroid G. Since the section ab, Fig. 3.5(6), remains plane
Fio. 3.5
* See Dynamics, Part I I , by A. S. Ramsey (C.U.P.), Chap. V.
42 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
or (3.3)
Force on element da
FIG. 3.6
But a/y cannot be zero, hence the total first moment about X X must be
zero. For this condition to be satisfied, the neutral axis must pass through
the centroid of the section.
The couple produced by the two equal forces F1 and F2 acting at a dis-
tance h apart provides the internal moment of resistance, balancing the
external bending moment M.
strain = (3.5)
i.e. (3.6)
(3.7)
Pia. 3.7
44 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Combining this with equation (3.3) gives the general bending formula
. . . . (3.8)
I y R
3.10 Composite b e a m s . A composite beam is one which consists of
two or more materials rigidly fixed together throughout their length;
examples of composite sections are shown in Fig. 3.8.
If M1 and M2 are the parts of the applied bending moment M carried by
the two materials, then
M1 + M2= M . . . . (3.9)
Also the radius of curvature of the two parts is the same,
i.e. R,. R2
ΒΑ
i.e. M1 '
or (3.10)
ii
m
FIG. 3.8
Mx and M2 can be determined from equations (3.9) and (3.10) and the
stresses in the two materials are then given by
M1 , M2
1
= —- and σ2 —2 —
Zi Z2
Alternatively, the composite section may be replaced by an equivalent
homogeneous section. Thus the section shown in Fig. 3.9(a) is equivalent to
the section in Fig. 3.9(6), composed entirely of material (1) or to the section
in Fig. 3.9(c), composed entirely of material (2), where B2/Ex = n.
\
1
nb
(b) (c)
FIG. 3.9
Having obtained the value of I for the equivalent section, the stresses
M
may then be obtained from a = —y, these being the stresses which would
BENDING STRESSES 45
exist in the homogeneous section. In section (6), the actual stresses in
material (2) would be η times those in the equivalent section and in section
(c), the actual stresses in material (1) would be 1/n times those in the
equivalent section.
In the foregoing analysis, it has been assumed that the compound
sections are all symmetrical about the plane of bending, otherwise twisting
of the section would occur.
3.11 Combined bending a n d direct s t r e s s e s . A combination of
bending and direct stresses may occur in a variety of circumstances but in
every case, the stresses due to the bending moment and direct load may be
calculated separately and the results combined to give the resultant
stresses. Thus σ = σ& ± ob where # d and a b are the direct and bending
stresses. The shape of the resultant stress distribu-
tion diagram will depend on whether ah is greater
or less than crd.
Fig. 3.10 shows a bar which is subjected to an
axial load Ρ and a bending moment M and Figs.
3.11(a), (b) and (c) show the possible forms of the
resultant stress distribution. FIG. 3 . 1 0
(a) (b)
FIG. 3.12
0
a Z
For a rectangular column, of breadth b and depth d,
1 _ e
2
bd~~ bd /ß
d
Λ e= -
6
i.e. the load must lie within the middle third of the column.
For a circular column, of diameter d,
1 _ e
n
-d* ^d*
4 32
" " 8
i.e. the load must lie within the middle quarter of the column.
Φ Φ
FIG. 3.13 FIG. 3.14
When yielding has commenced at the outer fibres, the stress distribu-
tion over the section is as shown in Fig. 3.15(6), the maximum stress re-
maining constant at the yield stress, cry, as M increases.
FIG. 3.15
Fig. 3.15(c) shows the forces represented by the various parts of the
stress diagram.
If the beam is subjected to pure bending, there is no resultant force
normal to the section, so that
F1 + F% = FZ + FA . . . . (3.12)
This condition gives the position of the neutral axis.* Having ascertained
this,
*>i + t#% + **, + = M . . . (3.13)
* F o r a symmetrical section, this remains unaffected by the onset of yielding.
48 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
5mm
60mm
y
1
t
j 5mm
60mm
FIG. 3.16
If y is the distance of the neutral axis above the base, then, taking
moments about the base,
20 χ 20 χ 70 + 140 χ 5 χ 57-5 + 5 χ 50 χ 30 + 60 χ 5 χ 2-5
= (20 χ 20 + 140 χ 5 + 5 χ 50 + 60 χ b)y
Λ y = 46-36 mm
.·. / « _ ^ + » x » x e « , U + U 0 X 5 X:)ΐ ι · ΐ 4 2 ^
12 12
3
, / 5 χ 50 ,
3
60 χ 5
+ ί - ^ - + 5κ x 5ΚΛ0 x 11 if6 • 3 6 ^ + ^! 60χ5χ43·86
2
12
4
= 1 022 000 mm
2
For a maximum tensile stress of 60 MN/m ,
12
/ 1022 000 χ Ι Ο - „Λ ^ e , __
Ι = - Χ σ = ——— χ 60 χ 10 = 1 322 Nm
y 0-046 36
2
For a maximum compressive stress of 45 MN/m ,
12
1 022 000 χ 1 0 -
M- e
X 45 X 10 = 1 366 Nm
0-033 64
maximum allowable moment of resistance
= 1-322 kNm
BENDING STRESSES 49
2. A cast iron beam of the section shown in Fig. 3.17 is simply supported
at its ends and carries a had of18 kN at mid-span. Find the maximum allow-
2
able span if thje stress due to bending is not to exceed 3 0 MN/m tension.
Neglect the weight of the beam.
What will be the maximum compressive stress? (U. Lond.)
30mm
600
X 120mm 600
1800
FIG. 3.17 FIG. 3.18
Dividing the section into two triangles and placing \ of the area of each
triangle at the mid-point of its sides, the equi-momental system is as
shown in Fig. 3 . 1 8 (see Art. 3.5).
Taking moments about the base,
600 χ 120 + 4 800 χ 60 + 1 800 χ 0 = 7 200£
.'. y = 50 mm
2 2 2 4
Λ *xx = 600 χ 7 0 + 4 8 0 0 X 1 0 + 1 8 0 0 χ 5 0 = 7 9 2 0 0 0 0 mm
i.e. 30 χ 10« = ± 6 0 0 l x 0
' 0 b
12 f mr ow h hi ι
c = χ.056 m
7 920 000 X 10-
The maximum compressive stress is given by
a = 2 ^ ! χ 3 0 = 4^MN/m
2
The load W oc M
ce Ζ foi a, given value of σ.
For a single tube, Fig. 3.19,
/ χ χ = ^π( ± 0 - 30 ) = 85 900 mm
4 4 4
„ 85 900 3
= 4 295 mm
20
4
4
= 1 223 600 mm
1 223 600 3
= 30 950 mm
40
Therefore the load which can be carried by the four tubes
30 950
X 1-2 8-65 kN
4 295
4. Fig. 3.21 shows the section of a steel beam in the shape of an inverted
semicircular channel with flanges. Determine the position of the neutral axis
XX and the second moment of area of the section about XX.
Calculate the moment of resistance of the beam in Ν m if the maximum stress
2
due to bending is 125 MN/m .
For a semicircular area of radius r, ίλβ distance of the centroid from the
diameter is 0-424 4r. (U. Lond.)
FIG. 3 . 2 1
BENDING STRESSES 51
Centroid of outer semi-circle from base = 0-424 4 X 55 = 23-35 mm.
Centroid of inner semi-circle from base = 0-424 4 X 50 = 21-20 mm.
Taking moments about the base,
π χ 55 2 π Χ 50 2 )£
-(• 60 χ 5 + 11
2ι
>
·· y 25-3 mm
Ιχχ
2 2 2
+Ç1 χ 55* - % Χ 55* χ 23·35 + ^ χ 55 χ 2·95
° 2 2
χ 50* - ΐ Χ 50 Χ 21-20 + ξ χ 50 χ 4
2 2 2
{5 2
4
2
= 413 600 mm
y
12
_ 413 600 χ ΙΟ" Χ 125 Χ 10 e = 1740Nm
~ 0-055 - 0-025 3
5. Prove that the moment of resistance of a beam of square section with its
diagonal in the plane of bending is increased by flattening the top and bottom
corners, as shown in Fig. 3.22, and that the moment of resistance is a maximum
g
when y = -Y. (U. Lond.)
9
2(Y-y)
The section may be divided into a rectangle and a square which is being
bent about its diagonal, Fig. 3.23.
* J of semi-circle about neutral axis of section = / about the diameter 1
— area X (distance from diameter to centroid of semi-circle)
-f- area X (distance of centroid of semi-circle to neutral axis of section)*
52 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2 ( 7 - y ) X (2y)» „4* 4
'XX » — * V , , 3 _
12 3 *
Μ χ
For σ to be a minimum, — = 0
ay
3 x 2 2
60mm
180mm
FIG. 3.24
At a section χ m from the load, Fig. 3.24,
3
M = 4 χ 10 x Nm
and d = 60 + - χ 120 = 60 + iOx mm
i t 2 (*r\
3 2 3
Z = — = -(60 + 40z) = 4 000(3 + 2x) mm
6 6
3
_ M _ 4 χ 10 x 10*x
2 9 (1)
° ~ ~Z ~ 4 000(3 + 2x) χ 1 0 - (3 + 2x)
2
do-
For a to be a maximum, ^ = 0
dx
2
i.e. (3 + 2x) = 4x(3 + 2x)
from which χ = 1*5 m
Substituting in equation (1),
9
Ί Ο ν I·"!
2
< W = ( 3 ^ 3 ) 2 N/m* = 41-6 MN/m
2 2
* The area of each half2 of the square is y . Placing τ/ /3 at the mid-point of each o f
the sloping sides and 2t/ /3 at the mid-point of the diagonal,
/ - 4 y » * * Λ Ύ - y*
/ xx 4 x x
2
- a " \V "Τ'
the area 2 y / 3 having no second moment about X X .
BENDING STRESSES 53
7. A timber beam 80 mm wide by 160 mm deep is to be reinforced with two
steel plates 5 mm thick. Compare the moments of resistance for the same value
of the maximum bending stress in the timber when the plates are alternately:
(a) 80 mm wide and fixed to the top and bottom surfaces of the beam;
(6) 160 mm deep and fixed to the vertical sides of the beam.
Osteel = 20 X £ t i m b e. r ( U . Lond.)
5mm
160mm
5 mm
5mm 5mm
(a) (b)
FIG. 3 . 2 5
3
80 χ 160 e 4
(a) = 27-3 X 10 mm ,
12
^(1703
v
- 160 3) = 5-447 x 10 e mm4
12
M: from equation (3.9)
= 3-98
27-3
. M-.= 3-98M
20 χ t + eMt = 4 4-98M
5 4 47
(b) 27-3 X 10 mm
3
10 χ 160 e 4
= 3-413 X 10 mm
12
~β 3-413
ΟΛ
= 2-5
—? — 20 χ
ΛM 2-73Mt = 3-5Mt
Mt = 2-5if t +
Therefore ratio of moments of resistance in cases (a) and (b) for the same
4-98
value of M% (i.e. for the same value of at) = = 1-425
3-5
54 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
(a)
3 X —
40mm
(b)
FIG. 3 . 2 6
Fig. 3.26(a) shows the cross-section of the composite bar and Fig. 3.26(6)
shows the equivalent brass section.
For the neutral axis to be on the dividing line, the moments of the parts
on each side of this line must be equal,
l
i.e. 80 X tx χ ±l = 40 χ t2 X 4
2
1
from which
V2
h + t2 20 mm and
V2
h
8-28 mm and 11-72 mm
h-
a Ε
y R
Therefore, for a given radius of curvature, R, the stress in the materia)
at a given distance, y, from the neutral axis is proportional to E. Hence, if
2
the maximum permissible stress in the steel is 110 MN/m , the corres-
ponding stress at the top edge of the equivalent brass section is
2
110/2 = 55 MN/m .
Since t2 = \/2tv it is evident that the stress at the bottom edge will
2 2
reach 40 MN/m before that at the top edge reaches 55 MN/m , so that the
moment of resistance is that which will produce the former stress.
3 3
80 χ 8·28 , 40 χ 11-72 4
= 36 000 mm
+
M- 36 630 χ 10- e
x a = X 40 x 10 = 125 Ν m
0-011 72
BENDING STRESSES 55
9. A steel chimney is 30 m high, 1 m external diameter and 10 mm thick. It
is rigidly fixed at the base. It is acted upon by a horizontal wind pressure which
2
is taken tobe of a uniform intensity of 1 kN/m of projected area for the lower
2 2
15 m and to vary uniformly from 1 kN/m to 2 kN/m over the upper 15 m.
Calculate the maximum stress in the plates at the base. Steel has a density of
7-8 Mg/m*. (U. Lond.)
The pressure distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 3.27. The total wind
2
force can be divided into Pv the force due to a uniform pressure of 1 kN/m
over the whole height, and P2, the force due to the additional pressure over
the upper 15 m.
3 1m dia.
Pj = 1 χ ΙΟ χ 1 χ 30 Ν
= 30 kN
P 2 = Ι * ™ * χ 1 χ 15 Ν
= 7-5 kN
moment about base = 30 X 15 30m
+ 7-5 χ 25
= 637-5 kN m
4 4
/ of cross-section = — ( l — 0-98 )
64
4
= 0-003 815 m
3
637-5 χ ΙΟ 2
χ 0-5 N/m
0-003 815
2
== 83-6 MN/m
Direct stress at base = specific weight X height
3
= 7-8 χ ΙΟ χ 9-81 χ 30
2
= 2-3 MN/m
2
·. total stress at base = 83-6 + 2-3 = 85-9 MN/m
/ x x = i ° *12
1 6
+ 160 X 10 X 86
3
180
12
3
+ 10 χ 180 χ 8-26 J 2
'120 χ 10
12
6
+ 4120 χ 10 χ 103-26^
= 29-85 χ 10 m m
160mm
200 mm
10mm
FIG. 3 . 2 8
Transferring the load W/4 to the axis X X , there is then a total direct
load of 5W/4, together with a bending moment about X X , of magnitude
We/4: where e is the eccentricity of the load from X X .
bW , TFxO-06 0-108 26 6 2
80 χ 10 N/m
4x0-004 6 + — Ϊ — χ 29-85 x l 0 -
e
from which
W = 245 kN
Minimum stress
3 3
_ 5 x 2 4 5 x l 0 _ 245 χ ΙΟ χ 0-06 0-086 74 Λ Τ/ 2
X N m2
" 4x0-004 6 4 29-85xl0-e /
2
= 55-92 MN/m
BENDING STRESSES 57
11. A piUar 1·5 m high is of rectangular section 50 mm thick and tapers
longitudinally from a width of 150 mm at the
lOOkN base to 50 mm at ihœ top, as shown in Fig. 3.29.
5 0 mm,
A compressive load of 100 kN acts through the
centroid at the top end and parallel to the ver-
tical edge.
Determine the magnitude of the maximum
compressive stress and the cross-section at
which it will occur. (U. Lond.)
1-5m 0-025m
0O5m
0 2 5 + m
100 kN °' 35
X
150mm 0-05 + 15 m
FIG. 3 . 2 9 FIG. 3 . 3 0
Fig. 3.30 shows the section of the pillar at a distance χ m below the top.
The width of the section is 0-05 - X 0-10 = 0-05 + m so that the
3
100 χ ΙΟ χ —
30 2 90 2
Bending stress, ah = N/m 2
MN/m
(0-75 + χ)
For σ to be a maximum,
άσ
- 0
dx
from which χ = 0-375 m
Substituting in equation (1),
67-5 2
a — 1-1252 = 53-33 MN/m
58 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
32
400P
= — { l + 8Oecos0} Min. stress
2
- 90 MN/m (1)
Similarly, at B,
400P
or = {1 + 80e cos (120 - 0)}
π
4oop r 2
1 -f 80e( - J cos θ + — sin θ ) } = 75 MN/m
π \ )}• (2)
400P
At C, σ = {1 + 80e cos (120 + θ)}
π
400PÎ
? / V3 2
\ \ + 80e,[ — i2 cos θ — — sin ( 30 MN/m (3)
π { \ 2
These equations simplify to
QTT-
1 + 80e cos θ = — . - (4)
40P
1 + 40e(-cos
v Θ + V 3 sin 0) = 1 — . . (5)
40P
3π
1 + 40e(—cos 0 - V 3 sin 0) = . . (6)
40P
BENDING STRESSES 59
From equations (5) and (6),
2 -—8 O o s 0ft = i ^
e cnos
RH* . . . . (7) v
40P
40P '
19·5ττ
19-5:
. from equations (4) and (7), Ρ = "Ï2Ô = 0-51 MN
From equations (5) and (6),
80V3esin6 = ^ = 0-693 . (8)
40P
and from equation (4),
80e cos 0 - -—- - 1 - 0-386 . . . . (9) v
40P '
tane = - ^ ? ? r = 1-035
Λ
0-386V3
Λ θ = 46^
From equations (8) or (9), e = 0-006 95 m or 6-95 mm
Λ OOP
< W = — - ( 1 + 80e), when 0 = 0
π
4-00 νΛ 0 ^ 1 2
= (1 + 80 χ 0-006 95) = 101 MN/m
π
Λ OOP
= I i r i ( l - 80e),
a m in when θ = 180°
π
400 χ 0-51( 1 _ 8 0 χ 0. 0 0 6 9 5) = 2 8. 9 MN/m»
π
13. A steel bar of rectangular section 80 mm X 40 mm is used as a simply
supported beam on a span o / 1 4 m and loaded at mid-span. If the yield stress
2
is 300 MN/m and the long edges of the section are vertical, find the load when
yielding first occurs.
Assuming that a further increase in had causes yielding to spread in to-
wards the neutral axis with the stress in the yielded part remaining constant at
2
300 MN/m , determine the load required to cause yielding for a depth of
10 mm at the top and bottom of the section at mid-span, and find the length of
beam over which yielding at the top and bottom faces will have occurred.
(U. Lond.)
Mm
=-^, a xFig. 3.32
4
. „ _ ^max _ Wl 6
' * °™ - ~Z Τ M"
W X 14 X 6
i.e. 300 χ 10« =
4 χ 0-04 χ 0(
W - 36-57 kN
60 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
.·. x = 0-126 m
.*. length over which yielding occurs = 2x = 0-252 m
W'
2 1?
35mm
FIG. 3.33
14. Fig. 3.34(a) shows the section of a beam which is subjected to a bending
moment of such magnitude that yielding occurs at the lower part of the web
2
over a depth of 50 mm. The yield stress of 300 MN/m may be assumed con-
stant over the yielded area, while over the remainder of the section the stress is
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
Determine: (a) the position of the neutral axis Ν A; (b) the stress at the top
of the section; (c) the moment of resistance of the section. (U. Lond.)
The stress distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 3.34(6).
If the neutral axis after yielding is at a depth h mm below the top, then
a _ 300
h~ 150 — h
300ft 2
a = MN/m (1)
150 — h
BENDING STRESSES 61
2 0 0 mm 150-/)
(a) (b)
FIG. 3.34
=
"1er x 234 5
2
'
= 163-3 MN/m
Assuming that the force on the flange acts through its geometric centre,
moment about Ν A
e
_ (234-5 + 163-3) x 10 Χ 0-12 χ 0-02 χ (0-065 8 - 0-01)
= 26 650 Ν m
62 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
15. An I-section girder, 2 4 0 m m deep, has a web 2 0 m m thick. The top flange
is 120 m m by 2 0 m m and the bottom flange is 160 m m by 2 0 mm. I f the girder is
simply supported a t its ends, find the m a x i m u m span which can be used if the
total distributed load per m run is 6 k N / m , and the m a x i m u m stress is limited t o
2
70 M N / m . (U. Land.) {Ans.: 7-67 m )
16. The cross-section of an I-beam has dimensions as follows: overall depth
2 4 0 mm, top flange 8 0 m m wide by 2 0 m m thick, bottom flange 160 m m wide by
2 0 m m thick, web 10 m m thick. The girder is simply supported over a span of
5 m and carries two concentrated loads each of 2 0 kN a t points 1 m from the ends.
Calculate the maximum bending stress due t o this loading. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 48-4 M N / m )
17. A t a n k 1-5 m χ 1-5 m χ 1-0 m in depth is supported symmetrically by a
pair of steel cantilevers 1-5 m long, which it completely covers. I f the cantilevers
are of T-section 100 m m χ 100 m m χ 10 m m and t h e m a x i m u m tensile stress
2
is not t o exceed 100 M N / m , determine the m a x i m u m safe depth of oil of density
s
0-9 M g / m to which the t a n k m a y be filled. Neglect the weight of the tank. W h a t
would then be the m a x i m u m compressive stress in the cantilevers? ( U. Lond).
2
(Ans.: 0-842 5 m; 2 4 8 M N / m )
18. A steel beam is in section an inverted channel; outside dimensions 2 2 0 m m
wide, 8 0 m m deep, thickness of web 10 m m , thickness of vertical flanges 12 mm.
The beam is simply supported over a span of 3 m and carries two equal concen-
trated loads a t points distant 0-5 m from each support. F i n d the value of each of
2
these loads if the m a x i m u m tensile stress is not t o exceed 100 M N / m . ( U. Lond. )
(Ans.: 7-725 kN)
e 4
19. A compound girder is a 2 6 0 m m χ 100 m m steel joist, /max = 168 χ 1 0 ~ m
with a 180 m m χ 2 0 m m steel plate riveted t o each flange of the beam. Neglect
the effects of the rivets and calculate the moment of resistance of the girder for
2
a working stress of 120 M N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 247-4 kN m )
20. The T-section of a beam has the following dimensions: width of flange,
100 m m , overall depth, 8 0 mm, thickness of stem and flange, 10 mm.
Determine the maximum stress in the beam when a bending moment o f 2 0 0 Ν m
is acting in the plane of symmetry of the section.
BENDING STRESSES 63
A l s o , d e t e r m i n e a new w i d t h for t h e flange r e q u i r e d t o g i v e m a x i m u m s t r e s s e s
in c o m p r e s s i o n a n d tension in t h e r a t i o o f 2 t o 1. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 12-5 M N / m ; 59 m m , a s s u m i n g flange in tension a n d web in c o m p r e s s i o n )
120 mm
12· 5 mm
120 mm 100 mm
12-5 mmj
X
Ti 100 mm
24. Fig. 3.38 shows the section of a beam. W h a t is the ratio of its moment of
resistance t o bending in the plane Y Y t o t h a t for bending in t h e plane X X if t h e
maximum stress due t o bending is the same in both cases?
25. A wooden beam is 8 0 m m wide and 120 m m deep with a semicircular groove
of 2 5 m m radius planed out in the centre of each side. Calculate the m a x i m u m
stress in the section when simply supported on a span of 2 m and loaded with a
concentrated load of 4 0 0 Ν a t a distance of 0*7 m from one end and a uniformly
distributed load of 750 N / m run over the whole span. (U. Land.)
2
{Ans.: 2-825 M N / m )
26. A cantilever specimen for a fatigue-testing machine is of circular cross-
section throughout its length, but in a length of 7 5 m m the diameter decreases
from 10 m m a t the fixed end t o 6·25 m m a t the free end. Calculate the m a x i m u m
stress due to bending when a static load of 3 0 0 Ν is applied a t the free end in a
direction perpendicular to the length of the specimen. (U. Land.)
2
{Ans.: 231-5 M N / m a t 62-5 m m from load)
27. A vertical flagstaff, standing 9 m above t h e ground, is of square section
throughout, the dimensions being 150 m m by 150 m m a t the ground, tapering
uniformly t o 75 m m by 7 5 m m a t the top. A horizontal pull of 3 0 0 Ν is applied
at the top, the direction of loading being along a diagonal of the section. Calculate
the m a x i m u m stress due t o bending. (U. Land.)
2
{Ans.: 8-05 M N / m a t 4-5 m from top)
28. A timber beam 150 m m wide and 3 0 0 m m deep is t o be reinforced by two
steel plates 10 m m thick firmly attached t o its sides and symmetrically placed
about the horizontal centre line of the beam section. I f the beam is t o carry a
central concentrated load of 52-5 kN on a span of 3 m, and the maximum stress
2
in the timber is not t o exceed 8-5 M N / m , find the niinimum depth of the steel
plates required, assuming the beam t o be simply supported a t the ends.
Ε for steel = 2 0 χ Ε for timber. {U. Land.)
{Ans.: 2 2 0 m m )
29. A flitched beam is made of two timber joists each 120 m m wide by
300 m m deep, with a steel plate 2 0 m m thick and 3 0 0 m m deep firmly fixed
between them. Calculate the moment of resistance of the combined beam if t h e
2
maximum stress in the timber is limited to 7-5 M N / m . Also find the m a x i m u m
uniformly distributed load which the beam can carry on a simply supported span
2 2
of 5 m. ^ e e i = 2 0 0 G N / m ; ^timber = 10 G N / m . (U. Land.)
{Ans.: 72 kN m; 23-04 k N / m )
30. A wooden beam 2 5 m m wide by 5 0 m m deep is reinforced by two similar
steel plates, each 2 5 m m wide, one being secured t o the upper face of t h e beam
and one t o the lower face. Calculate the necessary thickness of the plates in order
t h a t the beam can resist a bending moment o f 6 0 0 Ν m in the vertical plane without
2 2
the maximum stress in the wood exceeding 5-5 M N / m . 2£8teel = 2 0 0 G N / m ;
2
# w o o d = 2 0 G N / m . {U. Land.) {Ans.: 6-22 m m )
3 1 . A steel tube of 5 0 m m outside diameter fits very accurately over a brass rod
of 2 5 m m diameter. Determine the moment of resistance t o bending of the assembly,
assuming t h a t the maximum stresses for steel and brass should not exceed 1 5 0
2 2 2
and 120 M N / m respectively. Esiee\ = 2 0 0 G N / m ; EhT&ss = 100 G N / m .
{U. Land.) {Ans.: 1-786 kN m )
BENDING STRESSES 65
32. Two bars of rectangular cross-section, one brass and one steel, each 3 0 m m
wide by 10 m m deep are placed together t o form a beam 30 m m wide by 2 0 m m
deep. The beam is placed horizontally on two supports 0-75 m apart and a vertical
central load is applied. Detennine the m a x i m u m load if the bars are, (i) separate
and can bend independently, (ii) firmly secured together throughout their length.
2
The maximum permissible stresses in brass and steel are 7 0 M N / m and 105
2 2 2
M N / m respectively; EB = 8 5 G N / m and J £ s = 2 0 0 G N / m . {I.C.E.)
(Ans.: 373-3 Ν ; 8 2 5 Ν )
36. A tie-bar 7 5 m m wide and 2 5 m m thick sustains a n axial load of 100 kN.
W h a t depth of metal m a y safely be removed from one of the narrow sides in order
2
t h a t the m a x i m u m stress over the reduced width m a y not exceed 100 M N / m ?
(Ü. Land.) (Ans.: 1 2 0 5 m m )
37. A short vertical column consists of a channel section 150 m m wide by 100
m m deep and of uniform thickness 2 5 m m . A bracket attached t o the 150 m m face
of the column carries a vertical load whose line of action is offset 7 5 m m from the
face and on the centre-line of the section. F i n d the maximum value of this load
2
if the tensile stress induced in the section is not t o exceed 3 0 M N / m and find t h e
corresponding compressive stress. (U. Land.)
2
(Ans.: 32-45 k N ; 24-9 M N / m )
38. A short hollow pier, 1-2 m square outside and 0-75 m square inside, supports
a vertical point load of 120 kN located on a diagonal and 0-69 m from the vertical
axis of the pier. Neglecting the self-weight of the pier, calculate the normal
stresses a t the four outside corners on a horizontal section of the pier. ( U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 616-8 k N / m (comp); 136-8 k N / m (comp); 343-2 k N / m (tensile))
45. A 3 0 m high brick chimney is 2-3 m outside diameter a t the top and tapers
uniformly t o 3-3 m outside diameter a t t h e bottom. The chimney weighs 2-2 MN
2
a n d is 0-675 m thick a t t h e base. I f a uniform horizontal wind pressure of 1 k N / m
a c t s on t h e projected area of the chimney, determine the m a x i m u m and minimum
2 2
normal stresses on the base. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 7 7 8 k N / m ; 12 k N / m )
46. A rectangular steel beam 6 0 m m deep by 3 0 m m wide is supported on
knife-edges 2 m a p a r t and loaded with two equal point loads a t one-third of the
span from each end. F i n d the load a t which yielding just begins, the yield point
2
of the material in simple tension being 3 0 0 M N / m .
I f the loads are increased to 2 5 per cent above this value, estimate how far the
yielding penetrates towards the neutral axis, assuming t h a t the m a x i m u m stress
remains constant and t h a t the yield point in compression is the same as t h a t in
tension. (Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 8 1 0 k N ; 13-42 m m )
47. A rectangular steel beam A B , 2 0 m m wide by 10 m m deep, is placed sym-
metrically on two knife-edges C and D, 0-5 m apart, and loaded by applying equal
weights a t the ends A and B . The steel follows a linear stress/strain law (E = 2 0 0
2 2
G N / m ) up t o a yield stress of 3 0 0 M N / m ; a t this constant stress considerable
plastic deformation occurs. I t m a y be assumed t h a t the properties of the steel are
the same in tension and compression.
Calculate the bending moment on the central part of the beam CD when yielding
BENDING STRESSES 67
commences and the deflection a t the centre relative t o the supports. I f the loads
are increased until yielding penetrates half-way t o the neutral axis, calculate the
new value of the bending moment and t h e corresponding deflection. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 100 Ν m ; 9-375 m m ; 137-5 Ν m ; 18-75 m m )
48. Two plates of mild steel, each of cross-section 4 0 m m by 3 m m , a n d one
plate of alloy steel 4 0 m m by 6 m m are placed side by side and fastened rigidly
together t o form a symmetrical composite sandwich b a r 4 0 m m by 12 m m . The
2
müd steel has a definite yield point a t 2 4 0 M N / m in both tension and compression ;
2
the alloy steel is elastic up t o 8 0 0 M N / m and Ε is the same for both steels. The
bar is tested as a beam of span 0-6 m with the 4 0 m m dimension as the depth, a
concentrated load being applied a t the centre of the span.
F i n d the central load a t which the mild steel will just commence t o yield and
also the load a t which t h e m a x i m u m bending stress in the alloy steel will reach
2
4 8 0 M N / m . I t m a y be assumed t h a t the mild steel follows a linear stress/strain
law up t o the yield point, a t which considerable yielding occurs. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 5-12 k N ; 8-63 kN)
49. A steel bar of T-section as shown in Fig. 3.39 is used as a simply supported
beam on a span of 2 m t o carry a point load a t mid-span. A load of 9 k N is just
sufiicient t o cause yielding t o commence a t the bottom of the vertical leg of the
section a t mid-span. E s t i m a t e the load which would be required t o cause yielding
t o commence a t the t o p of t h e section. S t a t e a n y assumptions made in deriving
the answer.
_β 4
Before yielding occurs, h = 19-74 m m and Ιχχ = 1-003 χ 1 0 m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 14-9 k N )
ι 120mm , I
8 0 mm
FIG. 3.39
CHAPTER 4
TORSION
2
Λ total moment of resistance = - \x da
τ τ
Thus r = J (4.2)
7
For a solid shaft, Z = ^ ^ = — . . . . (4.3)
v
d/2 16 '
For a hollow shaft Ζ = ~ ^
D/2
where D and d are the outer and inner diameters respectively
• <»>
3
It should be noted that Ζ for a hollow shaft is NOT —(Z) - d%
v 1
16
4.3 Angle of twist. Due to the shear strain in the shaft, the longitudinal
line AB, Fig. 4.2, will move to the position AC, the end A being considered
FIG. 4.2
fixed. The angle BAC is the shear strain, φ (see Art. 1.3), and the angle
BOC is the angle of twist, 0.
BC = Ιφ = τβ
(4.5)
70 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
Combining this with equation (4.1) gives the general twisting formula
Τ τ GO*
7J - =r - ΓI - * * * * ·
= ( 4 6)
g . ^ = gxvolume. . . (4.7)
π 4 4 D
For a hollow shaft, J = — (Z) - d ) and r =
32 2
2
τ π(Ό* - d*)l/32
E7: 2β'
2
Χ> /4
2 2 2
τ π(Ζ> -ό )(Ζ) +
2 2
4- <ί ). ίΖ2\
2<? 8 D
2
ι
Κ)
2
" / ~ .
4G χ volume χ ( 1 + ™ · · (4-8)
As d -> 0, U volume, as in equation (4.7).
i.e. 0! = 02
i.e.
GXJ j G2J 2
or (4.10)
Τ2 G F r o . 4.4
Tx and Τ2 can be determined from equations (4.9) and (4.10) and the
stresses in the two materials are then given by
Ti = ^ and To
:
3
Τ=τΖ = τ χ -r
2
For the plastic part, the torque on an elementary
ring, of radius χ and thickness dx is
τ Χ 2π X dx Χ χ FIG. 4 . 5
72 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
/ . total torque on plastic part = r Χ 2πχ dx
3 3
= τ Χ §π(Α - r ) . (4.11)
The total torque carried by the shaft is then the sum of the torques
carried by the elastic and plastic parts.
:.e= l T
GJ
7 5 1
η 1·67Χ103[°· -* +.
1| X
4 4
i.e. 1 80 - 80 χ 1 0 » ^ χ 0-05* —(0-05 - 0-027 7 ) I
v 1
132 32
from which I = 0-19 m
2π X 110
556 000 = τΖ = r χ
Τ = = 717 500 Ν m
2π Χ 120
T___G6
J ~ I
8 0 1 09 4 5
π
χ χ °' χ
i.e. 717 500 180
£<ο*-*)
from which d = 0-22 m
τ = 7ζ
4 4
For the solid shaft to transmit the same power (i.e. the same torque) at
the same maximum stress, it must have the same modulus of section,
i.e. d = ^0-058 1 = 0-387 3 m
, 717 500
Twist per metre length = • = 0-004 515 rad
71 4
80 χ 10» χ — χ 0-387 3
32
Λ ratio of strain energies = β Q Q 4 ^15 _ 145
0-45 π
X
~2~ Ï8Ô
4. A shaft tapers uniformly from a radius (r + a) at one end to a radius
(r — a) at the other end. If the shaft is under an axial torque Τ and a — 0-lr,
determine the percentage error
in the angle of twist for a given
length when the twist is calcu- r-a Γ + σ
2-068- 2 1 ΛΛ
error = ———— χ 100 = 3-30 per cent
2-068
TORSION 75
5. A horizontal shaft, securely fixed at each end, has a free length of 10 m.
Viewed from one end of the shaft, axial couples of 30 kN m clockwise and
40 kN m counterclockwise act on the shaft at distances of 4 and 7 m respec-
tively from the viewed end. Determine the end fixing couples in magnitude and
direction and find the diameter of the solid shaft for a maximum shearing
2
stress of 60 MN/m .
Draw a diagram to show how a line, originally parallel to the axis and on
the outer surface of the shaft, will appear after the application of the couples
and find the position along the shaft where the shaft suffers no angular twist
(U. Lond.)
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.7. Let the fixing torque at A be T,
assumed clockwise.
40 kNm FIG. 4 8
30kNm
FIG. 4.7
Then torque on AB = Τ kN m
torque on BC = Τ + 30 kN m
and torque on CD = Τ + 30 - 40 kN m = Τ - 10 kN m
Τ χ 4 (Τ + 30) χ 3 (Τ - 10) χ 3
Ohe = and ö c d =
GJ
1
~
υϋ
GJ GJ
Since there is no relative twist between A and D,
4Γ + 3(T + 30) + 3(T - 10) = 0
Λ Τ = — 6 kN m (i.e. anticlockwise)
Torque on CD = —6 — 10 = —16 kN m, anticlockwise looking from A.
Hence the fixing torque at D is clockwise, of magnitude 16 kN m.
The maximum torque occurs in BC and is —6 + 30 = 24 kN m.
Τ=τΖ
3 e
i.e. 24 χ 10 = 60 χ 10 x ^ d*
16
.'. d = 0-127 m
m . . .« 6x4 24 16 X 3 48
Twist at 13 = — — = — and twist at C = ——— = —
GJ GJ GJ GJ
Fig. 4.8 shows the variation in twist along the length of the shaft.
From similar triangles,
χ 3—χ
76 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
80
4
0-04
= TT X 4 4
0-447 5 (1)
44 0-06 - 0-04
Τ, = r 8 Z s = T s X -π X 0-043 (2)
4
rp rr U 0Ό6
4
0-04
(3)
Th = r b Z b = r b X — X 0-06
II l ! χ — = 0-447 5 from equation (1)
TB 65
1-212
It is therefore evident that the bronze will reach its limiting stress of
2 2
38 MN/m before the steel reaches its limiting stress of 60 MN/m .
2
The maximum stress in the bronze is therefore 38 MN/m and the
maximum stress in the steel is 38 X 1-212 = 46-1 MN/m .
2
.·. power
r = 1 873 χ 2π Χ — W
60
= 98 kW
7. A shaft having a diameter of 90 mm is turned down to 87 mm diameter
for part of its length. If a torque is applied to the shaft of sufficient magnitude
just to produce yielding at the surface of the shaft in the unturned part, deter-
mine the depth of yielding which would occur in the turned part. Find also the
ratio of the angle of twist per unit length in the turned part to that in the un-
turned part of the shaft. State any assumptions made. (U. Lond.)
FIG. 4.9
TORSION 77
Let τ be the maximum stress in the elastic part of the shaft and the
uniform stress in the plastic part.
3
Then torque applied to 90 mm diameter shaft = τΖ = τ X — Χ 90
16
For the 87 mm diameter shaft, let r be the outer radius of the elastic
part, Fig. 4.9.
Then torque carried by elastic part
3
= xZ = χ Χ % r
2
and torque carried by plastic part
= χ Χ §π(Α — r )
3 3
from equation (4.11)
= χ Χ §π(43·5 - r )
3 3
Λ θ oc -
r
twist per unit length in turned part 4-5 ^
twist per unit length in unturned part 3-82
19. A solid cylindrical shaft, 5 0 m m diameter and 1-5 m long, is passed through
the centre of a hollow cylindrical shaft of the same material, 1-5 m long, 5 5 m m
and 7 5 m m inner and outer diameters. The ends of the two shafts a r e rigidly
joined, with the shafts concentric. The composite shaft so formed is used t o
transmit 3 7 5 k W a t a speed of 6 0 0 r e v / m i n . F i n d the m a x i m u m and minimum
stress in the two shafts. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 79-3 M N / m ; 5 8 1 M N / m ; 52-9 M N / m )
21. A hollow steel shaft 0*6 m long is firmly connected t o a hollow duralumin
shaft which is 0*9 m long and a torque is transmitted from one e x t r e m e end t o the
other. The outside and inside diameters of the shafts are : steel, 6 5 m m and 4 0 m m ;
duralumin, d m m and 6 5 m m . F i n d the outside diameter of the duralumin shaft
4 2
if the m a x i m u m shearing stress in the shafts a r e steel, 9 0 M N / m ; duralumin,
2
60 M N / m . I f the connection is made by fitting the steel shaft into the duralumin
shaft for a length of 150 m m and securely joining the shafts over this length, find
2
the t o t a l angle of twist in the overall length of 1-35 m. Crsteei = 78 G N / m ,
2
^duralumin = 2 6 G N / m . (U. Land.) (Ans.: 71-1 m m ; 3-9°)
F i n d also the maximum shearing stresses in the two materials and the propor-
tions of the total strain energy taken up by each part. (U. Lond.)
2 2 8
(Ans.: 34-6 G N / m ; 95-5 M N / m ; 69-5 M N / m ; 0-248 : 0-752)
2 5 . A steel shaft 9 0 m m diameter is solid for a certain distance from one end
but hollow for the remainder of its length with an inside diameter of 38 m m . I f a
pure torque is transmitted from one end of the shaft t o the other of such a mag-
nitude t h a t yielding just occurs a t the surface of the solid part of the shaft, find
the depth of yielding in the hollow part of the shaft and the ratio of the angles of
twist per unit length for the two parts of the shaft.
State a n y assumptions made in arriving a t the results. ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1-5 m m ; 1 0 3 4 5 : 1)
27. A hollow steel shaft having outside and inside diameters of 32 m m and
18 m m respectively is subjected t o a gradually increasing axial torque. The yield
stress is reached a t the surface when the torque is 1 k N m, the angle of twist per m
length then being 7-3°. F i n d t h e magnitude of the yield stress.
I f the torque is increased t o 1*1 kN m, calculate (a) the depth t o which yielding
will have penetrated, (b) the angle of twist per m length. State a n y assumptions
made and prove any special formula used. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 172-7 M N / m ; 1-8 m m ; 8-22°)
CHAPTER 5
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
In any practical case of bending of beams, the slope is very small and
Thus
so that
or
(5.2)
and (5.3)
82 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Ay
When χ = 0, - 2 = 0, so that A = 0,
dx
V
/. Ely + B
When χ = 0, y = 0, so that Β = 0.
The maximum slope and deflection occur at the free end, where x=l,
d
w/unit length
==£(/*-2/x+x*)
Fia. 5.2
Λ Εΐψ=™(ΐ*χ-Ιχ*+*>) + Α
άχ 2\ 3/
When χ = 0, = 0, so that ^ = 0,
dx
2 2 3 4
w/7 x Zx x \
* 2\2 3 12/ ^
When χ = 0, y = 0, so that 5 = 0 .
* Positive, to agree with the sign convention of Art. 2 . 1 .
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 83
The maximum slope and deflection occur at the free end, where χ = I,
wP
i.e = (5.6)
SEI
2
dz
When χ = 0, y = 0, so that 5 = 0 .
The maximum slope and deflection occur at the free end, where χ = I
Ml
i.e. (5.8)
χ
\ά )τ Yl
_ MP
and y x
(5.9)
™ ~2ËÏ '
Case (d )—simply supported beam with central concentrated load, Fig. 5.4.
W
2 5
FIG. 5.4
Taking the origin at the centre,
dx
2
2 \2 J
2
dy W/lx _ x \
EI
dx ~2\2 ~2J
When χ = 0, = 0, so that A = 0,
dx
_ W/lx*
:. Ely
=
+ B
Τ "6/
* The B.M. in this case is negative, since the beam is bending convex downwards.
84 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
When χ = - , y = 0, so that Β = W Ρ
2 * 2 24
. _ _ΤΓ/Ζχ2 s* _ ΡΛ
y _
" 2\T 6 24/
i.e. (5.11)
48#/
Case (e)—simply supported beam with uniformly distributed loady Fig. 5.5.
w / u n i t length
wl wl
2 I 7
FIG. 5 . 5
» 2 -
win
—\ - — x)
\ ,
4- ivl
/
.6-)
: . e i * * = -
dx
dy
When χ = 0, = 0, so that ,4 = 0,
dx
2 22 2
_w/l flxx _ x*\
\ Ely
~ 2 V ~Ί 8Γ~ '~ 12,
12/
4
l w 5Z
When χ = -, y = 0, so that 5 = ,
Γ 2 192'
Λ JS/y =
ϊV 8 12 192/
max — 5 13
y™=mu • • • ·< · >
NOTES. (1) With the sign convention adopted for bending moment, deflec-
tions are positive downwards and slopes are positive downwards moving
away from the origin.
(2) The same results for slope and deflection may be obtained with other
choices of origin for χ but a fixed end or axis of symmetry usually provides
the most convenient origin.
(3) Slope and deflection formulae for simply supported beams may be
deduced from the cantilever formulae. Thus the central deflection for a
simply supported beam of span I carrying a uniformly distributed load w
per unit length is the same as the end deflection of a cantilever of length
1/2 carrying a downward uniformly distributed load w per unit length and
an upward concentrated load wl/2 at the free end, as shown in Fig. 5.6,
i.e. central deflection for simply supported beam
wl/lV n\*
2\2 from equations (5.5) and (5.7)
3EI SEI
5 wl*
\W
% w/unit length
Λr --1 c
X J
]wl/2 Wb / Η Wg
1/2 I
I
FIG. 5.6 F I G . 5.7
. (5.15)
3
Wh τ ·
and . (5.16)
86 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
and E l y ^ - ^ + W ^ - a ^ + A t X + B . , (5.19)
2
Wal
When χ = l, y = 0, so that B2 = — A2l.
3
For similar reasons to those given above, the constant A2 cannot be
determined at this stage.
Equating the slopes at C as given by equations (5.15) and (5.18) when
χ = a, 2 2
Wba*. A Wba faw 12
2
—— + ΑΛ = — + W — — a + Ao
12
Equating 12 at C as[_2
the deflections given by J
equations (5.16) and (5.19)
when χ = a,
3
Wb a ' ι A Wba* fa
w
3 3
αΊ /TfaZ
2
Λ
Τ 6
and may be determined from these equations and hence the slope
and deflection obtained at any point, using equations (5.15) and (5.16) for
x< a and equations (5.18) and (5.19) for x> a.
For two concentrated loads, three sets of equations are required for the
three ranges of the beam, leading to six constants of integration. Two of
these are obtained from the conditions that y = 0 at χ = 0 and χ = I, and
the remaining four are determined by equating slopes and deflections under
the loads.
This method becomes cumbersome and it should be noted that the
constants of integration are different in each range of the beam.
Referring to equation (5.17), this could just as legitimately be in-
tegrated as follows :
2
„ dy Wbx , W , A, .^ r\fw
ElfT = - — -+—[x-a]*r + A' . . . (5.20)
dx 12 2 2
3
Wh r W 3
and Ely = —f — + - [ χ - a ] + A'& + B'2 . . (5.21)
Ζ 6 6
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 87
If the slopes at C are now equated, using equations (5.15) and (5.20)
when χ = a,
Wba* Wba* Wr 12 ,
2
h ΑΛ = — [α — α ] + Αο
•••A = i j ( = 4 )
Similarly, equating deflections at C, using equations (5.16) and (5.21)
when x= a,
W b a
* i j ι z> Wba* Wr . Ώ,
-— - + Aa + B1 = - — - + - [ a - af + Aa + B2
:.B1=B'2( = B)
Thus, by this method of integration, the constants of integration for
each range of the beam are the same and there is the further advantage
that equations (5.17), (5.20) and (5.21) are identical with equations (5.14),
(5.15) and (5.16), except for the additional term involving [x — a], which
only comes in when x> a, i.e. when [x — a] is positive. Thus equations
(5.17), (5.20) and (5.21) may be regarded as applying to the whole beam
provided that, for any value of χ which makes [x — a] negative, this term
is ignored.
This method is known as Macaulay's Method and it is conventional to use
square brackets for terms such as [x — a] which have to be treated in this
special manner.
Proceeding with this case, the deflection equation (5.21) simplifies to
EIy= —- - + - [x - af + Ax + Β
y s i
(5.22)
" ZEIl
Wl*
* When a = b = 1/2, this reduces t o . Q - r , a s in equation (5.11).
4oAI
88 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
The maximum deflection will occur between the load point and the centre
of the beam. I f a > 6, this point will correspond to χ < α, so that, from
equation (5.20),
Wab
v
I 2 6i '
Writing a= I — b, this reduces to χ =
Substituting in equation (5.21),
0+»
2
_ Wb/l* - 6 y
Ely™* _
~M\ 3 )
2 8 3 2
Wb(l - è ) ' (5.23)
or
9λ/3£/Ζ
As 6 -> 0, χ -> Z/\/3, which is approximately 1/13 from the centre of the
beam. Thus the maximum deflection is very close to the centre of the beam,
even for an extremely unsymmetrical load and for most normal cases of
loads on beams simply supported at the ends, the maximum deflection is
virtually identical with the central deflection.
5.4 Distributed loads. I f the beam shown in Fig. 5.8 carries also a
uniformly distributed load w per unit length over the whole span, then the
bending moment equation becomes
EIp-=-Rx+W[x-a\
2 + w%
dx 2
W
W
w/unit length •
b
I
Γ (
FIG. 5.8 Fw. 5.9
If the distributed load only covers the part DB, Fig. 5.9, then
EI^= 2 -Rx+ W[x a) + ^[x~b]
2
ax
The last term must be treated in the same way as that for the concen
trated load, i.e. it must be integrated
with respect to [x — b] and must be
ignored when negative. W
If the distributed load does not con-
tinue to the end of the beam remote
from the origin, as shown in Fig. 5.10,
it must be continued to the end and a
FIG. 5.10
compensating load added underneath.
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 89
The bending moment equation then becomes
Only by this device can an expression be obtained which can apply to the
whole beam under the usual Macaulay conditions. In general, any dis-
tributed load, when started, must continue to the end remote from the
origin, so that the load system shown in Fig. 5.11(a) must be converted to
that shown in Fig. 5.11(6) before Macaulay's Method can be applied.
(a) (b)
F i a . 5.11
5.5 Couple applied at a point. Taking the origin at A, Fig. 5.12, the
B.M. at a point within AC is
Μ
M M /
A Β
and at a point within CB, it is M
I
M . „
—_ x+ M,
FIG. 5.12
the action of M being to bend the beam convex upwards if imagined held
at the point P.
Thus the additional term, Μ, comes in only for χ > a and so, to corres-
pond with the treatment necessary for loads, it must be integrated with
respect to [x — a]. In order to proceed correctly, it is advisable to write the
bending moment equation in the form
—Tx+M[x-a]o
CiX ν
dx )EI
(b)
FIG. 5.13
(5.25)
2
Wl
Le
* 0b =
Wisince Θά = 0
FIG. 5.14
Γ I
1
EI
X \Wl.l χ \l
3
TfZ
i.e. (0 _ 0) - (0 - yh) = yh = —
1 ι wZ
2
7
A
1 --^je^
i.e. b =
üTi 8ince0
» = o
FIG. 5.15
[ 4 h :
i.e. ( 0 - 0 ) - ( 0 - y b ) = yb =
8£Z
Coee (c)—cantilever with end couple, Fig. 5.16.
0„-0Λ=2_χ M
EI
X
L ds *Jo EI
2
Ml
i.e. (0-0)-(0-yh) = yh =
Wi
Case (d )—simply supported beam with
central concentrated load, Fig. 5.17.
1 Wl I *
0 - 0 =
h c
~EI T'2
Xi
2
Wl
i.e. 0b since 0 C = 0
WEI
Taking the origin at Β and con-
sidering the part BC only, FIQ. 5.17
2
Γ dy Τ/ 1 t Wl
X
WP
( o - y ) - ( o - o ) =
i.e. c
Ϊ8ΕΙ
WP
i.e. ÎSEI
A c
Case (e)—simply supported beam with
uniformly distributed had, Fig. 5.18. |
X
u
~EI * 8 '2
i.e. 0 b = - — τ - since 0C = 0
F i a . 5.18
NM„ = - M T - 2 :2
x f x f
i.e.
5 trf*
i.e. 384 JSZ
* The area of the B.M. diagram is negative.
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 93
5.7 Maxwell's Reciprocal Rule. Let an elastic body be subjected to
forces W& and Wh at points A and Β respectively, Fig. 5.19.
Let <5aa be the deflection at A in the direction of W& due to W&*
J> ^ab »> >> " >> >> >> >» » ^a >> »
>> ^bb >> »> >> »> »J >> >» >» ^ b >> >» ^ b
>» ^ba »> >> >> >> >> >> J» " ^b >> >> ^ a
Let TFa be applied first. Then work done = \W& o a a, assuming the load
to be gradually applied.
If Wh is now applied, the additional work done = \Wh <5bb + W& <5ab,
the whole of WA moving through the additional distance d a b.
Thus the total work done = $W& δ&Ά + \Wh <5bb + Wa <5ab.
If the loads are removed and then re-applied in the reverse order (i.e.
TFb is applied first), it will be seen, by analogy, that the total work done
= i ^ a ( 5 a a + i T T b ( 5 b b+ T r b ( 5 b a.
Irrespective of the order in which the loads are applied, the body will
assume the same strained position and hence the work done by the loads
will be the same, so that
A Β
FIG. 5.20
ι <
FIG. 5.21
ι
of a simply supported beam carrying an offset load, Fig. 5.21, is the same
as the deflection at C if the load were moved to the centre, this being a
standard case dealt with in Art. 5.2.
Λ
1
W
\ Β
%, L (a)
(b)
(c)
F I G . 5.22
i.e. deflection at C = ^ - ( — — — |,
EI\ 2 6/'
substituting I for χ in the general deflection equation for a cantilever,
2-5 m
2-5m 50kN a, 1'5m w
(a) (b)
FIG. 5.23
FIG. 5.24
_ 360 X 12 Γ 7 1 1
~ 10 χ ΙΟ^δαΟ " 4
0-05 J
4
= 0-099 36 m
Alternatively, using the area-moment method and taking the origin at
the top,
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 97
E[2 I2
2
= If! » ? . S X .3 + * ™ .
3 ^ 2 7X
6
2
χ -.6 -
3
l 2™/ Λ χ ?.3l
3 J
x
. _ 360 χ 12Γ 1 7 1
1,e
' Vc
~ 10 χ 10» 0-10 J
4
= 0-099 36 m
3. A horizontal cantilever 2 m long has its free end attached to a vertical
2
tie-rod 3 m long and 300 mm cross-sectional area, which is initially
unstrained. If the second moment of area of the section of the cantilever is
e 4
6·5 X 10~ m , determine the load taken by the tie-rod and the deflection of the
cantilever when a distributed load of 30 kN/m is placed on the outer 1 m of the
2
cantilever. Assume Ε for both cantilever and tie-rod to be 200 GN/m
(U. Lond.)
In order to use the results obtained for standard cases, it is necessary to
continue the load to the fixed end and compensate with a load underneath,
as shown in Fig. 5.25.
Downward deflection at end due to load
on top of beam
30x2* 60
SEI EI 3m
Upward deflection at end due to load
underneath beam Τ
1 m
30 χ 1* , 30 χ 1» Ί I« -
_ ι X1 '\
ΥΥΎΥΥΊ
If the tension in the tie-rod is T, then upward deflection at free end due
to Τ
5
_ Τ χ 2 _ ST
3ËT~~3ËÏ
The resultant downward deflection at the free end is equal to the stretch
Tl
of the tie-rod, — .
aE
98 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
35 _ ST)
60
Thus,
Ε χ 6-5 χ ΙΟ-
Τ ΤΓ 6
Γ χ 3
300 χ 10~«Ε
from which Τ = 18-76 kN
Deflection at free end = stretch of tie-rod
3
18-76 χ ΙΟ χ 3
β
300 χ 1 0 - χ 200 χ 10*
= 0-000 938 m or 0-938 mm
4. Two beams AB and CD, as shown in Fig. 5.26, are of the same material
and have the same cross-section. The support at Β is at the same level as the
fixed end A. Determine the reactions at Β and D if the beam CD carries on its
whole length a uniformly distributed load of 1 JcN/m. (U. Lond.)
* 4m 1kN/m
Id
\ A
5m
•/•^
FIG. 5 . 2 6 FIG. 5 . 2 7
Let the reaction at Β be R and the force in the spacer at D be P, Fig. 5.27.
Then the downward deflection at Β due to Ρ must equal the upward
deflection due to R, since the point Β is level with A,
8 2 3
Ρ χ 4 Ρ χ 4 R χ 5
le + X
* SEI 2EI ~~ SEI
125
from which P = —R . . . (1)
88
The deflection at D must be the same for the upper beam as it is for the
lower beam, since the spacer is assumed rigid. For the deflection at D on
the lower beam, it will be convenient to move the force R to D and intro-
duce an anticlockwise moment R X 1 to compensate,
3 3 2
1 χ 4* _ Ρ χ 4 _ (P - R) x 4 _ R χ 4
Le
' ~8ΕΓ SEI ~~ SEI 2EI
from which 16P - 11Ä = 12 (2)
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2),
P = l - 4 5 4 k N and 1-023 kN
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 99
5. A vertical beam, 10 m long, is direction fixed at the lower end. The load
is distributed, increasing uniformly from zero at 2 m from the top toSw/m at
the fixed end. What horizontal force must be applied to the top if the beam must
not deflect at this point? (U. Lond.)
The load diagram is shown in Fig. 5.28. At a section distance χ from the
ground, the intensity of loading is w(S — x)/m.
The B.M. at this section due to the distributed load is therefore
(S-x)
|- χ w(S — χ) χ (8 — χ) χ
i.e. 2 V }
dx 6
4
10m
EI (8 - J ) + A
dx 24
4
When χ = 0, ^ 0, so that A = ~- χ 8 ,
dx 24
At χ = 8 m, w X 84
dx UEI
w
and y
lj{24
X 8
-Ï2Ô
X 8 5
}
5
X 8
30EI
Therefore, at the top,
Χ 8 5 + Χ 8 4 1 χ 4 2 36 3
^ 3 5 / 2 5 / = · Α
1 433-6 ^ = ^ L I 2 !
EI 3EI
:. R = 4-3w
100 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
w
64 1«
2D
M _ W(x - I)
Τ
2
dz
64 I*
3
= k(x~ - lx-*) Fio. 5.29
64W
where k = 4
πΖ>
dy
dx
_3&
When x=2l,y=0, so that Β =
~8f
3
64TFZ
When χ—l, y = —( — - 2 2 4
6Z 12J 8Z7 24#*Z)
Deflection at free end of cantilever of uniform diameter d
z
Wl
3E — d*
64
UWP 64TFP
: . ä = D x ^ 8 = 1-6822)
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 101
7. The overhung crankpin of a locomotive can be considered as a cantilever
of length ly and the distributed load applied to the pin by the hydrodynamic
2
lubricating film can be assumed to be of the form k(lx — x ) per unit length;
χ is the distance from the built-in end and k is a constant
Find the expression for the deflection at the free end of the pin.
(I.Mech.E.)
The load diagram is shown in Fig. 5.30.
2
2 k((x-x )
EI^- = k(lx-x )
ax*
X _
3
dx \ 2 3J
FIG. 5.30
4 0 kN 4 0 kN i40kN 40kN
C [ 1e £OkN m Β
2m * 4m 2m 2m 2m
'40kN
(a) (b)
FIG. 5 . 3 1
y = =
R
2 x ——
EI
3
2 x 80 χ 10
e
10 χ 10
0-016 m, as before.
FIG. 5 . 3 2
pOÛQQQÛQÛQOeûQ
nnnonooc A93-76kN m
FIG. 5.33
L \ i- L
F i a . 5.37
R, = -W and R9 = — W
Taking the origin at the L.H. end and using Macaulay's method, it is
necessary to extend the distributed load to the H.H. end and add a com-
pensating load underneath, as shown in Fig. 5.38.
Then
13 4
Ely = - — [ x - L f - — W [Tx - Z L f + -[x-2Z,] J
" 8 24 6 24Z,
W 97 71
L J
24L 16 48
2IY W 21V
2Z. WL
/?1 y /?2 3» 2L %W
F i o . 5.38 FIG. 5.39
160kN m 15kN/m
X
8m
-212-5
FIG. 5 . 4 0 FIG. 5 . 4 1
At C, EI ^ = - 1 8 0 + 67-5 + 356-7
dx
2
= 244-2 kN m
3
. dy _ 244-2 χ 10
e
" dx~ 40 X 1 0
= 0-006 1 rad
* Note that the couple does not affect the sum of the reactions but only the distribu-
tion of the load on them.
ΐ Going from left to right of the point C, there is a sudden change in negative moment
of 160 kNm. I f the origin had been taken at the R . H . end, the moment term would have
been positive; this is clearly shown in the B.M. diagram, Fig. 5 . 4 1 .
108 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
14. A beam of total span L is made up of two beams, each of length L/2
joined end to end, the moment of inertia of one being twice that of the other. The
beam is simply supported and carries three loads, each equal to W and spaced
symmetrically along the beam, at distances Z/4 apart. Obtain a formula for
the central deflection. (U. Lond.)
W W
21
F i o . 5.42
C C
FIG. 5.43
Let the slope of the beam at the centre C, Fig. 5.42, be Θ. Then the beam
may be divided into two cantilevers, built-in at the point C, Figs. 5.43(a)
and (6), each having a slope θ at the built-in end, downwards for the left-
hand half and upwards for the right-hand half.
Then, from the formulae derived in case (a), Art. 5.2, deflection at A
relative to C
r 3 λ 2
/ Α Λ
w(-) Wl
"2 L
3EI 3EI + • 2EI '2
19 WL
Z
L
"2 (1)
384 ~ËT
Similarly, deflection at Β relative to C
3
19 WL
+ Θ. (2)
384£(2Z) 2
The deflections at C relative to A and Β must be equal,
3
19 WL
hence +
384 ~W 3SiE(2I) '2
3
L 19 WL
from which 0.-
153 6 EI
Substituting in equation (1),
3
19 WL 19 WL
3 3
19 WL
central deflection = 1
38i~W 153 6 ~W
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 109
2 4
15. A 550 mm X 175 mm I-beam [A = 0-013 8 m ,1 = 0-000 655 m ) is
simply supported on a span of5m.A mass of 1 tonne drops 50 mm on to the
centre of the beam. Find the maximum deflection, the bending stress induced
2
and the equivalent static load. Ε = 200 GN/m .
2
If the elastic limit of the material is 250 MN/m , find the maximum dis-
tance through which the 1-tonne mass can drop without causing permanent set
in the beam. (U. Lond.)
If W is the equivalent static load and y is the maximum deflection pro-
duced at the point of impact, then, equating the work done by the falling
load to that done by the equivalent static load,
1 000 χ 9-81(0-05 + y) = \Wy
Wl*
But y-
iSEI
3
W χ 5
9
48 χ 200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-000 655
8
= 1-99 X 10~ W m
1 0 00 x 9 8 1 ( 0 0 5 + y) = x x y
•' ' - ! i ¥ 7 T F i
from which y = 0-004 61 m or 4-61 mm
0-004 61 N = 2 3 .1 5 k N
8
1-99 Χ ΙΟ"
_ M _ Wl
3
231-5 χ ΙΟ χ 5 λ Τ / 2
2
= N/m
1
, 0-000 655
4 χ
0-275
2
= 121-7 MN/m
Since the stress is proportional to the deflection, the deflection corres-
2
ponding to a stress of 250 MN/m is given by
0-004 61 χ ——- = 0-009 47 m
121-7
2
0-009 47
1 000 χ 9·81(Λ
v + 0-009 47) = n ' 8.
2 χ 1-99 X 1 0 -
where h is the height dropped
.·. h = 0-233 m
110 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
25. Two parallel steel cantilevers, one above the other, project horizontally
from a vertical wall and their free ends are connected By frictionless pin-joints
t o a vertical steel tie-bar of 1-8.m effective length. E a c h cantilever is of I-section,
-
2 2 5 m m χ 1 0 0 m m , second moment of area 31-68 χ 1 0 · m* and 2-4 m long,
and the tie-bar is 2 5 m m diameter.
Assuming t h a t t h e tie-bar is initially unstrained, find the proportion of the load
carried by the tie-bar when a concentrated load of magnitude W is placed on the
lower cantilever a t its mid-point. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0 1 5 4 5 W)
26. A cantilever of uniform section is 3 m long. I t is rigidly fixed a t one end and
is propped t o t h e same level as the fixed end by a rigid prop 1 m from the free end.
The cantilever carries a load which varies uniformly from 6 0 k N / m a t the fixed
end t o zero a t the free end. Calculate the load on the prop and the m a x i m u m
positive and negative bending moments. (U. Land.)
(Ans.: 35-5 k N ; 19 kN m ; 9-3 k N m )
28. A vertical flagpole, standing 7*5 m above the ground, is of circular cross-
section throughout, but t h e diameter tapers from 1 2 5 m m a t the base t o 7 5 m m
a t the top. W h e n a horizontal pull is applied a t t h e t o p the lateral deflection there
is observed t o be 2 5 0 m m . Calculate t h e m a x i m u m stress due t o bending.
1 1
Ε = 11 G N / m . (U. Land.) (Ans.: 5-69 M N / m )
A cantilever of length L carries a point load W at the free end. The second
moment of area of the section of the cantilever is as follows: for the length L/3
from the free end it is 7, for the middle length Lß it is 27 and for the remaining
length T//3 it is 37. Determine the slope and deflection of the cantilever at the
free end in terms of W, L, Ε and 7. (U. Lond.)
/ _25 WL* m_ WL*\
Ans ;
\ ~'108 EI 486 El)
31. Derive a formula for the deflection under the load of a simply supported
beam loaded at the centre.
A tee-bar used as a simply supported beam has a horizontalflangeat the top
100 mm wide and 10 mm thick, the vertical leg is also 10 mm thick and the overall
sizes are 100 mm χ 60 mm. The span is 1 m 2
and the central load causes a maxi-
mum stress in the material of 120 MN/m . Calculate the deflection if Ε => 200
GN/m*. (U.Land.) (Ans.: Ill mm)
32. Derive the formula giving the maximum deflection of a beam of uniform
section, uniformly loaded over its whole length, simply supported at its ends. 2
If such a beam is a symmetrical I-section made of steel, having Ε2 — 200 GN/m
and in which the maximum stress due 2
to bending is 120 MN/m , show that the
deflection may be written Δ = KL /d, where L is the span and d the overall
depth. Detennine the value of the constant Κ when L is expressed in m and Δ and
d are in mm. (U. Lond.) I fywL* \
An8: ; 1 2 5
\ - 3ÛËÏ J
33. A beam of uniform section and total length L + 2/ is simply supported on
a span L with two equal overhanging lengths I. Derive expressions for the de-
flection at mid-span due to a uniformly distributed load covering (i) the length
L between the supports, (it) the two overhanging lengths.
If the beam carries a uniformly distributed load on the whole length, find the
ratio l/L so that the beam at mid-span is just level with the supports. ( U. Lond. )
/ A 5 wL* wLH* \
; 0 4 5 6 4
( ^ 3 S ^ l 6 l 7 ' - )
36. A steel beam of uniform section has a length of 7 m and is simply supported
at points 5 m apart and 1 m from the ends of the beam. The beam carries three
point loads: 20 kN at the left-hand end, 4 0 kN at the right-hand end and 120 kN
at 3 m from the left-hand end. Determine the deflection at each of the points of
loading, stating in each2 case whether the deflection is upwards or downwards.
Take EI = 37-5 MN m . (U. Lond.)
§ . § y f (Ans.: — 3 1 7 mm ; ß^ff mm ; —1-88 mm)
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 113
-3 4
37. A beam, of length 8 m and I = 0-18 χ 1 0 m is simply supported a t its
ends, and carries two concentrated loads of 2 0 k N and 4 0 kN respectively 2 m and
6 m from the left-hand end together with a distributed load of 15 k N / m on the
4 m length o f span between the concentrated loads. Calculate the deflection a t the
2
centre of t h e span. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (I.C.E.) (Ans.: 28-1 m m )
38. A rolled steel joist 2 5 0 m m deep and 5 m long is simply supported a t one
end and a t a point 3 m along the beam, both supports being a t the same level.
A concentrated load of 6 0 k N is carried a t a point 1·2 m from the supported end
and a concentrated load o f 10 k N a t the free end.
F i n d the greatest flange stress and the slope of the beam over each support.
e 4 2
I = 4 7 - 5 χ 1 0 " m ; Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 92-7 M N / m ; 0 0 0 2 5 8 r a d ; 0 0 0 1 1 r a d )
39. A horizontal beam of uniform section is simply supported over a span L
and carries a uniformly distributed load w per unit length over the whole span.
The distributed load is t o be replaced b y three concentrated loads each wL/3,
equally spaced, with t h e end loads each a t a distance I from t h e nearest support.
F i n d the values of I so t h a t , for both types of loading, (a) the m a x i m u m bending
moment is t h e same, (b) the m a x i m u m deflection is the same. (£7. Lond.)
(Ans.:0-125L;0-15L)
40. A freely supported beam o f span I carries a load W distant a (<l/2
from one end). Show t h a t the deflection a t the centre of the span is given
2 2
by _ ? ! ^ ( 3 ί — 4 a ) and hence calculate by superposition of deflections, the de-
flection at the centre of a freely supported beam of span I carrying, uniformly
distributed, a load of w per unit length over the central portion equal t o one half
1
of the span. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: ^
\ " 2 048.0/j
41. A uniform section straight-edge of length L is loaded by its own weight
only and is freely supported a t two points. F i n d the distance between t h e two
supports : (a) so t h a t , with the supports a t the same level, the two ends of the beam
remain horizontal, (b) so t h a t the deviation from the straight is as small as
possible. (U. Land.) (Ans.: 0-577 4 L ; 0 - 5 5 4 L )
42. A 3 3 0 m m χ 130 m m R . S . J , is simply supported on a span of 6 m and
carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 4 k N / m and 3-6 m long extending from
1-8 m from the left-hand support t o 0-6 m from the right-hand support. Determine
the m a x i m u m stress a n d the m a x i m u m deflection due t o bending, stating a t which
4 2
sections they occur. 7 = 120 χ 10"· m ; Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Land.)
2
(A 120 M N / m a t 3-24 m from L . H . e n d ; \
\Ans.. 1 35 > m8 m ta 3 05 7 m from L
H e ^n d
46. A uniform beam of length 2L is propped a t its middle point. I t carries two
equal point loads, W, symmetrically placed a t a distance χ on each side of the
centre support. F i n d the value of a; in terms of L, so t h a t the reactions on the
three supports a r e equal. Neglect the weight of the beam itself and assume t h a t
all three supports are a t the same level. ( U. Lond. ) (Ans. : 0-774 L)
50. A horizontal steel beam, simply supported a t the ends, carries a load which
varies uniformly from 2 0 k N / m a t one end t o 5 0 k N / m a t the other end over a
span of 5 m. F i n d the magnitude of the m a x i m u m bending moment. I f the depth
2
of the beam is 0-4 m and the m a x i m u m bending stress is 100 M N / m , find the
central deflection. (Î7. Lond.) (Ans.: 109-6 k N m ; 6-48 m m )
51. A beam of uniform section and length I is simply supported a t its ends and
carries a distributed load which varies uniformly from zero values a t each end t o
a maximum intensity of w per unit length a t a section 1/3 from t h e right-hand end.
Show t h a t the maximum deflection occurs a t a distance of approximately 0-011
from mid-span and find the deflection a t mid-span in terms of w, lt Ε and 7.
(U. Lond.) iAn8m . wl*
\ 123-5 EIt
52. A horizontal beam is simply supported a t the ends and carries a uniformly
)
distributed load of 3 0 k N / m between the supports placed 10 m apart. Counter-
clockwise moments of 120 and 9 6 kN m respectively are applied t o the two ends
of the beam a t the supports.
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 115
Draw, approximately t o scale, the bending moment diagram for the beam a n d
find : (a) the reactions a t the supports, (b) the position and magnitude of the greatest
bending moment. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 171-6 k N ; 128-4 k N ; 371 k N m a t 5-72 m from 120 k N m couple)
5 3 . A beam of circular section, length 1*5 m, is freely supported a t t h e ends and
carries a vertical load of 10 k N a t the centre. One half of the length o f the beam
has a diameter of 5 0 m m , the other half 7 5 m m . W h a t will be the deflection, due
t o simple bending, a t the centre? Neglect t h e weight of the beam a n d t h e effects
2
due t o sudden change of section a t the centre. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (Ϊ7. Lond.)
(Ans.: 6-87 m m )
54. A simply supported beam of span L has a second moment of area o f 2 7 for
the left-hand half of the span and 7 for the right-hand half. The beam carries a
load of intensity 2w uniformly distributed over the left-hand half of t h e span and
of intensity w uniformly distributed over the right-hand half. Obtain an expression
for t h e deflection a t the centre of the span. I f a prop is now placed a t the centre
of the span t o restore the beam t o its original level a t this point, find the force
in the prop. (U. Land.) (Ans · ^ wL* 11 ,\
; W
V " 768 Έ7 Ï2 )
55. A static concentrated load of 10 kN applied t o a simply supported beam a t
mid-span, produces a deflection of 6 m m a n d a m a x i m u m bending stress of
2
2 5 M N / m . Calculate the m a x i m u m value of the momentary stress produced
when a mass of 500 kg is allowed t o fall through a height of 18 m m on t o t h e beam
2
a t t h e middle of the span. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 59-6 M N / m )
56. A concentrated mass M is allowed t o fall through a height of 12 m m t o
strike a simply supported steel joist a t mid-span. The joist has a span of 3*6 m
and for the cross-section, t h e depth is 2 4 0 m m a n d the second moment o f area,
_e 4
7 XX = 8 0 x I 0 m . Calculate the m a x i m u m value of i f if t h e momentary
2
bending stress in the joist must not exceed 120 M N / m . Neglect t h e loss of energy
2
a t impact. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (Ü. Land.) (Ans.: 1-406 Mg)
C H A P T E R 6
B U I L T - I N AND C O N T I N U O U S B E A M S
(c)
F I G . 6.1
The end fixings are assumed not to prevent a contraction of the length as
the beam bends. If such contraction is prevented, the beam becomes a
laterally-loaded tie-bar and is considerably stiffer than when the ends are
permitted to move.
The shape of the beam will be generally as shown in Fig. 6.1(a), having
points of inflexion at X and Y ; at these points, the B.M. is zero.
The B.M. diagram will consist of (a) the positive B.M. due to the end
fixing moments, varying linearly from ΜΛ at one end to Mh at the other,
116
BUILT-IN AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 117
and (6) the negative B.M. due to. the transverse loads, calculated as if the
beam were simply supported at the ends. These diagrams are shown in
Fig. 6.1(6).
It is usual to reverse the B.M. diagram due to the end fixing moments to
give the resultant B.M. diagram shown in Fig. 6.1(c). The base line is now
sloping but the B.M. at any point remains the vertical height of the diagram
at that point.
The S.F. diagram for the beam is similar to that for a similarly loaded
simply supported beam, except for the alterations in the reactions caused
by the end fixing moments.
6.2 Built-in b e a m with central concentrated load. Fig. 6.2(a)
shows the loaded beam and Figs. 6.2(6) and (c) show the S.F. and B.M.
diagrams respectively.
Β
M
W
(a) 2
(b)
1 Wl
^4
4
(c)
FIG. 6.2
Due to the symmetry of the loading, the reactions are each W/2 and the
end fixing moments are equal.
Taking the origin at the centre,
d*y W/l
EI - 2
dx 2\2 χ) +M
dy W llx _ x*\
EI- + Mx+ A
dx ' 2 \2 ~2)
dy
When χ = 0, -2 = 0, so that A = 0.
dx
118 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
When χ = - , ^ = 0, so that M =
2 dx 8
y
2 ^ 4 6 / 1 6
When χ = \, y = 0, so that Β =
2 19a
Λ M= —
8
Taking the origin at C* and considering the part BC only,
2
Γ ày_ Ί ' / _ 1 Ml I _ 1 1 Wl I 11
Χ
[ α~χ
y
\ 0 ~ Tl
X
Τ X
ϊ 2'T'2
X X
3-2
i.e. yc =
192^7
6.3 Built-in b e a m with uniformly distributed load. Fig. 6.3(a)
shows the loaded beam and Figs. 6.3(6) and (c) show the S.F. and B.M.
diagrams respectively.
Due to the symmetry of loading, the reactions are each wl/2 and the end
fixing moments are equal.
Taking the origin at the centre,
2
dx 2\2 / 2\2 ) ^
( τ -x*j + M
~2\i
ȣ--Kt-D+*+'
* T h e origin can equally well be taken a t B .
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 119
When χ = 0, ^ = 0, so that A •• 0.
ax
When χ = - , — = 0, so that M = ,
2' dx ' 12
y
2\ 8 12/ 24 ^
, w / u n i t length
ÎA f Ci
f wl y
(c)
FIG. 6.3
4
wZ
When χ = - , ν = 0, so that 5 = — ,
2 * - 384
12
Ε
120 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
i.e. ( o - o ) - ( o - , c ) = J - / ^ - ^
EI ( 9 6 128
wl*
i.e. 384£Z
6.4 Built-in b e a m with concentrated load not at centre. Let the
distances of the load W from the ends A and Β be α and b respectively,
Fig. 6.4. Since the end fixing moments will be unequal, the reactions at A
and Β will not be Wb/l and Wa/l respectively, as in a simply supported
beam.
Mad £>Mb
Rb (a)
(b)
F I G . 6.4
2
ax
Ay
£ 7 ^ = - Ä ~ + ^-[x - αγ +ΜΛχ+Α. (6.3)
dx 2 2
dt/
When χ = 0, = 0, so that .4 = 0, since [x — a] is negative for this
dx
value of χ ,
;.EIy=-R^+™[x-a\* + M^ + B
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 121
When « = I, = 0,
dz
72 W
(6.4)
2
i.e. 0 = - Ä a - + y[^~a] + MJ.
When χ = i, y = 0,
73 W 72
(6.5)
i.e. 0 = - Α . - + ^{Ι-α]» + 3ί.- . .
From equations (6.4) and (6.5),
2
Wb
3» = - =^ - (+* +22 α ) and M a. =
and by symmetry
: . y = ^ (6.7)
9 3 K
3EI1 '
The maximum deflection will occur between the load point and the centre
of the beam. If α > b, this point will correspond with χ < a, so that, from
equation (6.3),
Wb*.. .x* Wab*
( ί + 2 « ) - + _ χ = 0
from which
1+ 2a
Substituting in equation (6.6),
2 3 2
_ _ ϊ Ρ 6 ( * + 2 α ) / 2αΖ \ Wab*/ 2al \
or y m ax 2 1
3#/(Z + 2α) '
FIG. 6.5
The beam may be imagined to be cut in half and the two free ends made
to coincide by the application of equal and opposite forces, P, which
produce deflections at the ends of amount A/2.
Thus
\1EIh
from which. P = (6.9)
(6.10)
The directions of the reactions and end fixing moments are shown in
Fig. 6.5.
6.6 Continuous beams—three m o m e n t s theorem. A beam is con-
tinuous if it is supported at more than two points. Let AB and BC, Fig.
6.6(a), be any two consecutive spans of a continuous beam and let M' be the
B.M. due to the transverse loads as if each span were simply supported at
the ends. Then the resultant B.M. diagram consists of the 'free' B.M.
diagram due to W (negative) and the diagram representing the effect of
the endfixingmoments (positive). The endfixingmoments are the moments
applied to a span by the adjacent spans; these will not normally be the
same as those applied by the walls to a built-in beam since the continuous
beam is not necessarily horizontal over the supports.
As with the built-in beams, the B.M. diagrams are usually set out to
show the resultant B.M.; typical S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in
Figs. 6.6(6) and (c).
Let Ax and A2 be the areas of the free B.M. diagrams for AB and BC
respectively, let x\ and χ2 be the distances of the centroids of these areas
from A and C respectively and the second moments of area of the two spans
be Ιλ and / 2 .
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 123
*1 *2
(a)
X1 2Λ
- ' .1
!
G, /
^2
from which
Similarly
124 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
from which
(6.11)
A B C\
(Q) (b)
FIG. 6.7
Fio. 6.9
EI^=-RAx+20[x-l]+5[x-2r+Mt . . (1)
When χ = 0, $^ = 0, A = 0,
ax
When a ; = 5 m , $ = 0 ,
dx
Λ 0 = - 2 - 5 £ a + 4 1 + ilf a (2)
When χ = 5 m, y = 0,
0 = - £ Ä a + 19-77 + M a (3)
FIG. 6 . 1 0
8
i.e. 9 β
6 χ 200χ ΙΟ χ 86-5 χ 10~ χ 0-003
additional moment = 2 N m = 8-65 kNm
6
8-65
Therefore percentage increase in maximum B.M. = X 100 = 12
72
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 127
3. A buiU-in beam of length I carries a distributed load which varies uni-
formly from zero at one end to a maximum w per unit length at the other. Find
the bending moment and supporting forces at each end and the position and
magnitude of the maximum deflection.
Β \
u
ί
FIG. 6.11
-R&xa + ^ + ΜΛ (1)
6Ζ
- R a^ + ^ L + M^+A
a (2)
da; 2 24Ζ
ay
When χ = 0, 0, Λ A = 0,
άχ
Λ Ely. (3)
When x=0,y=0,.\B = 0.
2
-Rh =20 ~ — Jt
20 wl =
M b is obtained from equation (1) by putting χ = Ζ,
wl
2 2 2
3 , . wl . w>Z wl
128 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
(2),
200kN 200kN
.A 3m 3m 15kN/m b
ι 1
X
9m
(a)
275kN 275kN
\ \
785-5 k N m /
Λ"
FIG. 6 . 1 3
(b)
When χ = 0, ^ = 0, Λ A = 0.
dx
-Η!^χ3+129[χ_3]3+12?[χ_6]3+0·625χ +259·06χ +5
4 2
Λ EIy=
3 3 3
When χ = 0, y = 0, Λ Β = 0.
130 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
When χ = 4-5 m,
137-5 3 100 3 4 2
EIy = χ 4 · 5 + — χ 1 - 5 + 0-625 χ 4-5 +259-06 χ 4-5
3 3
3
= 1 436-5 kN m
3
1 436-5 X l 0
e m = 6-835 mm
210 χ 10
For the maximum B.M. to be as small as possible, the end-fixing moment
M must be half the maximum ordinate of the free B.M. diagram, so that
the resultant B.M. at the centre is equal to the B.M. at the ends,
785-5
M 392-75 kN m
FIG. 6 . 1 4
u
\. 1/2 \
4*— ^
FIG. 6.15
Applying this to the u.d.l., Fig. 6.15, the moment at A due to the load
on an element da at a distance a from that end is
wda . 2
a(l - a) 2
= - X 6 0 X l 0 * : 156-25 kN m.
Method 3
The beam may be treated as a continuous beam and the problem solved
by the use of the three-moments theorem (Art. 6.6). Since both ends are
built-in, assume a virtual span at each end, of zero length and carrying no
load. These are represented by AX and B Y in Fig. 6.16.
2
2 wl
For BC, A = Λ
3 8 ι X ι Y
B
z F " IA C "1
wl 5m 5m
~T2 Ρ
Ax wP
"24
3
60 X 5
B.M. diagram
24~~
2
FIO. 6.16
-312-5 kN m
Applying equation (6.12) in turn to spans XA and AC, AC and CB, and
CB and B Y gives
0 + 2M a(0 + 5) + Mc χ 5 + 6(0 + 0) = 0 . (1)
I a x 5 + 2M C(5 + 5) + Mh χ 5 + 6(0 - 312-5) = 0 . (2)
I C X 5 + 2Mh{5 + 0) + 0 + 6(-312-5 + 0) = 0 . (3)
From equations (1), (2) and (3),
Ma = -31-25 kN m, Mh = 156-25 kN m and Mc = 62-5 kN m
Taking moments about C,
-31-25 - 5 £ a = 62-5 Λ R& = -18-75 kN
Taking moments about B ,
2
5
-31-25 + 18-75 χ 10 + 60 χ 5P = 156-25
Ρ = 150 kN
NOTE. Readers familiar with 'moment distribution' will find that this gives
the most direct solution of all.
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 133
7. A continuous beam of uniform section 30 m long, is simply supported at
A,B,C and D, all supports remaining at the same level. AB = BC = CD —8 m.
The beam overhangs 3 m at each end and carries a uniformly distributed load of
30 kN/m over its entire length. Determine the bending moments at the supports,
and sketch the bending moment and shearing force diagrams for the beam.
(U. Lond.)
The beam is shown in Fig. 6.17(a) and Figs. 6.17(6) and (c) show the
bending moment and shearing force diagrams respectively.
The maximum ordinates of the free B.M. diagrams for spans AB, BC and
CD are 240 kN m.
30kN/m
O O f i ÛC
3m 8m 8m 8m 3m (a)
(b)
(c)
11β·£ 120 90
1 2 3
t.
FIG. 6.17
Fig. 6.18(a) shows the arrangement of the beam and Fig. 6.18(6) shows
the B.M. diagram. The maximum ordinates of the free B.M. diagrams for
AB and BC are respectively 30 and 22-5 kN m. Since the end A is built-in,
3m 4 0 kN 5kN/m
Χ ί
Ι *A 4m
Έ
6m 3m
(a)
(b)
22-5 kNm
Γιο. 6.18
M a x 4 + 2M b(4+6) + Mex 6
f £x3x30x2 + £xlx30x3£ _ |χ6χ22·5χ3ΐ =
I 4 « J
M„x 6 + 2M c(6+3) + M d x 3 + 6J-3 X 6 X
^ + oj = 0
5 x 3
* Note that χ must be measured from the outer supports of the pair of spans under
consideration. F o r an unsymmetrical triangular diagram, it is simpler to consider the
Ax for the two parts of the triangle separately than to determine the position of the
centroid of the complete triangle.
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 135
These equations reduce to
2M& + Mh = 37-5
2M a + 10M b + SMC = 240
Mh + 3M C = 45 since Md = 0
from which M a = 8-9 k N m , Mh = 19-7 k N m and Mc = 8-43 k N m.
9. A horizontal I-beam, rigidly built-in a t the ends, and 7-5 m long, carries a
total uniformly distributed load of 100 k N as well as a central concentrated load
2
of 4 0 kN. I f the bending stress is limited t o 7 5 M N / m and the deflection must
2
not exceed 2-5 m m , find the depth of section required. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 5 9 4 m m )
10. A horizontal steel beam of span 6 m and of uniform section is held encastré
a t both ends. I t carries a distributed load of 7-2 k N / m run from the centre t o one
end and a concentrated load of 9 k N a t the centre. The depth is 0*3 m and t h e
2
maximum bending stress is 1 2 0 M N / m . Calculate the central deflection.
2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (Ü. Lond.) ( ^ . : ^ m m )
11. A horizontal beam, built-in each end, has a clear span of 4-5 m, and carries
loads of 5 0 k N a t 1-5 m and 70 k N a t 2-5 m from its left-hand end. Calculate t h e
fixing moments and the position and amount of the m a x i m u m bending moment.
(17. Lond.) (Ans.: 67-5 k N m ; 60-5 k N m ; 67-5 kN m a t L . H . end)
e 4
12. A beam of uniform section, 7 = 185 X 1 0 ~ m , span 6 m, is fixed hori-
zontally a t each end. I t carries a point load of 120 k N a t 3*6 m from one end.
Neglecting the weight of the beam itself, find (a) the fixing moments, proving
a n y formula or rule you use; (6) the reactions; (c) t h e position and magnitude
of the m a x i m u m deflection. Check t h e determination of the fixing moments by
2
a n y method alternative t o t h a t already employed. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 69-12 k N m ; 103-68 k N m ; 42-25 k N ; 77-8 k N ; 3-35 m m a t 0-275 m
from mid-span)
13. A built-in beam of 5 m span carries a uniformly distributed load of 30 k N / m
extending from one support t o the centre of the span. I f the moment of inertia
β 4
of the section is 2 0 0 χ 1 0 ~ m , calculate (a) the end fixing moments, (b) the end
reactions, and (c) the position and magnitude of the m a x i m u m deflection. Sketch
2
the S . F . a n d B.M. diagrams. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 19-53 k N m ; 4 3 k N m ; 1 4 0 6 k N ; 60-94 k N ; 3-15 m m a t 2-8 m from
unloaded end)
_β 4
14. A 2 5 0 m m χ 112-5 m m steel beam, 7 = 47-6 χ 1 0 m , is used as a
horizontal beam with fixed ends and a clear span of 3 m. Calculate from first
principles the load which can be applied a t one-third span if the bending stress is
2
limited t o 120 M N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1 0 3 kN)
15. An encastré beam of uniform flexural rigidity is subjected t o the action of
two vertical point loads acting as shown in Fig. 6.19. F i n d the value of α t h a t will
give the largest bending moment a t the walls. ( U. Land.) (Ans. : 0-211 3 L)
v1
I
; „ L
α
ι
s
/
FIG. 6.19.
136 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
6 4
16. A steel joist, 4 0 0 m m χ 150 mm, 7 m ax = 2 8 3 χ 1 0 ~ m , 3 m long, is fixed
horizontally a t each end and carries loads W and 2 W a t 2 m and 4 m respectively
from one end. Draw the bending moment diagram for the beam, stating the values
a t the principal sections. F i n d the m a x i m u m value of TT if the bending stress
2
must not exceed 120 M N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: E n d fixing moments 1-778 W and 2-222 W; 76-5 kN)
17. A horizontal tubular shaft 1 m long, having outer and inner diameters o f
5 0 m m and 2 5 m m , is rigidly fixed a t its ends and carries a rigid lever a t the centre
of its length a t right angles t o its axis and in the same horizontal plane. I f the
lever is 0*3 m long and a vertical load of 1 kN is applied a t its free end, find the
2 2
vertical deflection a t the load. G = 8 0 G N / m ; Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 0-579 m m [0-489 m m + 0-090 m m ] )
18. A beam of uniform section is position and direction fixed a t both ends of a
span of 7 m. A t a point 4-5 m from the left-hand end a connection made t o t h e
beam exerts a vertically downwards force of 8 0 k N and also a clockwise couple
of 6 0 kN m in t h e vertical plane of bending ; in addition, the beam carries a uni-
formly distributed load of 8 k N / m on the whole span. Determine t h e fixing
moments and reactions a t the supports and make dimensioned sketches of the
bending moment and shearing force diagrams. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 58-78 k N m ; 118-28 kN m; 39-5 k N ; 96-5 kN)
19. An encastré beam of span I carries a load wl uniformly distributed over the
span. The second moment of area of the beam section is not the same throughout;
for a length Z/4 a t each end the value is 21 and for the middle length 1/2 it is / .
Determine the bending moment a t the ends of the beam and sketch the bending
moment diagram, showing on it the values a t the ends and a t mid-span.
2 2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: &wl ; -fowl )
2 0 . A built-in beam of uniform section and of length I carries a load which
increases uniformly from zero a t each end t o w per unit length a t t h e centre.
Determine the end fixing moments and the central deflection.
5 7
( Λ 72
\ ' 96
A n
SmËl)
a:
2 1 . A beam of uniform section and span I is firmly built-in a t the ends and
carries a load which varies uniformly from zero intensity a t the left-hand end t o
w per unit length a t the right-hand end. Determine the fixing moments and
reactions in terms of w and I and also the position and magnitude of the maximum
sagging bending moment.
Make freehand sketches of the shearing force and bending moment diagrams for
the beam, approximately t o scale, showing on t h e diagrams all the calculated
values. (U. Lond.)
Ί
(Ans.: ^ ; ^ ; ξ-^; -^; 0-021 47 wl* a t 0-548 I from R . H . e n d )
\ 30 2 0 20 20 /
β 4
22. A steel beam 0-35 m deep, I = 3 7 6 χ 1 0 ~ m has a span of 7-2 m and is
built-in a t the ends. Calculate the uniformly distributed load it can carry with a
2
maximum bending stress of 120 M N / m if, on loading, the end fixings yield t o
such an extent t h a t the fixing moments a r e 3 0 % less t h a n t h e y would be with
2
rigidly fixed ends. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 74-6 k N m )
β 4
2 3 . A rolled steel joist, 5 6 0 m m χ 180 m m ( / = 700 χ 1 0 ~ m ) is used as a
beam of 7-2 m effective span, t h e ends being partially fixed. The load consists
of a point load of 160 k N a t the centre of the span and a uniformly distributed
load (including the weight of the beam itself) of 6 0 kN. The rigidity o f t h e end
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 137
_8
connections is such t h a t the slope a t t h e ends is 4 Μ χ 1 0 where M is the end
2
moment in N m . Calculate the value of the end moments. Ε => 2 0 0 G N / m .
( U. Lond. ) (Ans. : 70-43 k N m )
24. A loaded horizontal beam has its ends securely built-in; the clear span is
6 4
6 m a n d I = 8 0 χ 1 0 ~ m . L a t e r it is observed t h a t one end has been displaced
10 m m vertically. Assuming the ends a r e still securely built-in, determine the
2
alteration of the fixing moments and vertical reactions. Ε — 2 0 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 26-67 k N m ; 8-89 kN)
27. A continuous beam 15 m long rests on three supports a t the same level.
One span is 6 m a n d carries a concentrated load of 100 k N a t its centre, and the
other is 9 m a n d carries a uniformly distributed load of 120 kN. Calculate t h e
m a x i m u m positive a n d negative bending moments for each span and the re-
actions. Draw the B.M. and S . F . diagrams roughly t o scale. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: + 1 2 6 and - 8 7 k N m ; + 1 2 6 and - 7 9 - 4 k N m ; 2 9 k N ; 1 4 5 k N ; 4 6 k N )
2 9 . A continuous beam rests on four supports with the right-hand end rigidly
fixed. The first span a t the left-hand end is 6 m and carries 3 6 k N uniformly
distributed. The second span is 9 m and carries 18 k N a t the centre and the third
span is 12 m carrying 12 k N uniformly distributed. Calculate the bending moments
and reactions and draw the B.M. a n d S . F . diagrams t o scale. ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: Mh = 24-485 k N m ; Mc = 1 5 0 5 k N m ; Md = 10-425 k N m ; R& =
13-92 k N ; R\> = 3 2 1 1 k N ; Rc = 14-28 k N ; Ra = 5-69 k N )
STRUTS
or — 4- — ν = 0
dx*^ ΕΓ
2
i.e. 1^ + ^ = 0 where μ = ^
The solution is
y = A cos μχ + Β sin μχ
* I f the strut is turned into the horizontal position and the deflection is downwards.
y is positive and M is negative. I f the deflection is upwards, y is negative and M is
positive. With the opposite sign convention, the signs of y and M are reversed in each
case, so that in all circumstances, M is opposite in sign to y, i.e. M = — Py.
138
STRUTS 139
0 *
(d)
FIG. 7.1
IVlien χ = 0, ^ = 0, B== 0.
da?
When χ = - , y = 0, Λ 0 = A cos μ -
Δ L
i.e. cos μ - = 0
l π 3π .
2
π ΕΙ
from which Ρ= , taking the smallest solution . . (7.1)
ι
The shape of the deflected strut is shown in Fig. 7.1(a).
If, however, the strut is prevented from moving at the centre, the next
mode of buckling will be as shown in Fig. 7.1(6)
When χ = 0, y = 0, A= 0
Further modes of buckling are possible, as shown in Figs. 7.1(c) and (d)f
these corresponding with μ 2π, etc.
Case (b)—strut with one end fixed and one end free, Fig. 7.2.
Taking the origin at the base,
BI^L = P(a-y)*
i.e.
The solution is
y = A cos μχ + Β sin μχ + a
When χ 0,y=0, Λ A = —a
2
n EI
from which P = 2 (7.2)
4Z
Case (c)—strut with both ends fixed, Fig. 7.3.
Taking the origin at the centre,
2
dx
à*y 2
M
μν
Τι
2
dx '
The solution is
M
y = A cos μχ + Β sin μχ +
" ^5 77Z"
dy Ρ
When χ = 0, -f = 0, 5=0.
dec Fia. 7.3
* The B.M. in this case is opposite in eifeot to that in case (a), i.e. it is positive.
STRUTS 141
l_ dy
When χ = -j-, ^ = 0, .·. 0 = — μΑ sin μ
I
.'. sin μ •
. μ — = 71
from which ki EI
2
(7.3)
i.e.
The solution is
F.
y = A cos μχ - f Β sin μχ + ψ(1 — x)
Fl
When x=0,y=Q,:.A= —
Ρ
When χ = 0, ^ = 0, B = F_
dat μ~Ρ
When χ — l, y = 0,
8
.•.0 = | | - Z c o s ^ + i ^ |
.". tan μϊ = μΐ
The smallest solution is μϊ = 4*5 rad
7.3 Validity limit for Euler's Theory. For the case of a short strut,
Euler's theory may give a critical load which is greater than that required
to produce failure due to direct compression. The limiting case occurs when
Ρ = aca
where ac is the compressive stress
at the yield point and a is the
cross-sectional area.
2 2 2
π ΕΙ n E(ak )
But Ρ = η
The quantity l/k is called the slenderness ratio and its value at this point
is called the validity limit. For a mild steel pin-ended strut, η = 1, Ε = 208
2 2
GN/m and ac= 325 MN/m , so that l/k 80. It would therefore be
impossible to use Euler's theory for such a strut of slenderness ratio less
than this value and, in fact, this theory would give an excessive value for
the crippling load before this limiting case was reached.
Fig. 7.5 shows how Ρ varies with l/k according to Euler's theory and the
dotted line shows the corresponding values of Ρ as given by Rankine's
theory, where an allowance is made for the effect of direct compression.
7.4 Rankine's Theory. For a very long strut, the crippling load is
given by Ρ = P e , where P e is the load given by Euler's theory. For a very
short strut, the crippling load is given by Ρ = P c , where P c is the load at
failure due to direct compression.
For a strut of intermediate length, Rankine's criterion of failure is
1
Ρ P<
1
P = 2
aca ηπ ΕΙ
aca
= 1 + 2
nn E\k)
2
The quantity aJn E is a constant for a given material and is denoted by c.
STRUTS 143
Hence P = (7-6)
1 +
n\kj
where η has the value 1, J , 4 or 2-05 for the various types of end fixing
considered in Art. 7.2.
2
Although the value of c could be calculated from σ0/π Ε, it is usually
determined directly by experiment and the following are the values of ac
and c normally used :
2
Material a c(MN/m ) c
Mild steel 325 1/7500 (theoretically 1/6200)
Cast iron 550 1/1600 (theoretically 1/2040)
Due to the discrepancy between the usually accepted values of c and the
theoretical values, the Eankine curve shown in Fig. 7.5 will not coincide
with the Euler curve for very long struts, as it should theoretically do.
7.5 Strut with eccentric load. Fig. 7.6 shows a pin-ended strut in
which the load is applied with an eccentricity e at each end. For such a case,
there is no buckling load; the strut will commence to bend immediately
any load is applied and the deflection at any point is directly related to the
load. „
Taking the origin at the centre,
P(y + e)
i.e. 2 +
22 „
μν -fi =e
dx
The solution is
y= A cos μχ + Β sin μχ — e
dy
When x=0, 0, / . B=0.
dx
I
When χ A = e sec μ
Λ y = e^sec μ ^ cos μχ —
7.6 Strut with initial curvature. Fig. 7.7 shows a pin-ended strut in
which the load is applied axially at the ends but the strut has initial curva-
ture, the central deflection from the axis through the ends being h. As in
the previous case, bending occurs immediately any load is applied.
Assuming that the initial curvature is relatively small, the exact shape
of the curve has little effect upon the subsequent bending and since the
fundamental shape of a strut which is deflected by an end thrust is a cosine
curve, it is convenient to assume that the initial curvature is also of the
form of a cosine curve.
Thus, taking the origin at the centre,* the equation of the initial curva-
ture is
u = h cos — χ
I
The subsequent movement of the strut due to the force Ρ is y
-Py
i.e.
EIp{ + Py=EI^2
dx* * dx
2
r , rj Tl 71
-Elk —2 cos — χ
I I
2
π' π
i.e. 2
dx
The solution is
6
π π
- cos - χ
y = A cos μχ +Β μχ ν
μ< ~ T2
π
When χ = 0, ^ = 0, Λ Β 0.
dx
When χ = ^, y = 0, Λ 0 = A cos μ ^
2
π , whence Ρ • π ΕΙ
If cos μ ^ — 0, then μ - : Ρ,
In this case, however, y would be infinite, from equation (7.10) and so,
assuming that Ρ is less than this value,
* I f the origin is taken at one end, the curve will be a sine wave.
STRUTS 145
I
cos rμ - ^ 0
2
so that .4 = 0
Pe
Λ yy = n „ h cos ~ χ . . . (7.11)
Pe-P I
i.e. due to the action of the load, the deflection at any point is increased in
the ratio Pe/(Pe - P).
^max = ψ ~ ~ ρ ( 7 . 1 3 )
h
and °™ = * ± £ ^ P ' z ' ' ' •<"*>
If the load is applied eccentrically at each end, the total deflection at any
point is the sum (or difference) of the deflections due to the eccentricity
and initial curvature.
7.7 Laterally loaded struts.
Case (a)—central concentrated load, Fig. 7 . 8 .
Taking the origin at the centre,
y
// \ ρ l PL ρ
BIpt—Ρ,-Ζ
2
dx * 2
2
ày ,
d x
/ Fia. 7.8
The solution is
y=Aco8μx-\~B sin μχ — — ( χ)
2P\2 /
d W
When χ = o, / == 0, .·. Β = - —
dx 2μΡ
I
When χ 0, . . A = —— tan μ -,
2μΡ ^ 2
·'· y =
5{^( tan μ
\ cos μ χ
~ sin μχ
) ~( . (7.15)
ρ \ y w / u n i t length p
»S~*-i(M ^Τθ^^ΠΓ
The solution is
2
y = Λ cos^a; + Β &πιμχ - —1 - — χ + — »
When a; = 0, — = 0, .*. Β = 0.
da;
When a; = l, y = 0, .\ A =
l
sec/* -
2
»P/ l Λ I , x^ .
i l T i o
y = μ MX _ + (
·'· P \ ^ \ 2 ~ ) 8 2j ' *
But Pp=*BIp = *M
dx
2
EI dx
2 r
M
2 2
dM d M'
•••Tsr+^-a? <»
1
U
STRUTS 147
2
dx
The solution for M is then
M = A cos μχ + Β sin μχ
For an eccentrically loaded strut, (Art. 7.5),
dM
0 when x=0, ΛΒ= 0
dx
and M = Pe when χ = -, .'. A = Pe sec μ -
2 ^2
so that M Pe sec μ - cos μχ
and M Pe sec μ
r -
2
For a strut with a
TP TF
— when χ = 0, Β = —-
da; 2 2μ
If I
and M 0 when χ = 0, .". A = — —- tan μ -
2μ 2
W 1
so that M L
——< tan μ - cos μχ + s
2/u 2
WA I
and M -— tan μ -
max 2μ ^2
For a strut with a uniformly distributed load, (Art. 7.7(6)),
=
2
dz
w
Λ M = A cos μχ -\- Β sin μχ -(—^
When χ = 0, — = 0, Λ Β = 0.
dx
.. M = -^sec μ - cos μχ — 11
B e c
and M m ax = " " ^ /* j[ - ^
148 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
=
^( sech/
4- ) 1
2
= 96-4 Ν
l χ 12
2 2
.·. ο* = - = * N/m = 1-56 MN/m
0-012 5 χ 0-005
d 1 1
a
If the central deflection of the strut is δ,
^max = Ρ X à
Pxô
.. o v ζ
_ 96-4 χ δ Χ 6 2 2
2 N/m = 1 850 à MN/m
~ 0-012 5 χ 0-005
1-56 + 1 850 0 = 280
/. δ = 0-15 m
2. From some tests on steel struts with ends fixed in position but free in
direction, two of the results obtained were:
Test No. 1 2
Ratio of slenderness 70 170
2
Average stress at failure (MN/m ) 200 69
STRUTS 149
(a) Assuming these two values are in agreement with the Rankine formula,
find the two constants in the formula.
(b) If a steel bar of rectangular section 60 mm by 20 mm and of length
1*25 m is used as a strut with both ends fixed in position and direction, find
the safe load using the constants derived in (a) and employing a load factor of 4.
(U. Lond.)
aca
m
(a) Ρ = TTVi · · · fr° equation (7.6)
i.e. 200 = 2
1 + c Χ 70
and 69 = ^
2
1 + c χ 170
2
from which ac = 326-4 MN/m and
7 750
(6) For built-in-ends Ρ = aca
4\k
2 2
72 <* 0-02 1 2
2 2
k = —= = m
4
12 12 3 χ 10
ρ _ 1 326-4 χ 10* χ 0-06 χ 0-02
X 2 4
' ~~ 4 j 1-25 χ 3 X 10 ~~
4 χ 7 750
= 38-9 kN
3. A steel tubular strut is pin-jointed at each end and it is subjected to a
load parallel to its axis but eccentric to it. If the tube is 50 mm external dia-
meter, 40 mm bore diameter and 2-5 m long, find the maximum permissible
load if the eccentricity is 5 mm and the maximum allowable stress is 300
2 2
MN/m . Ε = 200 GN/m . (I.Mech.E.)
Ρ , Pe I « / rr r \\
o*max = — + — sec μ - . . . . from equationr (7.9)
a Zi 2
2 2 2
a = ^(0·05 - 0-04 ) = 7-07 χ 10~* m
4
^/:-°-V
=Z
0
5
32\ 0-05
0
4
)
7-24X10-
1
= 0-005 25VP m -
9 4 4
200x 10 x—(0-05 -0-04 )
64
150 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
.·. 3 0 0 X 1 0 . = p!™ + ° -
W
7
5
*
1 08
sec fo-005 2 5 ^ X ^ ) 1
\7-07 7-24 \ 2 //
434 800
which reduces to 2-05 - sec 0-OOjljÉjlVP = 0
By use of Newton's method or by plotting,
P=jWkN
4. A horizontal light alloy tube 60 mm external and 50 mm internal dia-
meter, 2-4 m long, is freely supported at its ends. It carries an axial com-
pressive load of 20 kN, and also two vertical point loads of 1 kN at 0-8 m
from each end. Find approximately the maximum stress in the tube.
The beam may be treated as a slightly curved strut, the initial deflection being
that due to the transverse loads. Neglect the weight of the tube and take Ε as
2
70 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
1kN£'4m,0-4m ,1kN
Β 20kN
800Nm
Για. 7.10
4
/ = ^(0-06 4 β
0-05 ) = 0-328 5 χ 10~ m
4
64
β
0-328 5 χ 1 0 - β 3
and Ζ = 10-95 χ 10~ m
0-03
The strut is shown in Fig. 7.10(a) and Fig. 7.10(6) shows the B.M. dia-
gram due to the transverse loads alone. The initial central deflection is most
easily obtained by the area-moment method; taking the origin at Β and
considering the part BC only,
1 2
Γ dy Ί 1 moment of area of B.M. diagram between C
y = X
L dx~ j0 ËÎ and Β about Β
Q 8 8 Q Q
- * X f x 0-8 + 0-4 x 800 x 1-0
9 β
i.e. (0 — A) — (0 — 0) = — 70 χ ΙΟ χ 0-328 5 χ 10~
/. h = 0021 35 m
STRUTS 151
^max
:
from equation (7.12)
2
π ΕΙ
P. 2 from equation (7.2)
I
π χ 7 0 χ 1 0 χ 0 · 3 2 8 5 χ 1 0 - = 56 200 Ν
2 9 8
20 000 1464 2 2
N/m = 156-6 MN/m
Omax
π (0·06 -0·05 )
2 2 10-95 χ 1 0 -
β
+
5. A thin vertical strut of uniform cross-section and length L is rigidly fixed
at the bottom, and the top end is free. At the top there is a horizontal load H and
a vertical downward had W acting through the centroid of the section. Prove
that the horizontal deflection at the top is
L w
w { — - ) ^ ^ = sJYr
If the strut is 2 m long and the horizontal deflection at the top produced by a
horizontal load of 100 Ν is 112-5 mm, find the deflection where there is, in
addition, a vertical load of 180 N. Find also the maximum bending moment
in the strut. (U. Lond.)
Keferring to Fig. 7.11,
EI^2=W(a-y) + H(l-
μ 2α + { 1 χ )
* 2 + ^ = Τι -
The solution is
Η
When χ = 0, $ f = 0, B =
ax FÎW
Η η,
cos^x + ^— άημχ + α + —(I — χ)
μη W
152 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
When χ = l, y = a,
H l H
( - \ 1 _L ' 7_1_
. . a = - ^a + - cos //i + — sin μι + a
from which
Due to Η alone,
HP
deflection at top :
3ËÏ
3
100 χ 2
i.e. 0-112 5 =
3£Z
2
EI =2 370 Ν m
V #7 V 2 370 m
-
100/tan 0-276 χ 2 _ \
Î80\ 0-276 /
= 0-130 5 m
6. A thin vertical strut, 1 m long and initially straight, is pinned at each end
and carries an axial load P. A spring of stiffness 4-5 kN/m is attached at the
centre with its axis horizontal and when the strut is straight, the spring is
stretched 30 mm.
Find the central deflection when Ρ is one quarter of the Euler crippling load
2
and EI is 30 Ν m .
The strut is shown in Fig. 7.12. From equation (7.16), the central deflec-
tion under a central load W is given by
W(l. I Γ
Vu μ
2Ρ\μ^ 2 2
Denoting the central deflection by δ
W = 5 ( 0 - 0 3 - δ)
= 4-5 χ 10 (0·03 - δ) Ν
3
4-5 χ 10 (0·03 - δ)
3
W
2 χ π ΕΙ
2
2Ρ
2
4Ζ
4-5 χ 10 (0·03 - δ) Χ 2 χ I
3 2
2
π Χ 30
30-4(0-03 - δ) FIG. 7 . 1 2
STRUTS 153
2
π ΕΙ π
μ
. . - tan μ-
r
s]ΕΙ ν/;
— - = — tan - — - = 0*136
WEI 21
μ 2 2 π 4 2
Λ δ = 30-4(0-03 - δ) Χ 0-136 = 4-13(0-03 ô) m
from which δ = 0-024 15 m or 24-15 mm
7. A uniform tie-rod of length 2α, pin-jointed at its ends, supports a uni-
formly distributed transverse load w per unit length, in addition to an axial
pull P. Derive an expression for the maximum bending moment.
A steel tie-bar of length 1-5 m between pin centres and diameter 25 mm
carries an axial tension of 12-5 kN and, in addition, a lateral load of 450 Ν
uniformly distributed along its length. Calculate the maximum bending
moment in the tie-bar.
If the axial force becomes reversed in direction (i.e. compressive), calculate
2
the percentage change in stress. Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
w / u n i t length
FIG. 7 . 1 3
w 2
2 X)
Referring to Fig. 7.13, M = Py - -(a
2
M w. 2
or Py = - g ( a - x*)
2
dM _
P W
die* d J =
or
Am
- ^ = W , w r i t i n g p g a s | p / g
The solution is M A cosh μχ + Β sinh μχ — —
àM
When χ = 0, 0, .·. B = 0.
dx
When x= a, M = 0, :. A t sech μα
Λ M = -—(sech
2
μα cosh μχ — 1)
μ
w
M m a x = — —(1 2
— sech μα), since sech μα < 1
μ '
154 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
3
2 Ρ 12-5 χ 10 _2
9 4
200 χ ΙΟ χ — χ 0-025
64
-47-6 Ν m
When Ρ is compressive
——-(sec
2
μ - 2 — 1) . . . from equation (7.20)
μ \ /
^sec Vïm χ l^-l^J
1-5 χ 3-26
= -336-5 Ν m
Ρ Μ
°max Τ ~ rj
α Ζ
For tie-bar,
12 500 , 47-6 , 2 „0 η *χ Λ πτ , *2
cr max = + N/m = 56-5 kN/m
2 3
- χ 0-025 — χ 0-025
4 32
For strut,
12 500 336-5 2 / .ί 1 Μ / 2
1 N/m 2= 0245 kN/m2
- Χ 0-025 - Χ 0-025
2 3
4 32
Λ percentage change of stress
245 - 56-5
X 1 0 0 = 333
56-5
12. A hollow cast-iron column with fixed ends supports an axial load o f 1 MN.
I f the column is 4-5 m long and has a n external diameter of 2 5 0 m m , find the
thickness of metal required.
Use the Rankine formula, taking a constant of 1 / 6 4 0 0 and assume a working
2
stress of 8 0 M N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2 8 m m )
14. Compare the crippling loads given by Euler's and Rankine's formulae for
a tubular steel strut 2-25 m long, having outer and inner diameters of 38 m m and
33 m m respectively, loaded through pin-joints a t both ends. Take the yield stress
2 2
as 3 2 5 M N / m , the Rankine constant = 1 / 7 5 0 0 and Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . F o r what
length of strut of this cross-section does the Euler formula cease t o apply?
(Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 17-24 k N ; 17-20 k N ; 0-98 m )
18. A steel tubular strut is pin joined a t each end, and is subjected to a load
parallel t o its axis but eccentric t o it. I f the tube is 6 4 m m external diameter,
156 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
50 mm bore and 2-5 m long, find the maximum permissible eccentricity if the load
2
is 120 kN and the m a x i m u m permissible stress is 3 0 0 M N / m .
2
Any equations used should be proved. Ε = 200 G N / m . (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans.: 6 m m )
19. Derive a formula for the maximum compressive stress induced in an initially
straight, slender, uniform strut when loaded along an axis having an eccentricity
e a t both ends, which are pin-jointed.
A straight steel pin-jointed strut is 5 0 m m diameter and 1-25 m long. Calculate
(a) the (Euler) crippling load when loaded along the central axis; (b) the eccen-
tricity which will cause failure a t 7 5 per cent of this load if the yield-point stress
2 2
of the material is 2 8 0 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 387-5 k N ; 1-166 m m )
2 0 . A hollow circular steel strut with its end position-fixed has a length of 2-4 m,
its external diameter being 100 m m and its internal diameter 87-5 m m . Before
loading, the strut is bent with a maximum deviation of 4-5 m m . Assuming t h a t the
centre-line of the strut is sinusoidal, determine the maximum stress due to a
2
central compressive end load of 10 kN. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 6-55 M N / m )
2 1 . A steel bar 2 5 m m diameter and 1-8 m long is tested as a free-ended strut.
Calculate the crippling load if the bar is initially straight and is centrally loaded.
2
F i n d the load which will produce the yield stress of 300 M N / m in this bar, if it
is centrally loaded, but has initial curvature with an eccentricity of 9 m m a t the
2
centre of its length. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 11-7 k N ; 9-4 kN)
2 2 . A long slender strut, originally straight and securely fixed a t one end and
free a t the other end, is loaded a t the free end with an eccentric load whose line
of action is parallel t o the original axis of the strut. Deduce an expression for the
deviation of the free end from its original position.
Determine this deviation and the greatest compressive stress for a steel strut
complying with the above conditions; length 3 m, circular cross-section 5 0 mm
external diameter and 2 5 m m internal diameter; load 3-6 kN and original
2
eccentricity 7 5 mm. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: ô = e(œcul - 1 ) ; 27-6 m m ; 34-6 M N / m )
23. A slender column is built-in a t one end and an eccentric load is applied at
the free end. Working from first principles find the expression for the maximum
length of column such t h a t the deflection of the free end does not exceed the
2
eccentricity of loading. (7. Mech. E.) (Ans.:Jji EI/9P)
2 4 . A vertical strut of uniform section is fixed rigidly a t the base and carries a
vertical load W a t the t o p acting with an eccentricity e. In addition there is a
horizontal force a t the top, H, acting so as to produce bending in the same plane
as W a n d tending t o increase the deflection. Obtain a formula for the maximum
bending moment.
I f the column is a tube 5 0 m m outside diameter and 4 4 m m inside diameter of
free length 1-5 m and if W = 9 kN acting with an eccentricity of 2 5 m m , find H
2 2
to produce a maximum stress of 2 7 5 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
JJ
We sec μΐ + — t a n μΐ; 4 1 9 Ν )
(Ans.:
μ
2 5 . A strut of length I and flexural rigidity EI is encastred a t its lower end. The
upper end is elastically supported against lateral deflection so t h a t the resisting
force is k times the deflection. Show t h a t the crippling load is given by
t a n al , Ρ , , Ρ . ΤΎ τ ,.
2
= 1 —— where α =—. (U. Lond.)
al kl EI
STRUTS 157
2 6 . A straight circular section strut of length L has an applied axial compressive
load P . I t is loaded a t the centre with a load W acting a t right angles t o its axis.
Prove t h a t the m a x i m u m bending moment is
W mL , 2 2Ρ
— — tan — where m = —
2m 2 EI
and derive a formula for the central deflection.
I f the strut is of steel 2 5 m m diameter and 1-5 m long with an axial load of
16 kN, calculate the value of W which will cause collapse if the yield-point stress
2 2
is 2 8 0 M N / m and Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: See Art. 7 . 7 ( a ) ; 133 N )
27. A slender strut of uniform section and of length L has pin-jointed ends and
it is initially straight and vertical. I t carries an axial load Ρ and also a horizontal
lateral load W applied a t the middle of its length and acting in the plane in which
Ρ would cause bending to occur. Show t h a t the m a x i m u m deflection is
W mL WL , 2 2 Ρ
Δ = - — - t a n —— — —— where m = —·
2mP 2 4P EI
In the case of a given strut the magnitude of Ρ is P c / 4 , where P e is the Euler
critical load for the strut. F i n d the ratio of the m a x i m u m deflection produced by
Ρ and the lateral load W acting together, to t h a t produced by W acting alone.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-328)
2 8 . A locomotive coupling rod, 2-5 m between centres, is of symmetrical I-
section: the outside dimensions a r e : 4 0 m m wide by 120 m m deep, web, 14 m m
thick and flanges each 2 0 m m thick. F i n d the m a x i m u m compressive stress in
the rod due to an end thrust of 150 kN and a uniform transverse load of 5 k N / m .
2 2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (17. Lond.) (Ans.: 111-4 M N / m )
(8.2)
(8.3)
(8.4)
Similarly,
(8.5)
160 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
GJ
rl
total strain energy : dx (8.7)
c
χ \\dx
m
Wb Wg
ι t
FIG. 8.3
Wb
Therefore, at any point between A and C, M = — χ
I 2 2
W b a*
.: u AC 2
2EI §EIl
2 2
W a b*
Similarly, UBC 2
6EI1
2 2 2
Wab
Λ total strain energy (a+b)
6EII
2 2 2
Wab
i.e 6EII
2 2
Wa b
:. δ as from equation (5.22)
ΊϊΕΙΓ'
NOTES. (1) The sign of i f in such an application is of no consequence, since
M is squared subsequently.
THIN CURVED BARS 161
(2) It is unnecessary to use Castigliano's Theorem in cases where there
is only one load and the deflection is required at the load point and in the
direction of the load.
2. A steel spring, ABC, of the dimensions shown in Fig. 8.4 is firmly
clamped at A. If a vertical force of 20 Ν is applied at C, find the vertical
2
deflection of this point. Ε = 200 GN/m .
For BC, taking the origin at C, 100mm
M=20x
1 ro-io
Λ Bi/c=2£/J V0x)*dx
0
= ^ J
3EI
For AB, taking the origin at B ,
M = 20(0-10 + 0-06 sin 0) 20mm
and dx = 0-06 άθ FIG. 8.4
·'· » - m l
υ
("IT ρ sin θ
) χ
°·° - °·
5Λθ 708 χ 1 0 - 8
Τι
For BC, taking the origin at C,
M = — χ 0-05(1 - sin Θ)
2
162 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2EI) ο I 2 Τι
Λ total strain energy
2
,6 Ρ
5-408 χ ΙΟ- — χ 2
2
10-816Ρ
\Ρδ = 3
0-02 χ 0-003
200 χ 10° χ
Ϊ2
.·. Ô = 0-000 481 m or 0-481 mm
4. A strip of steel of rectangular section 25 mm χ 3 mm is bent to the shape
of a quadrant and loaded by a force W inclined at OL to the vertical, as shown
in Fig. 8.7. Derive formulae for the vertical and horizontal movements at the
free end Β and hence find the value of OL to give no horizontal movement at B.
For the value of OL found, determine the radius R to give a vertical deflection
2
at Β of 0-25 mm when W = 5 Ν. Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
3mm
dU
The required condition is that Λ
dH
i.e.
Jo dH
THIN CURVED BARS 163
M = VR sin θ - HR(l - cos θ)
3Μ= _ _ c a n d dx= Rdd
dH
Η
. . tan α = — = — = 1403
7 3π - 4
.·. α = 54°
Vertical deflection = ^ = f M ^ dx
37 ΕΙ) ο 3 7
EI J ο
PV
'* s in
6 - #R(1 -
c os
0)} X # sin 0 χ Ä d0
P3 Γ π/2 2
:^- { 7 ein 0 - #(sin 0 - sin 0 cos 0)} d0
Ifr/J ο
•
3
i.e. 0-25 X 1 0 - =
0-025 X 0-003
3
9
200 χ ΙΟ X
Ϊ2
from which R *= 0-226 m
5. A steel rod, 10 mm diameter, is bent into the shape shown in Fig. 8.9, one
end being rigßly clamped, the other end being constrained to move in a hori-
zontal slide^ Determine the horizontal deflection of the slider when acted upon
2
by a force of 100 Ν. Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
100 Ν
Denoting the applied force by P, Fig. 8.10, there will also be a reaction Q
applied by the guide to constrain the free end to move in a horizontal line.
This reaction has been assumed to be downwards but if this assumption is
incorrect, the value of Q will be found to be negative.
Since there is no vertical movement of the free end,
?? = o
dQ
i.e. j*M dx = 0, an equation which will determine Q.
The horizontal movement will then be given by
δ= = --\ M—dx
BP El) ο BP
Taking the origin at the free end,
M = Pr sin 0 - Qr{l - cos Θ)
ί
3π/2 Γ3π/2
i.e. Ρ
2
(sin 0 - sin 0 cos 0) d0 = Q\ (1 - 2 cos 0 + cos 0) d0
ο Jo
i.e.
β-:
2 P
or
9π+ 8
1 Γ3π/2
δ = = P r s ni 6 Ç 1r ( c so θ x rs n i θ x r θά
Έ 1 ) 0 ^ ~ ~~ ^
r3 Γ3π/2
= P s i n
2 6 Ç ( sn i θ s in θ c os ö ) d ö
JË7J 0 * ~ ~~ >
Ρτ3|3π
:
£/\4 9π
3
100 χ 0·2 χ 2-327 5
9 4
200 χ ΙΟ χ — χ 0·01
64
0-019 m or 19 mm
THIN CURVED BARS 165
6. The ring shown in Fig. 8.11 is made of flat steel strip 20 mm X 3 mm
and is shaped in the form of a circle of mean diameter 0-2 m. The ends at Β are
cut square and not joined. A pull Ρ is applied along the diameter CD which is
at right angles to the diameter AB. If the maximum tensile stress due to Ρ is
2 2
125 MN/m , find the increase in the opening at Β due to P. Ε = 200 GN/m .
(U. Lond.)
3mm
FIG. 8 . 1 1 FIG. 8 . 1 2
0 = 2-
3Q EI J "~ dQ
For BC, taking the origin at B ,
2 p r3 rn/2
cos 0(1 + cos 0) d0 . . . . . since Q = 0
3
Λ' ο π\
3
2Pr /
166 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
i.e. M —- dx = 0
I dF
Taking the origin at C, then, for BC,
M = FR(l - cos Θ)
and for AB, M = FR(l - cos Θ) - 5PR sin (θ - a)
dM
= R(l — cos Θ) and dx = R d0
dF
THIN CURVED BARS 167
f
= 5Ρ "{ώη (θ - α) - J sin (20 - a) + £ sin α} άθ
a
(a) (b)
FIG. 8.15
It is sufficient to consider one quarter of the ring AB, Fig. 8.15(6), fixed
at the mid-point of one of the sides and subjected to a force Ρ ( = W/2) at
the free end. Due to the continuity of the ring at A, however, the tangent
there must remain horizontal and hence a moment M0 must be applied for
this purpose, the moment corresponding to the B.M. in the actual ring at
that point.
The increase in the vertical diameter of the ring will be twice the deflec-
tion of A relative to Β in the quadrant and the decrease in horizontal
diameter will be twice the horizontal movement of A relative to B. For this
purpose, it is necessary to add a horizontal force Q, of zero magnitude.
168 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
BM
= — r sin (
ap
dM = —r(l — cos G)
and dx = r dö
There is no rotation in the direction of ikf0,
eu ι r' aM ,
.*. =— Μ —— dx = 0
9M 0 JB/J ο θ^ο
Λπ/2
i.e. {MQ - Pr sin 0 } X 1 X r do = 0
ο J
2Pr
from which M0 =
= 2 — = —- M — dx
dP ΕΙ) ο dP
2
2 M (2Pr . Ί ... ,Λ
— 1 — Pr
D
sinΛ θ V X
f
{— r sin θ} X r dö
£7
"17 V4 π /
h = 2 — = — M — dx
" dQ ΕΙ) 0~ BQ
ο rn/2 (OPr ^
— ^—π - Pr sin θ I X { - r ( l - cos θ)} X r άθ
EI)
EIJ ο t )
3
2Pr /2 _ 1\
~W\n 2)
Wr*
0-137 -^V
EI
NOTE. Since Q = 0 , the term involving Q may be omitted from all the
integrals but it cannot be omitted from the original expression for M,
otherwise no value for will be obtained.
dQ
THIN CURVED BARS 169
9. Show that the maximum bending moment in the link shown in Fig. 8.16
occurs at the centre of the curved portion and is given by
Wd/2r+d\
~2\7zr+d)
Hence calculate the maximum tensile and compressive stresses when
r = 25 mm, d = 50 mm and W = 10 kN, if the cross-section is a rectangle
50 mm X 12-5 mm, the latter dimension being in the plane of the figure.
It is sufficient to consider one quarter of the link ABC, Fig. 8.17, fixed
at the mid-point of one of the sides and subjected to a force Ρ (= W/2) at
the free end. Due to the continuity of the link at A, however, the tangent
there must remain vertical and hence a moment M0 must be applied for
this purpose, the moment corresponding to the B.M. in the actual link at
that point.
Since there is no rotation in the direction of M0,
dU7 _ _1i rf - dM , _
M —— dx = 0
dM0~Tl}0^ dM0
For AB, taking the origin at A,
i.e. (M0 ? - Py
r + (M 0 -
2r d
T>f + \
Pr)^ = 0
Wr/2r+d\
from which M0 = Prl —^— = —( )
\nr + d) 2 \nr + d )
Wr
2
Wr/[7t ?3ϋ] which is less than Ma
0
2\7cr + dJ'
170 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
The B.M. diagram, Fig. 8.18, is drawn to scale for the dimensions given,
the B.M. at any point being measured perpendicular to the centre line of
the link at that point (it is conventional to draw the diagram on the
tension side).
|27-5Nm
Ô7-5Nm
FIG. 8.18
At A, M= Mn
3
10 χ ΙΟ χ 0-025/ 0 - 0 6 + 0-06 \ = ^
\π X 0-025 + 0-05/ m
At B , M: 0
2
3
10 χ ΙΟ χ 0-025
= 97-5 = —27-5 Ν m
Wr
The point of inflexion is given by M0 — — sin θ = 0
from which θ = 51° 16' 2
Μ 9 7 5 6
Α . A . , ' Χ ±74-88 MN/m
2
At Α, σ = +— = + •
32
4 . -ρ W Μ ^ 0-05 χ 100-012 5
χ ΙΟ 27-5 χ 6
At Β, α = — + — 2
2α Ζ 2 χ 0-05 χ 0-012 5 0-05 χ 0-012 5
2
= +29-12 and -13-12 MN/m
2
Hence, maximum tensile and compressive stresses = 74-88 MN/m .
vertical deflection = — f M άχ + f Τ dx
El)0 dW GJ}0 dW
Taking the origin at the load point, Fig. 8.19,
GJ J ο
But G = 0-iE and J = 21
a π
WR Γ /2 2 2
.·. 5 = — {sin θ + 1-25(1 - 2 cos θ +· cos θ)} άθ
EI J ο
=^{ϊ+-(?-)} f 19
2
- π — 2-5
3
FÄ
25-1
Ed* FIG. 8.19
1kN
2a
2f
1-5m
A
W
FIG. 8.20 FIG. 8.21
17. Obtain an expression for the vertical displacement of point A in the bent
cantilever shown in Fig. 8 . 2 1 , which is of uniform breadth b.
I f a = 5 0 mm, t = 6 mm, 6 = 2 5 mm, and the bar is of steel, find the vertical
2
displacement of A for W = 2 0 Ν. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
3
( . 24-5 ΤΓα Λ Λ Κ Λ Λ \
[Ans.: ——— à —; 00566 mm)
\ Ebt J
18. A spring used in a measuring device is made of a rod of steel of diameter d
bent to the form shown in Fig. 8.22 so t h a t a force Ρ applied t o the ends of the
spring will increase the distance between the ends by an amount δ. Show t h a t the
stiffness of the spring
Ρ 3 2
/(4L + GTIRL* + 24J? L + 3πΒ*)
5 = _
I f θ is to be 1·5 k N / m , d = 6 mm and R = 4 0 mm, find the length
2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 17/4 m m )
tf> \d
t u
τ
FIG. 8.22 FIG. 8.23
19. Fig. 8.23 shows the proportions of a spring made of material of uniform
section. Derive an expression for the vertical movement of the free end due t o the
vertical force P.
A spring of these proportions is t o be made of steel strip 0-6 m m thick and
Ρ is t o have a maximum value of 5 N. F i n d the breadth of the strip and the mean
radius r, given t h a t the maximum bending stress due t o Ρ is not t o exceed
2
150 M N / m and the vertical deflection due t o Ρ is not t o be more t h a n 2-5 m m .
2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 23-92 Pr*/EI; 18-7 m m ; 11-2 m m )
THIN CURVED BARS 173
2 0 . The stiff frame shown in Fig. 8.24 is supported on a smooth surface and
loaded a t the centre of the span. Show t h a t the deflection a t the load due t o bend-
ing is
FIG. 8.24
2 6 . Fig. 8 . 2 7 shows a steel rod, 1 0 m m diameter, with one end firmly fixed t o
a horizontal table. The remainder of the rod is bent into the form of three-quarters
of a circle and the free end of the rod is constrained by guides t o move in a vertical
direction. I f the mean radius t o which the rod is bent is 1 5 0 m m , determine the
vertical deflection of the free end when a 1 0 0 Ν load is gradually applied there.
2
Ε • = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 8 m m )
27. Fig. 8 . 2 8 shows a circular ring of mean radius R, made of material having a
uniform section. The ring is fitted with a rigid bar across the diameter A B and
transmits a pull W along the diameter CD which is a t right angles t o A B . Obtain
the force in the bar in terms of W, and the change in the diameter CD in terms of
W and the flexural rigidity EI of the ring. (U. Lond.)
z
(Ans.: 0 - 9 1 8 W ; 0 - 0 2 3 4 Wr /EI)
2 8 . A chain link made of circular section rod has the dimensions shown in
Fig. 8 . 2 9 . Prove t h a t if d, the diameter of the section, is assumed small compared
with R, the mean radius of the curved ends, then the m a x i m u m bending moment
occurs a t the point of application of the load and is equal t o
PR (I + 2R\
Ί Γ \ Ζ + nR)
I f R = 2 5 mm, d = 6 m m and I = 4 5 m m , calculate the ratio of the maximum
tensile stress a t the section where the load is applied to t h a t a t the section half-way
along the straight portion. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2 - 9 4 )
FIG. 8 . 2 9 FIG. 8 . 3 0
ι ,
I ' 1
d
3 3 . Fig. 8.33 shows the plan of a 2 5 m m diameter steel rod fixed a t A. The rod
is curved t o a radius of 0-5 m and when unloaded lies in a horizontal plane. I f a
vertical load of 4 0 0 Ν is applied a t B , find the m a x i m u m normal and shearing
stresses on the cross-section of the rod a t A, and the vertical deflection of the load.
2 2
T a k e Ε as 2 0 0 G N / m and G as 8 0 G N / m , and neglect the effect of the direct
shearing force. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 157-3 M N / m ; 92-1 M N / m (see equations 12.21 and 1 2 . 2 3 ) ; 16-06 m m )
25mm dia.
SPRINGS
Τ
maximum shear stress, τ =—
Ζ
WD
~ΊΓ
n
FIG. 9.1
-d*
16
SWD (9.1)
z
nd
The twist of one end of the wire relative to the other end is given by
Λ Tl WD
Gx-d*
32
lQWDhi
Gd*
D
Axial movement of the free end = θ X —
2
. mDH (9.2)
i.e. Gd*
Alternatively, equating the work done by the load to the strain energy
in the wire,
176
SPRINGS 177
ΤΗ
2
1 (WO\ πΌη 2
iW O n
3
G xïLd* Gd*
32
3
8WD n
ô =
Gd*
2 3
iW O n
The strain energy — — may be written as
2 2 2
_ /8WO\ π Οηά
3 X
~ \πά ) ~ΰ(Γ
2
= —- Χ πΌη Χ - d
iG i
X volume (9.3)
iG
This corresponds with the strain energy in pure torsion derived in Art.
(4.4).
9.2 Close-coiled helical spring with axial couple. Fig. 9.2 shows a
close-coiled helical spring under an axial couple M.
The bending moment on the wire at all sections = M
Λ ι » M
.·. m a x i m u m bending stress, σ = —-
Li
- M
3
~^d a
32
_ 32M
(9.4)
~~ ~π<Ρ '
Due to M, let the radius of curvature of the coils change
from R to R' and the number of coils change from η to n'.
64
64Μ2)η
(9.5)
Ed*
Alternatively, since the bending moment is constant at all sections,
MH
U = from equation (8.1)
2EI
Therefore, equating the work done by M to the strain energy in the wire,
MH
2EI
φ
Y
= as before.
EI
MH
The strain energy may be written as
2
32M Dn _ / 3 2 M \ π Όηά
2 2 2
U =
Ed* ~~ \ndj) 32E
π Χ volume (9.6)
X B f l H X i , !
8 f 4 8E
9.3 Open-coiled helical springs. Let the helix angle of the wire be
α and the mean radius of the coils be R. Then the length of wire,
I = 2nRn sec α
! Λ
/I /
M IF-
JWR
M
FIG. 9.3 FIG. 9.4
SPRINGS 179
(a) Axial load. Fig. 9.3 shows part of the spring, subjected to an axial load
W. The moment WR applied to the wire may be resolved into components
perpendicular and parallel to the wire.
Component in plane OX = WR sin a, bending the wire.
Component in plane OY = WR cos a, twisting the wire.
Equating the work done by the load to the strain energy in the wire,
2 2
ι™* (WRsmoL) l , (WR cos a) Z
W Ô =
2EI + 2GJ
(b) Axial couple. Fig. 9.4 shows part of the spring, subjected to an axia
couple M (this is regarded as positive if it increases the curvature of the
wire, i.e. winding up the spring). This moment may be resolved into com-
ponents perpendicular and parallel to the wire.
Component in plane OX = M cos a, bending the wire.
Component in plane ΟΥ = M sin α, twisting the wire.
Equating the work done by the couple to the strain energy in the wire,
2 2
1 M , _ (M cos α) Ζ (M sin q) Z
2 ψ
Wl ^ ~~2GJ
•••*-«{ B
! î
+
!
S }
î
' ' ' <'>98
9.4 Composite action of axial load and couple. When an axial load
is applied to an open-coiled spring, the spring winds up as well as extends
and similarly, when a winding-up couple is applied, the spring extends as
well as twists. These movements and the formulae already derived can be
obtained by the application of Castigliano's Theorem.
If the load W and couple M are applied simultaneously,
total moment in plane OX = — WR sin α + M cos α, bending the wire
and
total moment in plane OY = WR cos α + M sin α, twisting the wire
2 2
.·. U = J ( - WR sin α + M cos α) + i(WR cos α + M sin α) - J -
EI GJ
2 2 2 2 2
_ l(W R sin α - WRM sin 2α + M cos a
~~ 2{ ËÏ
2 2 2 2 2
W R cos a + WRM sin 2a + M sin al
+
GJ~~ J
2 2 2 2 >
, _ dU_ _ l(2WR sin OL—RM sin 2a 2WR cos a + PMsin2a l
+
~dW~ 2\ ËÏ GJ J
180 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
COS' i2afl 1
MRV (9.9)
dM EI + ·
2
2
cos a sin* a + WRl sin 2 α Π _ 1
= Ml (9.10)
EI +
' GJ J 2 |G/ EI
The additional terms obtained in equations (9.9) and (9.10) represent the
extension due to M and the angle of twist due to W respectively.
If α -> 0, these formulae reduce to those obtained for close-coiled springs.
9 . 5 Flat spiral springs. Fig. 9.5 shows a flat spiral spring, made of
rectangular section strip, breadth b and thickness t. The winding torque Τ
is applied at the central arbor 0 and the other end of the spring is pinned
at the point A.
If the spring is tangential at A, the reaction there is purely horizontal.*
If the force is Ρ and the distance OA is h, then
T = Ph
The maximum B . M . occurs at the point B ,
i.e. ^ m a x = Ρ X 2h, assuming that O B = O A
.'. maximum bending stress, σ =
Ζ
2T 12T
(9.11)
B.M. on element dl •• Px
Γ M dl
1 2
:. υ-.
2EI
-ί. 2ËÎ
0
dl
-ί:
2 2
Τχ
dl
ο 2h*EI
du
φ:
BT '' )oh2EI
Τ Γ' 2
x dl
2
h EI\± )
assuming that the spring is equivalent to a disc,
* As the spring is wound up, the strip will become inclined to the line of action of Ρ
and the spring will become progressively stiffer.
SPRINGS 181
m _ im
(9.12)
lût*
The strain energy, U ••
15 ΤΗ
2 Ebt*
J
2 2
/ 1 2 T \ 5 btl 5ο· ι /χ Λ η ο
= ί -ΓΤΓ2 ) — Τ7 = — ^ Χ volume . . (9.13)ν
\ bt 96 Ε 96£ '
9.6 Leaf, laminated or c a r r i a g e s p r i n g s . The leaf spring is designed
so that the maximum stress is the same in all plates at all sections, giving
maximum utilization of material. The arrangement of the spring is shown
in Fig. 9.6, each plate being free to slide relative to the adjacent plates as
the spring deflects. The ends of each plate are tapered to provide a uniform
change in effective breadth between the centre and the ends and if the
plates were cut along their centre lines and placed side by side, they would
form a diamond-shaped plate.
Let b = breadth of plate
t = thickness of each plate
η = number of plates
Then effective width of plate at centre
= nb
At a section distance χ from one end,
M Wx/2
«««»>I5S>
2
t
X
6
2 (9.14)
2nbt
It will be noted that this is indepen-
dent of x, i.e. σ is constant at all sections.
At any section, M is proportional to χ
and / is proportional to x, so that M is FIG. 9.6
proportional to I.
Μ Ε
Therefore, since , R is a constant. Thus, if the spring is to become
/ R
flat when loaded, the plates must initially be bent in the arc of a circle.
The load which will cause the plates to become flat is called the proof
load.
M -Wx/2 3WI
TP
182 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
ά 3WI
Ε 1 = 'x+A
3
dx nbt
ZWl I
Whenx = - , ^ = 0, A =
2' dx"
y
nbt*\2 2 /
When χ = 0, y = 0, Λ Β = 0.
The maximum deflection occurs at the centre, where χ =
a
3Wl
i.e. (9.16)
Vn SEnbt
3
y = il (9.17)
8R'
2
neglecting the term y in comparison with
2%
3WP
. from equation (9.15)
8Enbt*
2
M
Alternatively dx
J Ο 2EI
2
</ SWl w
— χ dx from equation (9.15)
J 0 2Enbt* 2
3 ΨΨ
Wy =
16 Enbt*
z
3Wl
8Enbt*
3 Wl*
The strain energy 3
may be written as
16 Enbt
2
/3Wl\ nbtl
2
~ \2nbt ) UE
2 2
σ nbtl ο ,
= —= X —— = — X volume (9.18)
6E 2 6E
SPRINGS 183
9.7 Vibration of springs, (α) Linear motion. If a body of mass M,
attached to a spring of stiffness S, is displaced a distance χ from its equi-
librium position, the restoring force is Sx.
When released, the acceleration of the body is given by
or
(9.19)
or
2
where I = Mk (9.20)
α
184 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
9
50 χ ΙΟ χ d*
i.e. 1 000 =
8D*n
4 6
i.e. _^ _ = 0-16 χ ΙΟ" . . . (1)
SWD
From equation (9.1), 3
τ =
nd
6 8 χ 50 χ D
i.e. 120 χ 10 =
nd 3
6
.e. ? = 0 · 3 χ 10 π . . . . (2)
z
d
Also nd = 0-045 m . . . . (3)
Therefore, from equations (1), (2) and (3),
d = 0-003 4 m, D = 0-043 6 m and n= 12-54
2. A composite spring has two close-coiled helical steel springs in series;
each spring has a mean coil diameter of 8 times the diameter of its wire. One
spring has 20 coils and wire diameter of 2-5 mm. Find the diameter of the wire
in the other spring if it has 15 coils and the stiffness of the composite spring is
1-25 kN/m.
Find the greatest axial load that can be applied to the spring and the corres-
2
ponding extension for a maximum shearing stress of 300 MN/m . G = 80
2
GN/m . (U. Lond.)
Fig. 9.8 shows the arrangement of the two springs, which are subject to
an axial load W.
dx = 0-002 5 m Dx = 0-02 m
W Gd*
Λ S1 = — = - — . . from equation (9.2)
Οχ SDi^
4
80 χ 10» χ 0-002 5 . AA 1 X T/
3
= 2-44 kN/m
8 χ 0-02 χ 20
Total extension,
w _ s,s
.*. effective stiffness, S ·• 2
w + w s x + s 2
from which
i.e.
57-5
3
= 0-046 m
1-25 χ ΙΟ
3. The spring load against which a valve is opened is provided by an inner
helical spring arranged within and concentric with an outer helical spring.
Both springs are of steel, close-coiled, and the free length of the inner spring is
6 mm longer than that of the outer spring. The outer spring has 12 coils of
mean diameter 25 mm, diameter of wire 3 mm and an initial compression of
5 mm when the valve is closed. Find the stiffness of the inner spring if the
greatest force required to open the valve 10 mm is 150 N.
If the radial clearance between the springs is approximately 1-5 mm, find
2
the diameter of the wire of the inner spring if it has 10 coils. G = 80 GN/m .
(U. Lond.)
Fig. 9.9 shows the arrangement of the two springs.
Initial compression of outer spring = 5 mm
.·. initial compression of inner spring = 5 + 6
= 11 mm
When the valve is opened 10 mm,
compression of outer spring = 1 5 mm
and compression of inner spring = 22 mm
= 64-8 Ν
Λ force exerted by inner spring = 150 — 64-8 = 85-2 Ν
85*2
.". stiffness of inner spring = = 3 870 N/m
6 f
* 0-022 —
186 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
D2 = Dx - (dx + d2 + 2 χ 0-001 5)
= 0-025 - (0-003 + d2 + 0-003)
= 0-019 — d9 m
10mm
8D|rc2
9
80 χ ΙΟ χ dt
i.e. 3 870 =
8(0-019 - d2f χ 10
from which d2 = 0-002 08 m
or 2-08 mm
4. A close-coiled helical spring is made
of steel wire 6 mm diameter coiled into 50
coils of mean diameter 50 mm. The modulus
2
of rigidity of the steel is 80 GN/m . The FIG. 9.9
spring is held fixed at the top and a mass of
15 kg is allowed to fall through a height of 50 mm before engaging with a hook
at the lower end of the spring.
Calculate (a) the maximum extension of the spring and (b) the maximum
stress in the wire. (U. Lond.)
If the mass M drops through a height h before engaging with the hook
and causes a maximum instantaneous extension Ô, then
loss of potential energy of load = Mg(h + δ).
This is stored in the spring as strain energy, neglecting loss of energy at
impact. Thus, if the maximum instantaneous stress is r,
i.e.
from which
2 16
τ - 1-733 χ 10*τ - 1-06χ ΙΟ = Ο
2
Λ τ = 221-1 MN/m *
9
δ = 221-1 χ 10« χ 0-817 χ ΙΟ"
= 0-180 7 m
5. A close-coiled helical spring is made of wire 2-5 mm diameter. The mean
coil diameter is 25 mm and there are 20 coils. One end of the spring is rigidly
fixed and a uniform disc 100 mm diameter and of mass 1 kg is rigidly attached
to the other end so that the spring and disc are co-axial. Find the periodic time
2
of small angular osculations of the disc. Ε = 200 GN/m .
If the amplitude of the oscillations is 30°, find the maximum bending stress
in the wire.
From equation (9.20),
2
64 χ 0-025 χ 20 1 χ 0-05
200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-002 5 X
9 4
= 0-45 s
From equations (9.4) and (9.5),
32M
σ = nd*
. GiMDn
and φ =
Id*
j Ed
σ = φ χ
2πΌη
9
π 200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-002 5 Χ Τ , 2 ÛO A y r XT . 2
= - Χ
2 2
N/m = 83 MN/m
2π Χ 0-025 χ 20
/
6 -—
* The lower (negative) value for τ from the quadratic equation represents the
instantaneous stress in the wire at the highest point of the rebound.
188 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
6. Derive an expression for the axial stiffness (i.e. load per unit extension)
of an open-coiled helical spring made of round wire of diameter d, the mean
radius of the coils R and their inclination a. Calculate the percentage error in
the value obtained for the stiffness if the inclination of the coils is neglected for
a spring in which a = 30°. Take Ε = 2-56r. (U. Lond.)
From equation (9.7),
2
cos
cos oC\
= w m r ^ +
ô '
{EI GJ )
GJ
where I = %nRn sec α
But Ε = 2-5U7 and for round wire, J = 21
3 2
. 2nWR n fsin a , , 1
0 =
-^ s e c a
lT25- + C08
7
w J G
s =
δ 3
2nR n seca /j
_j_ c 2 o \ s a
8 n a
11-26 J
If the inclination of the wire is neglected, this reduces to
s _ GJ
3
2nR n
Thus, if the stiffness of the open-coiled and close-coiled springs are de-
noted by S0 and Sc respectively, the error involved by regarding the spring
as close-coiled
_ S —S0 c _j s c
S0 S0
1
= 1
+ cos 30 l
s i n 2 3 QO 2 o>
sec3Q°/
1-25 ^ I /
= 1 - 0-912 = 0-088 or 8-8 per cent
7. An open-coiled spring carries an axial, vertical load W. Derive ex-
expressions for the vertical displacement and angular twist of the free end.
Find the mean radius of an open-coiled spring (angle of helix, 30°) to give
a vertical displacement of 25 mm and an angular rotation of the loaded end of
1-25° under an axial load of 40 N. The material available is steel rod o/6 mm
2 2
diameter. Ε = 200 GN/m and G = 80 GN/m . (Ü. Lond.)
From equations (9.9) and (9.10),
sin 2α f 1
and φ = WRl
GJ1 EI)
SPRINGS 189
Ε = 2-56? and for round wire J =21
so that EI=1-25GJ
(1)
and
= 0
i.e.
Wl [ _ „ . , { ^ O . » , } O . O X ^ { - l } ; π
O T 5 + ! + 5 1 i
GJ Ϊ8
W X
™ X 0-587 4 = *
4 8 1
80 χ 10· Χ ^ Χ 0-01
32
from which W = —11-5 Ν (i.e. compressive)
9. Aflat spiral spring is made of steel 12 mm broad and 0-5 mm thick. The
end at the greatest radius is attached to a fixed point and the other end to a
spindle. The length of the steel strip is 6 m.
Determine: (a) the maximum turning moment which can be applied to the
2
spindle if the stress in the strip is not to exceed 550 MN/m ; (b) the number
of turns required to be given to the spindle; (c) the energy then stored in the
2
spring. Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
12Γ
(a) From equation (9.11), σ = 2
bt
e 12Γ
i.e. 550 x 10 =
0-012 χ 0-000 5
2
0-05: 9 z
8 χ 200 χ ΙΟ χ η χ 12* χ t
9
from which nt* = 9-89 X 10 " . . . . (1)
SPRINGS 191
3WI
From equation (9.14), σ = 2
2nbt
3
e 3 χ 7-5 χ ΙΟ χ 0-75
i.e. 400 X 10 = 2
2 χ η χ 12t χ t
β
from which nt* = 1-758 χ 1 0 " . . . . (2)
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2), t = 0-005 62 m.
The nearest suitable thickness above this value is 6 mm
b = \2t = 12 χ 6 = 72 mm
e
π *• /ov 1-758 X l 0 - Q _
1
= 0-042 4 m
Hence, from equation (9.17),
0.752
0-042 4 = — ~ Λ R = 1-66 m
SR
11. A quarter-elliptic, i.e. cantilever, leaf spring has a length o/0-5 m and
consists of plates each 50 mm wide and 6 mm thick. Find the least number of
plates which can be used if the deflection under a gradually applied mass of
200 kg is not to exceed 70 mm.
If, instead of being gradually applied, the mass of200 kg falls a distance of
6 mm on to the undetected spring, find the maximum deflection and stress
produced. What is then the frequency of the resulting vibrations? Ε = 200
GN/m*.
The arrangement of the spring is shown in Fig. 9.10. The stress and end
deflection are the same as in an ordinary leaf spring of span 21 and carrying
a central load 2W,
192 STRENGTH 0Έ MATERIALS
a= — 2
. . from equation (9.14:)
2nbt
2 (1)
nbt
rχ
3
12Z
i.e.
2
v + y)) ! f = y X
7-34*/ - y - 0-006 = 0
2
*
*
2 00 1Q9 X 10
12 χ
X 5X
°'° 3 ™ »
0-5
9
λ ι λ ο νν 200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-006
16. A close-coiled helical spring made of round steel wire is required just t o fit
over a rod 3 0 m m diameter and t o carry an axial load of 120 Ν without causing
the deflection t o exceed 2 0 m m . The m a x i m u m allowable shearing stress is 2 0 0
2 2
M N / m and G for the steel is 8 0 G N / m . F i n d the diameter of the wire, the mean
diameter of the coil and the number of turns. ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3-72 m m ; 33-72 m m ; 8-52)
17. Close-coiled helical springs having η turns are made of round wire such t h a t
the mean diameter of the coils, D ( m ) , is 10 times the diameter of the wire. Show
t h a t the 'stiffness' in N / m for a n y such spring is D/n χ a constant, and determine
2
the constant if the modulus of rigidity of the material is 8 0 G N / m .
Such a spring is required t o support a load o f 9 0 0 Ν with an extension of 100 m m
2
and a m a x i m u m shearing stress of 3 5 0 M N / m . Calculate (i) its mass, (it) the mean
diameter of the coils, and (iii) the number of turns. The material has a density of
3 e
7-8 M g / m . (Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 1 0 ; 0-91 kg; 80-84 m m ; 8-98)
18. A composite spring has two close-coiled helical springs connected in series;
each spring has 12 coils a t a mean diameter of 2 5 m m . F i n d the diameter of the
wire in one of the springs if the diameter of the wire in the other spring is 2-5 m m
and the stiffness of the composite spring is 7 0 0 N / m .
E s t i m a t e the greatest load t h a t can be carried by t h e composite spring and the
2
corresponding extension for a m a x i m u m shearing stress o f 180 M N / m . G — 80
GN/m*. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2-11 m m ; 26-55 N ; 37-9 m m )
194 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
19. Two close-coiled helical springs are arranged, one inside the other, about the
same longitudinal axis. B o t h springs have the same number of effective coils and
the same overall length, but the mean coil diameter of the outer spring, which is
made of steel wire, is twice t h a t of the inner spring, which is made of bronze wire.
The springs a r e designed t o a c t together when a tensile force is applied, so t h a t
both suffer the same change in length and each carries half the force.
Determine the ratio of the wire diameters, and the ratio of the stresses produced
in the wires, if the modulus of rigidity of steel is twice t h a t of bronze. (I.CE.)
\ db <Tb V2/
20. I n a compound helical spring the inner spring is arranged within and
concentric with the outer one but is 10 m m shorter. The outer spring as 10 coils
of mean diameter 2 5 m m and the diameter of the wire is 3 m m . F i n d the stiffness
of the inner spring if a n axial load of 150 Ν causes the outer one t o compress
2 0 m m . I f the radial clearance between the two springs is t o be 1-6 m m , find the
2
diameter of the wire of the inner spring when it has 8 coils. G = 8 0 G N / m for
both springs. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 4-62 k N / m ; 2 Ό 4 m m )
3 5 . A flat spiral spring is 6 m m wide and 0-25 m m thick, the length being 2-5 m.
2
Assuming the maximum stress of 800 M N / m t o occur a t the point of greatest
bending moment, calculate the torque, the work t h a t can be stored in the spring,
2
and the number of complete turns t o wind up the spring. Take Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(17. Lond.) (Ans.: 0 0 2 5 Ν m; 0-625 J ; 7-96 rev)
37. Obtain from first principles an expression for the energy stored in a flat
spiral spring per unit volume of material in terms of the m a x i m u m bending stress,
which is assumed to occur a t the point of greatest bending moment, and the
elastic modulus.
Hence, find the necessary length of a spring 2 5 m m wide and 0-5 m m thick
2
which will store 7-5 J for a limiting stress of 8 0 0 M N / m . F i n d also the torque
required, and the number of turns of the winding-spindle necessary t o wind up
2
the spring. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 3-6 m ; 0-4167 Ν m; 5-73 rad)
4 3 . A carriage spring, centrally loaded and simply supported a t the ends, has
10 steel plates, each 5 0 m m wide by 6 m m thick. I f the longest plate is 0-75 m
long, find the initial radius of curvature of the plates when the greatest bending
2
stress is 150 M N / m and the plates are finally straight. Neglecting the loss of
energy a t impact, determine the greatest height from which a mass of 2 3 kg m a y
be dropped centrally on the spring without exceeding the limiting bending stress
2 2
of 150 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 4 m ; 75-9 m m )
44. A mass of 2 0 kg is dropped from a height of 100 m m on t o the centre of a
carriage spring which is simply supported a t its ends. The spring has 10 steel
plates each 5 0 m m wide and 6 m m thick, the longest plate being 0-75 m. Calculate
the maximum instantaneous stress in the plates and the initial radius of curvature
2
of the spring if the impact just flattens the spring. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 158 MN/m /)
CHAPTER 10
-A-
M M±6M
Ci dx
FIG. 10.1
= γ-y X bay
* See Art. 1.3.
f This effect is apparent in wooden beams tested to destruction; shearing occurs
along the grain, parallel t o the neutral axis, the wood being weaker in this direction
than perpendicular t o the grain.
198
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 199
by ay
-i.A /
1 H
/ . shear stress on E F = J
Βάχ
v
F Ç . άΜ
i.e.
v
(10.1)
since = F
άχ
This is the horizontal shear stress, and hence the transverse shear stress,
at a distance h from Ν A.
If the area of the cross-section between AB and E F is a and the distance
of the centroid of this area from Ν A is y , then
by ay = ay
F .
so that τ — —=- ay (10.2)
IB *
For a rectangular cross-section, Fig. 10.2(a),
12
(10.3)
~ bd*\l
'J
h . —
"Γ
(a)
FIG. 10.2 FIG. 10.3
200 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
±F 2 2 3 72
--(r - Λ )
2 2
πή Χ 2 V V - hl 3
2 2
= (4r - Ä ) (10.4)
4
3 τη*
This is again a parabolic distribution, as shown in Fig. 10.3(6), the maxi-
4 F 4
mum ordinate being when h = 0. Thus the maximum shear stress is -
2
3πτ 3
times the mean shear stress.
In the case of an I-beam or a T-beam, it is evident that the shear stress
in the web at the junction with the flange cannot be transmitted to the
flange in such a way as to give a uniform shear stress along the inside sur-
face of the flange. The shear stress in the flange at the junction with the
web will approximate to that in the web at that point and will fall away
rapidly as the horizontal distance from the web increases, being zero at the
outside edges of the flange. The plane of shear, away from the web, has
thus become vertical instead of horizontal.
The shear stress in the flange of a beam is extremely small, however (see
Example 1), and thus this error is of little consequence but in all cases of
suddenly or rapidly changing width of section, the assumption that the
shear stress is constant across any layer parallel to the neutral axis is
unrealistic.
Example 1 shows that most of the shear force is carried by the web of an
I-beam and the maximum shear stress approximates closely to that ob-
tained by dividing the shearing force by the area of the web.
| υ
i υ
1 w
J
ο
Ρ
-± d
! ι
~ 1> A Φ A ο /
1
1 V
/ "
FIG. 10.4
This is equal to the work done by the load W moving down through the
shear deflection, yS9
i.e. Wy* =
5 Gbd
em
from which y* = (10.6)
5 GM
Since the shearing force is constant at all sections, the slope of the beam
is uniform, as shown in Fig. 10.6.
Thus,
If the shear stress were uniformly distributed over the section, then
ά = - = —
G Gbd
Thus the actual shear deflection is - times that obtained if the shear
5
stress is assumed to be uniform.
3
FIG. 1 0 . 6 FIG. 1 0 . 7
If the load is not at the free end, the form of the deflected beam is as
shown in Fig. 10.7, the beam remaining horizontal between the load and
the free end.
J 0
ί
6 wx dx
5 Gbd
2
3 wl
. (10.7)
iGbd
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 203
Case (c)—simply supported beam of rectangular section with central con-
centrated load, Fig. 10.9.
\W
1/2
6
5 V2
i.e. (10.8)
Gbd 10 Gbd
Case (d)—simply supported beam of rectangular section with uniformly dis-
tributed load, Fig. 10.11.
w/unit length
«4
l
/2 wl
2
FIG. 10.11 FIG. 10.12
FIG. 1 0 . 1 3
204 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Case (/)—cantilever of circular section with concentrated end load, Fig. 10.14
FIG. 1 0 . 1 4
= -.v
< 2
h)
.'. shear strain energy in elementary strip parallel to the neutral axis
={L>-»}
16 WH2
2
(r - h) 2 2
X Vr
2
- h ah
2
9 n r*G
Λ total shear strain energy in beam
2
32 W l 15 β
i.e. ^
=
¥ ^
Χ
9 6 ^
β
J 0
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 205
WP 6 Wl
3EI 5Gbd
3
_iWl { 3E/d\*)
3 +
~ Ebd \ 10G\Î) J
_iWl*( 3/d\* ., Ε 5
3 +
~ËM \ Ϊ\Ί
The shear deflection is therefore only of importance in cases where the
ratio y is relatively large.
ernenn .
0-35 χ 0-2 0-3 χ 0-187 5
: 72-752?
260
= 3-57
72-75
200mm , 222 F
~J25mm
350mm
12'5mm
if;
25mm
Zi-
ta;
F r o . 10.15
206 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
14 mm
150 mm
1
10mm
FIG. 1 0 . 1 6
= 0-037 7 MN = 37-7 kN
.". percentage of shear force carried by web
377
X 100 = 94-2
Τ
very thin hollow rivet, the maximum
shearing stress tends to twice the mean
shearing stress. (U. Lond.)
The cross-section of the beam is
shown in Fig. 10.17.
From equation (10.1),
v
F C F i a . 10.17
0 < h< r
F r 2 2 2 2
τ = / [ 2(VR -y - Vr - y ) y ay
2 2 2 2 9
I χ 2(VR - h - Vr - h )\ih *
2 2
+ |*2λ/α - y y dyj
2 2 3 /2 2 2 3 /2
_ F ((R - Λ ) - (r - Λ )
_ 2 2 2
3 / \ V ä - h - Vr^T
208 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
r < h< R
F R
τ = A
2
2VR*-y*yay = ^(R*-h*)
I χ 2VR
2
- h Jh
2
J 3/
The maximum shear stress occurs when h = 0,
3 3 3
F R —r _ iF R* — r
I.e. Τm a x — 4 4
3 / ' R-r ~37r(Ä -r )' Ä-r
.F
2 2
π(£ - r )
3 3
4 i£ — r 2 2
4 4
X (tf - r )
Tmean 3(Ä - r) £ - r
2 2
_ 4 R + Rr + r
2 2
~~ 3" £ + r
2
r m ax ^ 4 3Ä
As r -> R, r 2
mean 3 2Ä
->2
FIG. 1 0 . 1 8
. I = 9·15α
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 209
5. A beam of square section is placed so that the plane of bending is parallel
to a diagonal; the side of the square is s and the sliear force is F. Fht the shear
stress distribution curve.
Find the mean intensity and the maximum intensity and where it occurs.
FIG. 10.19
6/VV2 Λ VV
For the maximum shear stress, τ τ = 0,
ah
from which h =
J ~8s
2
s ' \ sS l
2
~
S
/6 / ' ^ \ /6
NOTE. Using the equimomental system /- r—
(Art. 3.5), the square may be replaced s/3 \ |%/2
by the system shown in Fig. 10.20, —<^ -· ^> *—
whence \ /
Î S i = 4 X
ë b ) =12
X
F i o . 10.20
210 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
k 1
FIG. 10.21 FIG. 10.22
The beam is shown in Fig. 10.21; the central deflection is the same as the
end deflection of the cantilever shown in Fig. 10.22.
(a) Bending deflection. From the equations of Art. 5.2,
»-{ WA$A$ w+
2Ebd*\21 16 /
(b) Shear deflection. From the equations of Art. 10.3,
y
* 5 Gbd 5 Gbd 5 Gbd
,{8W + 3wL}
20Gbd
7. A cantilever of length I and with a constant width b is subjected to a
vertical load W at its tip. If the maximum stress due to bending is to be con-
stant along the length of the beam, find the equation relating depth of beam at
any section distance χ from the built-in end to the depth d0 at the built-in end.
Also calculate the deflection at the tip of the cantilever due to shear alone.
(LMech.E.)
Referring to Fig. 10.23, / j W t b ,
M ΓΊ
= Wx Wx
2
~ bd ' ~bdJ
ΊΓ FIG. 10.23
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 211
If σ is to be constant, equal to that at the fixed end,
χ I
20 mm
oh
Η
oh
240mm
10mm
120mm
Fig. 10.24
2
0-062 8 - Α 2
• N/m 9
/ 2
.". shear strain energy in one half of web
t o t a l shear s t r a i n e n e r g y in b e a m
/ F
211-9 - 208-3
y X
ο·ί 26r G
300mm
150mm .
300mm
150mm
25mm 25mm
FIG. 1 0 . 2 5 FIG. 10.26
14. Plot t o scale the distribution of shear stress over the section shown in
F i g . 10.26, which is subjected t o a shearing force of 3 0 0 kN, giving essential
2
numerical values. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: T m x a= 51-5 M N / m )
214 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
\ 0·03 π J
17. Derive a formula for the intensity of shearing stress a t a n y point in the
cross-section of a uniform beam, due t o the shearing force. Criticise the assump-
tions made and point out when these would lead t o serious errors.
Assuming your method can be applied t o circular sections, find the maximum
intensity of shearing stress in a hollow circular section 100 m m external diameter
and 75 m m internal diameter when subjected t o a total shearing force of 160 kN.
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 91-7 M N / m )
18. A steel bar rolled t o the section shown in Fig. 10.27 is subjected t o a shear-
ing force of 2 0 0 kN applied in the direction Y Y . Making the usual assumptions,
determine the average shearing stress a t the sections A, B , C and D, and find the
ratio of the m a x i m u m t o the mean shearing stress in the section.
Draw, t o scale, a diagram t o show the variation of the average shearing stress
2
across the section. (17. Lond.) (Ans.: 0, 10-35, 4 4 - 5 , 71-1 M N / m ; 3-875)
25mm
B-f-
25mm,
25mm
150mm
19. State the formula which is generally used t o give the intensity of the shear-
ing stress a t a n y depth in the section of a beam due t o the shearing force. Make a
critical statement pointing out the weakness of the method used t o derive the
formula.
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 215
A beam has a symmetrical triangular section of breadth Β and depth D and
is subjected a t a certain section t o a vertical shearing force 8 acting in the direction
of the axis of symmetry. Deduce in terms of B9 D and 8 the mean shearing stress τ
a t a n y depth d from the vertex of the triangular section. Plot a graph showing how
τ varies over the depth of the section a n d find the ratio of the average shearing
stress over the section t o the m a x i m u m shearing stress. (77. Lond.)
I l2Sd(D - d) 2 \
{Ana.: >
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING
FIG. 11.1
But
The quantity xy da is called the product of inertia of the area about the
axes ΛΑ and ϊ ϊ and tne condition tor pure bending is therefore tnat the
product of inertia about the axes through the centroid in, and perpendicular
to, the plane of bending shall be zero. Such axes are called the principal
axes of the section and the moments of inertia (strictly second moments of
area) about the principal axes are the principal moments of inertia, being
respectively the greatest and least moments of inertia about any axis
passing through G.
If a figure has an axis of symmetry, that axis is a principal axis.
217
218 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
( l / t u o) » (1/kyvY
But w = Gc cos α and ν = Gc sin α
2 2 2 2 2s m2
/ . Gc Auu cos α + Gc &w α= 1
Λ
2 2 2s m2
Λ .4 ä U XJ COS α + ^ &vv α = -ρς-ζ
= 7 Χγ + Ahk . (11.7)
Fio. 11.4
2 2
resultant deflection, δ = Vdyy + <5uu
i.e. (11.13)
Fig. 11.7
The element da has been taken in the same quadrant as the load point
and equation (11.13) then applies to all points in the cross-section provided
that the appropriate signs are ascribed to the co-ordinates u and v.
The equation of the neutral axis is given by
1 aw bv
Λ 1^ Τ 1^
0
1
vv AJU
from which
—(ϊ&)-τ· χ (1I14)
1. (a) Find the product of inertia of the quadrant of a circle shown in Fig.
11.8 about the axes OX and OY.
(b) Find the principal moments of inertia and the directions of the prin-
cipal axes of the angle section shown in Fig. 11.9.
10mm
|Y
\
\
j 1
6 0 m m1
X X
d e /
0^
1
\
Y 'V i
0! 40mm 10mm
:
10 x 6 0
'XX
12
11-07 e 4
X 10 mm
~36~
3 2 s a
6 0 X 1 0 , ...
/ Y Y =_ _ + 6 0 x l 0 x /^4-0j \ Ίη , 10x30
+ _ _ 1 ,0 x 3 _0 x ^/ 8-0 J\
+
e 4
^XlO mm
36
_ . + I . X M
6
X ( « )
4
X ( - - ) + . + 1 0X»,x(-^)x(«)'
-0-lOxlO mm
:. luv = — έ° + °· + £° cos2
2 s0i
1450
n 8in
22
00 00
from equation (11.1)
4
= 349 000 mm
2 2
and I y Y = sin 22|° - 0-10 sin 45° + — cos 22|°
36 36
from equation (11.2)
4
= 65 800 mm
* Note that the product of inertia of each of the rectangles about its own a x e s is zero.
224 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
bending moment is applied in the vertical plane YY, the mid-section of the
beam deflects in the direction A A at 30° 15' to the vertical. Calculate the second
moments of area of the section about its principal axes.
Find also the bending stress at the corner Β if the bending moment is 2 kN m.
(U. Lond.)
ι v
10mm /β
<^30 15'
/
80 mm 23-4mm
10 mm
80mm
FIG. 11.10 FIG. 11.11
Since the angle has an axis of symmetry, that axis (UU in Fig. 11.11) is
a principal axis and α = 45°.
From equations (11.6) and (11.12),
e 4
7 U U +/ V V = 7 X X + 7 Y Y = 2x0-873 6x10"« = 1-747 2 x 10~ m (1)
and tanß = ^ t a n a = ^ , since tan α = 1
7yy Ιγγ
tan (45° + 30° 15') = 3-79 (2)
7 VV
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2),
6 4 β 4
7 U XJ = 1-382 χ 1 0 - m and 7yy = 0-365 χ 10~ m
By drawing or calculation, u = 23-5 mm and ν = 56-56 mm.
_ .(v cos α . u sin a\ . .
Λ ο = Ml + J . . from equation (11.8)
1 QX
\ ^uu ^vv /
Λ , Λο/0Ό56 56 cos 45° , 0-023 5 sin 45°\ X T, 9
3 2
= 2 χ 10 [ Η I N/m
e β 7
V 1-382 χ 10" 0-365 χ 10~ /
2
= 149 MN/m
3. Fig. 11.12 shows an unequal angle section, for which 7 X X = 0-8 X
1 0 m and Ιγγ = 0-382 X 1 0 m . Find the moments of inertia about
-6 4 _β 4
tlie principal axes UU and VV, given that the angle between the axes UU and
XX is 28£°.
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 225
If the angle, with the 80 mm leg vertical, is used as a beam, freely supported
on a span of 2 m carrying a vertical had of 2 kN at the centre, find: (a) the
maximum bending stress at the point A ; (b) the direction and magnitude of the
maximum deflection.
2
Neglect the weight of the beam and take Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
16-4mm
80mm
β β 4
= (0-8+0-382) χ 1 0 - = 1-132 χ 1 0 - m (1)
From equations (11.4) and (11.5),
c o s2 2 s m2 2
Ιχχ—Ιγγ = /uu( a—sin a ) + / V v ( a—cos a)
= (AJU—*VV) COS 2a
e
J x x - ί γ γ _ (0-8-0-382) x l O - = 0-767 5 x l 0 " e m 4 ( 2 )
vv cos 2a cos 57°
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2),
e 4 6 4
Ivv = 0-974 8 X 1 0 - m and IyY = 0-207 2 X 10~ m
Alternatively J X Y can be determined from equation (11.3) and substi-
tuted in equations (11.1) and (11.2).
3
, X -myr χ* Wl1UT 2 Χ ΙΟ X 2 , ^
(a) Maximum B.M. = — = . = 1 000 Ν m
4 4
By drawing or calculation, u = 20 mm and ν = 50 mm, Fig. 11.13,
ΆΛ(ν cos α , wsina\ « . χ ΙΛ „
Λ or = Ml — \- — J . . from equation (11.8)
\ -*uu *vv /
05 cos 28£° 0-02 χ sin 28£ 8
= 1 000, 1 N/m
V0-9
1-974 8 χ 1 0 -
2
e +
0-207 2 X 10 9
= 91-2 MN/m
226 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2 χ ΙΟ X 2
3 3
_ // cos28|° y / sin 28|° y
48 X 200 χ 1 0 V \0-974 8 χ 1 0 " / \0-207 2 χ 1 0 " /
9 6 6
~
= 0-004 125 m or 4-125 mm
From equation (11.12),
/ . angle to vertical
= 68° 48' - 28° 30' = 40° 18'
4. A cantilever consists of a 60 mm X 60 mm X 10 mm angle with the top
face AB horizontal, Fig. 11.14. It carries a load o/800 Ν at a distance 0 / 1 m
from the fixed end, the line of action of the load passing through the centroid of
the section and inclined at 30° to the vertical.
18-4mm
FIG. 11.14
Determine the stress at the corners A, Β and C at the fixed end and also the
position of the neutral axis.
7 X X = IYY = 0-348 8 X
e 4
10- m ;
6 4
I v v = 0-147 22 χ 10- m ;
J v v = 0-550 6 χ 6 4
ΙΟ" m . (U. Lond.)
B.M. at wall 800 X 1 = 800 Ν m
2
5 260v + 376u MN/m
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 227
At the neutral axis, a = 0, so that
3 76
ν= _ u = -0-071 7w
5 250
1
Thus β = tan- (-0-071 7) = - 4 ° 6'
i.e. the neutral axis is inclined at 4° 6' clockwise from UU.
At Α, ν = + 26 mm and u = 0
.·. cr = 5 250 X 0-026
2
= 136-5 MN/m (tensile)
At Β, ν = —16-4 mm and u = + 4 2 mm
.·. a = - 5 250 χ 0-016 4 + 376 χ 0-042
2
= —70-4 MN/m (compressive)
At C, ν = —16-4 mm and u = —42 mm
Λ a = - 5 250 χ 0-016 4 - 376 χ- 0-042
2
= —102-0 MN/m (compressive)
Ζ γ γ = 0·198 7 X 1 0 " m ;
e 4
6 2
A = 1 324 χ 1 0 - m .
(U. Lond.)
[A IYY ΙΧχ)
where χ and y are the distances of an element from Y Y and X X respectively.
Taking compression as positive,
stress at A = 75-2
2
Wl = -I MN/m (1)
6 6 6 1 }
Vl 324 χ ΙΟ" 0-198 7 χ 10~ 4-919 χ ΙΟ" /
stress at Β = 46-3
2
= Wl Η ) MN/m 2)
6 -6 1 6
\ 1 324 χ ΙΟ" 0-198 7 χ Ι Ο 4-919 χ ΙΟ" /
and
stress at C = —11-8
2
== Wl 4- — ) MN/m (3)
6 β β 1
\ 1 324 χ 10~ ^ 0-1987 χ 1 0 " 4-919 χ 1 0 ~ /
Therefore, from equations (1), (2) and (3),
W = 42 kN, a= -2-278 mm and b = 45-4 mm
Stress at D
3 0-03x0-002 278 _ 0-075x0-045 4\ 2
= 42χ10 [ 6 + 6 — e ) N/m
\
IxlO"
1 Λ ft
^ 324 X ' ~
' 0-198
°
f 77 x
v1ΛlrO
' —
i "
fi 4-919xl0" /
i ί Μ Π ν , 1 rv _fi I '
2
= 17-02 MN/m (compressive)
At the neutral axis, σ = 0,
0-045 4*/ _ 0-002 278a; 1
e β
4-919 χ 10-« 0-198 7 X 10~ 1 324 χ 10~
from which y = l-24x — 0-081 8 m
200mm
300mm
2 4 8 mm
Α ίχχ Ιγγ
= 43Q2+--°: . .X
734 X 1 0 -
1+ 6
e
y J
« 1
X X V
For no stress at A, ^ 5-525 χ 10-« J
302 + J ± ± ± _ 6X 0 4 5 + χ 0-075 = 0
734 χ 1 0 - 5-525 X 10"«
from which b = — 6·64α — 0-248 m
For no stress at D,
Q 1 + 5 a
302-„ ; . X6 0 - 1 5 + e
χ 0-075 = 0
734 χ 1 0 - 5-525 X 1 0 ~
from which b = 6·64α + 0-047 7 m
These equations are represented by ef and fg respectively in Fig. 11.17
and gh and he represent the corresponding relations between a and b for no
stress at C and Β respectively.
230 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
(b) If the load 2 IF is on the X X axis and is to the right of Y Y , then the
greatest compressive stress occurs at A and the least compressive stress
occurs at C,
i.e. 1 0 5 x l 0 6 = F ( 3 0 2 + ^ ^ e x 0 4 5 + 5 - ^ ^ x O -β 0Χ0·07δ\
75) (1)
Χ ιο- /
7. A short length of bar having the section shown in Fig. 11.18 is subjected
to a non-axial force at right angles to the plane of the section. Determine the
boundary within which the force must act if there is to be no reversal of stress
on the section.
Make a sketch of the section showing the boundary and its dimensions.
(U. Lond.)
30mm
20mm
FIG. 11.18
100mm
FIG. 11.20
f£ !Y
9mm rad
25-5mm
N.
50-5mm
|100mm 15-6mm
Ύ
FIG. 11.21
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 233
12. A beam of the angle section shown in Fig. 11.21 is freely supported on a
span of 2 m with the 150 m m leg vertical. A vertical load of 2 0 k N is applied a t the
centre of the span. F i n d (a) the m a x i m u m bending stress; (b) the direction and
magnitude of the deflection a t the centre. Neglect the weight of the beam itself,
and neglect twisting effects and deflection due t o shear.
e 4 _ e 4
The properties of the section are : 7 X X = 8-12 χ 1 0 - m , 7 Y Y = 2-88 X 1 0 m
e 4 2
7 P P = 1-675 χ 1 0 - m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 153 M N / m ; 67° 3 3 ' t o P P ; 4-29 m m )
2 0 0 m m χ 10mm
plate
40mm
X
XX axis of
160mm 20mm 60 m m
χ 120mm 80mm
Γ section
IY IY
FIG. 12.1
The part CDEF, Fig. 12.1(6), is in equilibrium under the forces acting
upon it, so that the resultant force on CD is equal and opposite to the
applied force P. This can be resolved into normal and tangential com-
ponents, Ν and T, producing direct and shear stresses σ θ and τθ respectively.
The area of the oblique section CD is a sec 0, so that
Ν Ρ cos θ 2
σ cos 0 (12.1)
a sec 0 a sec 0
Τ Psin0
a sin 0 cos 0
α sec 0 α sec 0
σ
= - sin 20 (12.2)
45° 90°
F i a . 12.3
The resultant stress, aI9 Fig. 12.2, is given by σ Γ = Vol + Tq, since each
1
of the stresses acts on the same area, and α = tan- (τ θ /σ β ) (in the simple
case considered, α = 0).
235
236 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Οχ
Vite
\ c
F i a . 12.5
Ο χ
\c
FIG. 1 2 . 7
+•
and J sin 20 - τ cos 20 (12.8)
άσ0
For ad to be a maximum or minimum, 0
άθ
i.e. - ( ( T x - o y ) sin 20 + 2TCOS 20 = 0
2r
tan 20 = . (12.9)
cr x — σ ν
Λ2 1
θ
\
ν
σι V-Λ**
FIG. 1 2 . 8 FIG. 1 2 . 9
2r
i.e. \ tan + 90°
-
σ χ — σν
Thus the planes of maximum and minimum stress are mutually per-
pendicular; one of these stresses acts on one plane and the other stress acts
on the perpendicular plane. The association between the stresses and
planes is usually evident by considering the equilibrium of the wedge ABC
but when in doubt, a unique solution for θ can be obtained from either of
equations (12.14) and (12.15), Art. 12.5.
Substituting the values of sin 2Θ and cos 2Θ from equations (12.10) and
(12.11) into the expression for τ θ , equation (12.8) gives r e = 0 on these
planes. Such planes are referred to as the principal planes and the direct
stresses acting on them are the principal stresses.
Thus, at any point ia a stressed material, there are always mutually
perpendicular planes upon which the stresses are wholly tensile or com-
pressive and these are respectively the greatest and least direct stresses at
that point.
Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 12.9, where σ1 and a2 are the
principal stresses and θ is the angle given by equation (12.9).
Since this system of stress is identical with that shown in Fig. 12.4, it
follows from equation (12.4) that the maximum shear stress in the body is
given by
^max
α* — σ*, acting on planes at 45° to the principal planes
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 239
2 2
Thus r m ax = Μ { ( σ χ + ay) + V(ax - σ ν ) + 4 τ }
2 2
-«(θχ+tfy) - V ( a x- a y) + 4r }]
2 2
= *V(* X - o- y) + 4 τ (12.13)
a X AC sin θ = σγ χ BC + r X AB
= σΥ + r cot θ
or a — σΎ = χ cot θ (12.15)
FIG. 12.10
2
Thus (σ — σχ)(σ — σΥ) = τ tan θ χ τ cot θ = τ
2 2
from which σ = J{(orx + σ 7 ) ± V(ax - <ry) + 4 τ } (12.16)
σ χ — cry = r(cot θ — tan θ)
= 2τ cot 2Θ
2τ
tan 2Θ (12.17)
ον
In the case of one direct stress only,
2
ο = \{σχ ± Val + 4τ ) (12.18)
tan 20 = — (12.19)
2
and r m ax = \Vo\ + 4 τ . (12.20)
x + ( J
so that OD = ° y + ^ ^ c o s 2 0 = σθ
2 2
a a
and CD = * ~ y in
s 20 = r&
2
The resultant stress is represented by OC and the angle QOC is the angle
which the resultant makes with the normal to the plane.
Fig. 12.11 has been based on the assumption that σχ and σ7 are both
tensile (or compressive). If, however, σ χ is tensile and σΎ is compressive (or
vice versa), the point Ο lies inside the circle, as shown in Fig. 12.12.
In the more general case dealt with in Art. 12.4, set off OA = σ χ , OB = ory
and AM = BN = r, Fig. 12.13. Draw a circle with MN as diameter and
set off QC at an angle 2Θ to QM.
FIG. 12.13
COMPLEX S T R E S S AND STRAIN 241
2 2 y 2
Radius of circle, R = QM = V Q A + AM = ^ / ( * Λ ) + τ
Hence
2
OE = OQ + R = ^ + ^ / ( ^ ) + ^
and OF = OQ - S = - J(^^J^>
J + / S
= °-Ξ±^Ι + ^ i Z L ^ c o s 20 + r sin 20 = σβ
2 2
C D = R sin (20 - β) = R sin 20 cos β - R cos 20 sin/S
ο\ — ΟΛ
sin 20 — τ cos 20 = τ β
2
12.7 Combined bending a n d twisting. A common application of
combined stresses is that of a shaft subjected to bending and twisting and
it is often convenient to express the resulting direct and shear stresses
directly in terms of the applied moment and torque.
If the bending moment is M and the torque is T, Fig. 12.14(a), then the
FIG. 12.14
π d*a = \ { M + V M 2 + T 2 } (12.21)
i.e. x
32
The quantity — d*ax is evidently the equivalent bending moment, i.e.
32
that bending moment which, acting alone, would produce the same maxi-
mum direct stress as M and Τ acting together,
2
i.e. M E= \{M + V M + T} . . (12.22)
2
T W = \Vo\ + 4 τ . . from equation (12.20)
2 2
The quantity — π dzi isx evidently the equivalent torque, i.e. that
16
torque which, acting alone, would produce the same maximum shear stress
as M and Τ acting together,
2 2
i.e. TE = V M + T . . . (12.24)
12.8 Principal strains. The principal strains are the strains in the
direction of the principal stresses. If the
principal stresses on an element are σ χ and ay> |
Fig. 12.15,
Οχ
.:σζ=-^-^εχ+νεγ) 2 . . (12.27)
1— ν
Ε
Similarly, ay = (5e y + v e j . . (12.28)
12.9 Strains on an oblique section. Fig. 12.16 shows an element
ABCD which is subjected to pure strains εχ and £ y , the distorted shape
relative to the point F being shown dotted. The line FG, inclined at 0 to
AB moves to the position FG', the displacements of G in the χ and y
directions being dx and dy respectively.
l'y
FIG. 1 2 . 1 6
Since the movement of G is very small, the distance GG' may be re-
garded as the change in the length of FG, so that the strain on FG,
dr
r
2 2 2
r =x + y
2r dr =
2x dx 2y dy+
dr _
r *W
2
y
2
w
i.e. εχ cos θ + €y sin θ
ε e ε £
— χ ~f" y χ y
cos 20 . (12.29)
2 2
244 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
tan 0 = -
2 _ χ dy — y dx
.·. sec 0 d0
dy y dx y
y sc x x
(εγ — εχ) tan 0
d0 = (ey — εχ) sin 0 cos 0
^ s i n 20
The negative sign indicates that when ε χ > sy, as assumed in Fig. 12.16,
the angle 0 decreases.
A similar analysis on the triangle AFE shows that F E also rotates
through the same angle as FG, so that the total change in the right angle
EFG is 2 d0. This is the shear strain in directions inclined at angle 0 to the
faces of ABCD,
i.e. φθ = (εχ - ey) sin 20 . . . (12.30)
Equations (12.29) and (12.30) are similar to equations (12.3) and (12.4)
and they can therefore be represented by a similar graphical construction.
Fig. 12.17 shows Mohr's strain circle, in which OA represents ε χ , OB
represents εγ and the angle AQC is 20. Then OD and CD represent re-
spectively ε θ and φβ/2.
Fio. 12.17
Active Dummy
gauge gauge
Battery
Fio. 12.18 Fio. 12.19
. (LR
Ë!_ 2 —
" Ä~ Ρ Τ d
deZ dl
But ν
1 - Ί
dR
"~R ρ
Therefore the gauge factor,
AR /dl
*/ 1 =
{ 1+ 2 V )+
dp dl
ρ ι I
If ρ is a constant, the gauge factor is (1 + 2v) but by experimental
(12.32)
F i a . 12.20
V3n .
and ε 3 = m + η cos 2(0 + 240°) = m — - cos 20 — sin 20 (12.38)
2 2
In each case, the equations obtained are sufficient to determine m, η and
0 ; then ε χ = m + η and e y = m — η.
1. ^4 cylindrical vessel, 300 mm external diameter, wall thickness 3 mm, is
subjected to an axial tensile force of 100 kN and an internal pressure of
2
3-5 MN/m . Determine the normal and shear stresses on a plane making an
angle of 30° with the axis of the cylinder. (U. Lond.)
60°
U Oy
FIG. 12.21
2 X 0-003
a n d
°*
Therefore, from equations (12.3) and (12.4),
121-5 + 171-5 , 121-5 - 171-5 cos 120° = 159 MN/m 2
l 2
and — — sin 120° = - 2 1 - 7 MN/m
248 STRENGTH OF MATERTALS
140 - σν 2
\ < 4 5 °
3 0 ° \ \ \ >/°450 Οχ
v^max
\*30°\
orx + σγ
--^cos 20 from equation (12.3)
σ4 ο
5 =
+
140 - 20 2
= 60 N/mm
When 30°,
140 20 . 140 + 20 2
Graphical Solution
2
Set off OA = 140 N/mm , Fig. 12.23.
i.e. QA = 80 N/mm
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 249
Then minor principal stress, ay = OB
2
= 20 N/mm (—vc)
Set off QCi = 2 χ 45° = 90°
and QC2 = 2 X 30° = 60°
2
Then 5 =
<7 4 o OQ = 6 0 N/mm
2
a3 o0 = OD = 100 N/mm
2
and τ3 ο0 = C 2D = 69-3 N/mm
6 5
tan 20 = = 1-625
40 FIG. 1 2 . 2 4
Λ 20 = 58° 24' .·. 0 = 29° 12'
The position of X X in relation to σχ is shown in Fig. 12.24.
NOTE. If η is taken as the negative root, σχ = —21-3 and ay = 131-3
2
N/mm . Sin 20 and cos 20 are then both negative, so that 20 lies in the
third quadrant. Thus 0 = 119° 12' and Fig. 12.24 merely becomes turned
anticlockwise through 90°.
250 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
-1
(a)
FIG. 1 2 . 2 5
FIG. 1 2 . 2 6
2 2
From Art. 12.6, OA = 75 N/mm , OB = 60 N/mm , AM = BN = 45
2
N/mm , Fig. 12.26. The circle is then drawn with MN as diameter.
(a) Maximum resultant stress = maximum principal stress,
2
OE = 113-2 N/mm
Angle MQE = 80° 30'
.·. 0 = 40° 15'
(b) Minimum resultant stress : : minimum principal stress,
2
O F : : 21-9 N/mm
: 260° 30'
Angle MQF = : 130° 15'
maximum principal stress
(c) Greatest component stress on AB = 113-2 N/mm 2
2
QC = 45-6 N/mm
(d) Maximum shear stress =
170° 30'
Angle MQC = 85° 15'
.". 0 =
252 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
(e) For the least inclination to AB, α is a maximum ; this occurs when the
resultant stress is tangential to the circle.
2
Resultant stress = OC = 8 1 4 N/mm .
Angle MQC = 213° Λ θ = 106° 30'.
- — Χ 0·15 X 40 χ 10 = \{M - VM + T }
3 e 2 2
and
32
.·. M = 26-5 kN m and Τ = 46 kN m
2 2
From equation (12.23), — dh = VM + T
16
— χ 0·15 χ 100 χ ΙΟ = V(26-5 χ ΙΟ ) + Τ Ν m
3 6 3 2 2
i.e.
16
from which Τ = 60-8 kN m
.'. increase in torque = 60-8 — 46 = 14-8 kN m
1-433 MN m
= 1-435 MN
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 253
Οχ
(b)
FIG. 12.27
Direct stress due to bending
32
I
3
_ 294-3 χ ΙΟ χ 32 2 2
1 N/m 32-9 MN/m
π Χ 0-45
Direct stress due to end thrust
6
_ 1-435 χ ΙΟ χ 4 2 2
2
N/m = 9-02 MN/m
π Χ 0-45
Λ total direct stress,*
2
I 16
6
1-433 x 1Q x 16 2 2
3 N/m = 80 MN/m
π Χ 0-45
The stresses on an element on the upper surface of the shaft at the
bearing are therefore as shown in Fig. 12.27(6), these being the greatest
applied stresses in the shaft.
From equation (12.18),
2
σ = *{σ χ ± Val + 4 τ }
2 2
= £{41-92 ± V41-92 + 4 χ 80 }
2
= 103-7 and - 6 1 - 8 MN/m
103-7 - (-61-8)
^max —
2 2
2
= 82-75 MN/m
* Note that these stresses act in the same direction and do not represent σ χ and σ 7.
254 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
As in Example 3,
ov m + η cos 20
and η sin 20
te-
where σχ + σ ν
rn — and
90 = m + η cos 20 (1)
30 = η sin 20 (2)
and
60 = m + η cos 2(0 + 60°)
= m V 3 sin 20^
η(- cos 20 + —
60^
2
η = 30-12 N/mm
and 0 = 42° 27'
from which CTeo 0
and \\30
2
oy = 57-14 N/mm
2
On the plane of the 60 N/mm
normal stress,
r = 30-12 sin 2(42° 27' + 60°)
= -12-68 N/mm
2
FIG. 122.8
The positions of the various planes are shown in Fig. 12.28. The negative
sign for τ indicates that this stress is in the opposite direction to that
shown in the diagram.
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 255
2 2
Λ 97 = m + η cos 20 (1)
133 = m + η cos 2(0 + 45°) = m — η sin 20 . (2)
and 27 = m + n cos 2(0 + 90°) = m - η cos 20 . (3)
Adding (1) and (3), 2m = 124
or m = 62
Λ η sin 20 = - 7 1
and η cos 20 = 35
2 2
.'. η = V 7 1 + 35 = 79-2, assuming the positive root*
2
Λ <rx = 62 + 79-2 = 141-2 N/mm
2
and CTy = 62 - 79-2 = - 1 7 - 2 N/mm
tan 20 = —71
35 = -2-028
Since η has been assumed positive, sin 20 is negative and cos 20 is posi-
tive, hence 20 lies in the 4th quadrant.
/ . 20 = 360 - 63° 46' = 296° 14'
or 0 = 148° V
χ = η sin 20
2
When 0 = 148° Τ τ = 79-2 sin 296° 14' = - 7 1 N/mm
2
When 0 = 193° Τ χ = 79-2 sin 386° 14' = 35 N/mm
2
When 0 = 238° 7', r = 79-2 sin 476° 14' = 71 N/mm
* I f η is assumed negative, σ χ and σ7 are interchanged. Sin 2Θ becomes positive and
cos 2Θ negative, so that 20 lies in the 2nd quadrant, giving θ = 58° 7'. Thus the stresses
on any given plane are unaffected and the notation merely becomes altered, σ χ being
associated with θ and σγ with θ ± 90° in either case.
256 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
Tmax = 79-2 N/mm
When σθ = 0, 62 + 79-2 cos 20 = 0
from which 0 = 90° ± 19° W
The relative positions of the various planes are as shown in Fig. 12.29.
Principal
planes
Planes of z e r o
direct s t r e s s
FIG. 1 2 . 2 9
2 ^ 2
m + η cos 20
εχ + ε
where and η =
η
Λ +455 Χ 1 0 - = m + η cos 60°
β
ι
= m Α—
2
η
—32 χ 10~ = m + η cos 240° = m — -
β
and
2
6 β
= 211-5 χ ΙΟ" and η = 487 χ 10~
= 698-5 χ 10-« and εγ = -275-5 χ 10~
β
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 257
Ε
(εχ + νεγ) . . from equation (12.27)
9
200 χ 10
0-3 χ 275-5) X 10~ N/m
6 2
2 (698-5 -
1 - 0-3
2
135-5 MN/m
Ε
;(c y + νεχ)
9
200 ν 10
(-275-5+0-3Χ 698-5) χ 10-« N/m
a
=
1 — yJ'à
2
= —14-45 MN/m (i.e. compressive).
The positions of the gauges relative to the principal planes are shown in
Fig. 12.30.
3,
FIG. 1 2 . 3 0 FIG. 1 2 . 3 1
15. The principal stresses a t a point in a bar under two-dimensional stress are
2 2
8 0 M N / m tension and 5 0 M N / m compression. Calculate from first principles
the resultant stress on a plane inclined a t 30° t o the line of action of the tensile
stress and show its direction by means of a sketch. ( U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 5 9 M N / m a t 72° 4 5 ' t o normal)
16. Draw and describe Mohr's Circle of Stress and prove t h a t it m a y be used
t o represent the state of stress a t a point within a stressed material. Illustrate
your answer by sketches.
If, a t a point within a material, the minimum and m a x i m u m principal stresses
2 2
are 2 0 N / m m and 6 0 N / m m respectively (both tension), determine the shearing
stress and normal stress on a plane passing through the point and making a n
-1
angle of t a n 0-25 with the plane on which the m a x i m u m principal stress acts.
2 2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 9-4 N / m m ; 57-7 N / m m )
2 2
17. Direct stresses of 8 0 M N / m tension and 6 0 M N / m compression are applied
t o an elastic material a t a certain point, on planes a t right angles t o one another.
2
The greater principal stress in the material is limited t o 100 M N / m tension. T o
what shearing stress m a y the material be subjected on the given planes and what
will then be the m a x i m u m shearing stress a t the point? W o r k from first principles.
2 2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 56-56 M N / m ; 9 0 M N / m )
18. I n a piece of stressed material there are two planes perpendicular t o one
2
another on which the direct stresses are respectively 8 0 N / m m tension and
2 2
4 5 N / m m compression. I n addition there is a shearing stress of 5 0 N / m m on
these planes. Working entirely from first principles, calculate the principal stresses
a n d draw a clear diagram t o show t h e principal planes relative t o the given planes.
W h a t is t h e m a x i m u m shearing stress and where does it act? (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans. + 9 7 - 5 N / m m ; - 6 2 - 5 N / m m ; 19° 1 8 ' and 109° 18' t o plane of 4 5 N / m m
2
stress; 8 0 N / m m a t 4 5 ° t o principal stresses)
stress; (c) the position of the principal planes relative t o P Q (illustrating with a
2
diagram); (d) the values of the principal strains, ν = 0-3 and Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 267-6 M N / m ; 52-4 M N / m ; 107-6 M N / m ; 79° 6' and 10° 5 4 ' ;
3 3
1-26 χ 1 0 - ; 0-14 χ 1 0 ~ )
2 1 . On a certain plane in a piece of stressed material there is a tensile stress o f
2 2
100 N / m m and a shearing stress of 5 5 N / m m . On a plane making 30° (measured
2
anti-clockwise) to this plane there is a tensile stress of 2 0 N / m m , and an un-
determined shearing stress. F i n d the position of the principal planes and the
magnitude of the principal stresses. (U. Lond.)
2 3
(Ans.: 69° 5 4 ' and 159° 5 4 ' ; + 1 2 0 - 3 N / m m ; - 4 9 - 7 N / m m )
2 2 . A thin cylindrical tube with closed ends has an internal diameter of 5 0 m m
and a wall thickness of 2-5 mm. The tube is axially loaded in tension with a load
of 10 kN and is subjected to an axial torque of 5 0 0 N m while under an internal
2
pressure of 6 M N / m . Determine the m a x i m u m and minimum principal stresses
on the outer surface of the tube and the maximum shear stress. Indicate on a
diagram of the tube the directions in which these stresses a c t . (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 103-3 M N / m ; 10-98 M N / m ; 57-13 M N / m ; 4 3 ° 14' to axis)
29. A hollow steel shaft 100 m m external diameter and 5 0 m m internal diameter
transmits 6 0 0 k W a t 5 0 0 r e v / m i n and is subjected t o an end thrust of 5 0 kN.
F i n d what bending moment m a y be safely applied to the shaft if the greater
2
principal stress is not to exceed 100 M N / m .
W h a t will then be the value of the smaller principal stress? ( U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 4-85 kN m; 38-85 M N / m tension)
33. Determine the principal stresses for a piece of material, subjected t o a pure
shearing stress plus a simple direct stress.
A hollow circular shaft 2 0 0 m m external diameter and 100 m m internal diameter
is subjected to a direct compression load of 7 5 0 kN, a bending moment of 4 5 k N m
and a twisting moment of 6 5 kN m. Calculate the m a x i m u m principal stress and
the m a x i m u m shearing stress. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 110-7 M N / m ; 64-2 M N / m )
35. A thin tube 5 0 m m diameter and 1-5 m m thick has an axial pull of 2 0 kN
and an axial torque of 2 5 0 Ν m applied t o it. Working from first principles, find
the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses a t a n y point in the external
surface. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: + 1 0 2 - 4 M N / m ; - 1 7 - 5 4 M N / m ; 2 2 ° 3 0 ' and 112° 3 0 ' t o axis)
2
The principal stresses a t a point in a material are 160 and 4 0 M N / m , both
2
tensile. I f Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and ν = 0-28, find the strain in a direction inclined
at 30° t o t h a t of the greater principal stress.
Also find in what direction the strain is zero. (U. Lond.)
3
(Ans.: 0-552 χ Ι Ο " : 79° 5 0 ' to ε*)
39. Prove t h a t , in a two-dimensional stress system, if ε χ and ey are the strains
in two perpendicular directions, the normal stresses in these directions are given
by:
D CC
F m . 13.1
As shown in Art. 12.3, the applied shear stress induces equal tensile and
compressive stresses on planes at 45° to the planes of shear, so that
Εσ
Also strain on diagonal AC =
AC
CC 1 CC
V2 V2BC 2CD
X
CC'
But
CD
= Φ=1
G
(1 + ν) = τ
Ε 2G
from which Ε= 20(1 + ν) (13.1)
13.2 Three-dimensional strain. Fig. 13.2 shows an element of a
material which is subjected to three principal stresses, ax, ay and orz.
Similarly, (13.3)
1,
and {σζ - ν(σχ + σγ)} (13.4)
Ε
13.3 Volumetric strain. The volumetric
strain is the ratio
change in volume
original volume '
ôv
i.e. εν = (13.5)
i.e. (13.7)
(13.8)
ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 265
13.6 Relation between E, G and K.
From equation (13.1) E=2G(l + v) ν= ——1
2G
_l_E_
From equation (13.8), Ε = 3K(l 2v) V
~2 6K
Equating the expressions for v,
T
\G 3KJ
%GK
from which E = (13.9)
G+3K
13.7 Volumetric strain due to unequal stresses. In the general case
of unequal stresses, the strain in each of the co-ordinate directions can be
determined from equations (13.2), (13.3) and (13.4) and the volumetric
strain is then obtained from equation (13.6). In the case of a solid body,
however, the volumetric strain can be conveniently expressed directly in
terms of the applied stresses. Thus
By = €X ~\- 6y -\- Ez
1 — 2ν
= fax + Oj + σζ) χ —j—
_ g y + 0ΓΖ
G* +
(13.10)
3K
This expression is not applicable to the change in cubic content of a
hollow vessel (see Examples 7, 8 and 9).
1. A piece of C.I., 150 mm long and 25 mm square, is compressed by an
axial load of 90 kN. Find the alteration in length if all the fateral strain is
prevented by the application of uniform lateral pressure on the four sides. Find
2
also the modified modulus of elasticity. Ε = 115 GN/m and ν = \.
Let the axial stress be a and the lateral pressure be p ,
Fig. 13.3.
3
on ν 10
Then a = 0Ό25 2 N/m 2 = 144 MN/m 2
ρ ρ a
Lateral strain = — — v — — v— = 0
Ε Ε Ε
i.e. p(l i ) = i X 144
2
ρ = 48 MN/m
Λ longitudinal strain
Ε Ε Γιο. 13.3
266 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
_ 144 χ 10 - \ x 48 x 10
6 e
9
115 χ 10
= 0-001 044
decrease in length = 150 X 0-001 044
= 0-156 6 mm
axial stress
Modified modulus of elasticity =
axial strain
when strains in directions perpendicular to the axis are prevented
6
144 χ 1 0 . 2 2
N/m = 138 GN/m
0-001 044
2. A steel bar 100 mm long and 20 mm diameter is subjected to an axial
2
compressive stress of 60 MN/m and a sleeve, fitted over the bar, reduces the
lateral expansion to one half the unrestricted value.
Determine (a) the change in diameter of the bar, (b) the change in length of
2
the bar, (c) the change in volume of the bar. Ε = 200 GN/m and ν = \.
Let the axial stress be a and the lateral pressure be p , Fig. 13.4.
Eegarding compressive strain as positive,
3
= 27-5 X 1 0 - mm
Volumetric strain = ea+ 2εά = 275 χ 10~ — 2 X 37-5 X 10~
6 e
(c)
6
= 200 χ 1 0 -
4
3
= 6-284 mm
Alternatively, Κ = ^— = 400
=
J 1
3(1 - 2v) 3 ( l - 2 x i ) 3
. ^ = a+ p+ P from (13.10)
e q u a t ni o
3K
6 6
_ 60 χ 10 + 2 X 10 χ 10
4 00
3 χχ 10^
3
e
= 200 x 10" , as before
3. A mild steel rod ABC of circular section transmits an axial pull. The
total length is 1-45 m, AB being 0-8 m long and 25 mm diameter, and BC
0-65 m long and 20 mm diameter. If the total change in length is 0-75 mm,
determine for the separate parts AB and BC, the changes in (a) length, (b) dia-
meter, and (c) volume. Take ν = 0-3. (U. Lond.)
0-8m ι 0-65m
25mm dia
—1 u
a2E
2 02 8 0
2
X ° - = 0-787 . . . (2)
25 χ 0-65
Hence, from equations (1) and (2),
xx = 0-33 mm and x2 = 0-42 mm
268 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
0-000 33
= 0-000 412 5
0-80
0-000 42
and ?2 =
= 0-000 646
0-65
/ . reduction in diameter of AB = 0-025 X 0-3 X 0-000 412 5 m
= 3-1 μπι
and reduction in diameter of BC = 0-02 χ 0-3 X 0-000 646 m
= 3-88 μπι
Volumetric strain on AB = 0-000 412 5(1 - 2 χ 0-3)
= 0-000 165
4
3
= 64-8 mm
Volumetric strain on BC = 0-000 646(1 — 2 χ 0-3)
= 0-000 259
4
3
= 53-0 mm
4. A 50 mm diameter steel bar is completely prevented from increasing in
length and its temperature is raised by t deg C. Show that the lateral expansion
of the bar depends on the values of Poisson's ratio ν, and the coefficient of linear
expansion a, but is independent of the modulus of elasticity E.
The bar is found to increase in diameter by 0-043 mm under the above con-
ditions when it is heated through 60 deg C. The force required to prevent length
increase is found to be 270 kN. When the bar is free to expand, it is found to
increase in length by 0-132 mm over a 0-2 m gauge length. Determine the values
of Ε, ν, α and G, the modulus of rigidity. (U. Lond.)
The axial force preventing increase in length causes an axial strain equal
to the natural extension per unit length due to the increase in temperature,
i.e. axial strain = — cut (compressive)
Λ lateral strain due to axial force = vent (tensile)
Λ total lateral expansion 0-05(orf + vat) m
0-Q5qg(l + v),
which is independent of Ε
3
0·05α*(1 + ν) 0-043 Χ ΙΟ"
3
0-043 χ ΙΟ- 3
α(1 + ν) = 0-014 33χ ΙΟ- (1)
0-05 χ 60
ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 269
ο Ρ
Axial strain, cut — = —, where Ρ is the axial force
Ε aE
/. Ρ = OLtaE
α Χ 60 χ π~ χ 0-05 χ Ε
3 2
i.e. 270 Χ 10
4
— παΕ (2)
80
Free extension : • ht
i.e.
3
0-132 X 1 0 - : : 0-2 Χ α Χ 60
Λ α: ; 0-000 011/deg C
Substituting in equation (1), ν • 0-3
2
Substituting in equation (2), Ε : 208 GN/m
Ε
: 2G(l + ν) . from equation (13.1)
G- 2 0 8 2
2 χ 1-3 = 80 GN/m
5. A close-coiled spring made of circular wire has a mean coil diameter of
80 mm. When subjected to an axial had, the stiffness is found to be 3 kN/m
and when a pure couple is applied about the axis of the spring, the torsional
1
Jness is 6-25 Nm/rad. Determine Poisson s ratio for the material of the
spring. (I.Mech.E.)
3
SWD n
From equation (9.2), 6 =
Gd*
W Gd*
Λ axial stiffness = — =
δ 8Z> n
3
D 3 χ 10 :
Gd*
3 Gd*
8 X 0-08 ra
12-3 Ν m
3
η
MMDn
From equation (9.5), Φ =
Ed*
M Ed*
torsional stiffness = —- =
Φ 64Z>rc
i.e. Ed*
6-25 =
64 χ 0·08η
Ed* 2
32 Ν m
η
Ε 32
from equation (13.1)
12^3 2(1 + ? ) .
:
G
from which V • 0-3
270 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
i.e.
2
At 7 MN/m without the test piece inside the vessel,
364 = δν +
Κ oil
9 9
. ο*. *λ 7 χ 147-4 χ ΙΟ 7 χ 147-4 χ ΙΟ
. . 364 - 50 = +
A Ä
oil al
\K0Û 58-3 χ ΙΟ /
2
from which Koil= 3-11 GN/m
= (1
v - 2 x 0-286) = 0-000 125
200 χ 10» '
.". increase in length = 0-6 X 0-000 125 m = 0-075 mm
Circumferential strain, e c = ^ — ν ^
6
58-3 Χ 10
9
(2 - 0-286) = 0-000 5
200 χ 10
The strain on the diameter, e d , is the same as the strain on the circum-
ference, so that
increase in diameter = 0-25 X 0-000 5 m = 0-125 mm
Volumetric strain, ε ν = εχ + 2e d f . . from equation (13.6)
= 0-000 125 + 2 χ 0-000 5
= 0-001 125
2 3
Λ increase in volume = - Χ 0-25 X 0-6 X 0-001 125 m
4
3 3
= 33-2 χ 10 mm
* In thin cylinders, the radial stress is negligible in comparison with the circumfer-
ential and longitudinal stresses.
t Alternatively, ν = ^d*l
dv ad dl
* ' ~v ~ ~d Τ
i.e. €V = 2 c d + 6/
272 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
9 . The ends of a thin cylinder 150 mm internal diameter and wall thickness
2-5 mm are closed by rigid plates and it is then filled with a liquid. When an
axial compressive force of 28 kN is applied to the cylinder, the pressure of the
2
liquid rises by 60 kN/m . Find the bulk modulus of the liquid. Ε = 200
2
GN/m and ν = 0-3.
Let Ρ be the axial force and ρ the resulting pressure rise, Fig. 13.6.
_ pd
Circumferential stress, ac =
2t
3
_ 60 χ ΙΟ χ 0-15
2 χ 0-002 5
= 1-8 X 10 N/m (tensile)
6 2
6
21-7 χ 10 + 0-3 χ 1-8 χ 10*
Λ longitudinal strain, EX —
200 χ 10*
= 111-2 X 10 ~ (compressive)
6
FIG. 1 3 . 6
and
6 6
1-8 χ 10 + 0-3 χ 21-7 χ 10
circumferential strain, ec = 9
200 χ 10
= 41-5 X 10 " (tensile)
6
6
= 28-2 χ 1 0 -
Volumetric strain on liquid = ^ = ^
Κ A
Since no liquid is pumped in or escapes,
strain on cylinder capacity = strain on liquid contents
6
i.e. 28·2χ10-β= _^!
Κ
2
Λ Κ = 2-13 GN/m
274 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
10. Derive expressions for Poisson's ratio (v) and bulk modulus (K) in terms of
the moduli of elasticity (E) and rigidity (G).
A steel bar 2 5 m m diameter carries a tensile load of 5 0 kN. Calculate the bulk
2
modulus and the reduction in diameter of the bar if Ε is 2 0 0 G N / m and G is
2 2
80 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 133-3 G N / m ; 0 - 0 0 3 j & m m )
11. A uniform bar 9 m long carries in tension an axial load of 2 0 0 kN. Determine
the increase in volume of the bar if the modulus of rigidity and Poisson's ratio
2 3 s
are 8 0 G N / m and 0-25 respectively. (U. Lond.) 7 Ans.: 4-5 χ 1 0 m m l_
12. An axial compressive load of 5 0 0 kN is applied t o a metal bar of square
section 5 0 m m χ 5 0 mm. The contraction on a 2 0 0 m m gauge length is found
t o be 0-55 m m and the increase in thickness 0-045 mm. F i n d the value of Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio.
2
I f in addition to the axial load of 5 0 0 kN a uniform lateral pressure of 8 0 M N / m
is applied t o the two opposite sides of the bar in both directions, find the con-
traction on the 2 0 0 m m gauge length and the change in thickness. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 72-7 G N / m ; 0-327; 0-406 m m ; 0-007 9 m m )
13. A cylinder of metal under axial compression is restrained so t h a t lateral
expansion is half the unrestrained value. Calculate the ratio of the axial strain
in this cylinder t o its axial strain if free t o expand laterally. Poisson's r a t i o
= 0-25 (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1 1 : 12)
14. Establish the expression for bulk modulus in terms of Young's modulus and
Poisson's ratio.
A solid steel sphere of 4 0 0 m m diameter is subjected t o a uniform hydraulic
2
pressure ρ = 3-5 M N / m . Determine the decrease in the volume of the sphere if
2
Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus are 0-3 and 2 0 0 G N / m respectively.
3
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 703-5 m m )
15. F o r an elastic material, express Poisson's ratio in terms of the bulk modulus
and the modulus of rigidity, and prove the derivation of the expression.
Determine the percentage change in volume of a steel bar 8 0 m m square in
section and 1-2 m long when subjected t o an axial compressive load of 2 0 kN.
W h a t change in volume would a 100 m m cube of steel suffer a t a depth of
2
5 km in sea-water? Specific gravity of sea water = 1-025. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ;
2 3
G = 80 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0 0 0 0 781 ; 377 m m )
16. A piece of material is subjected t o three mutually perpendicular tensile
stresses and the strains in the three directions are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5. I f the value
of Poisson's ratio is 0-286 find the ratio of t h e stresses and their value when the
2
greatest stress in 100 M N / m . (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 1 : 1 - 0 9 : 1 - 1 8 5 ; 84-4 M N / m ; 92-2 M N / m )
17. I n tests on a sample of steel bar of 2 5 m m diameter, it is found t h a t a
tensile load of 5 0 k N results in an extension of 0-099 4 m m on a gauge length of
2 0 0 m m , and t h a t a torque of 2 0 0 N m produces an angle of twist of 0-925° in a
length of 2 5 0 m m . Deduce the value of Poisson's ratio for the steel, and prove
the formula which you use. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-27)
18. Prove t h a t Ε = 2G(l + v).
During a torsion test on a brass rod of 4 0 m m diameter, a twist of 0-8° was
recorded over a 2 5 0 m m gauge length when a torque of 5 0 0 N m was applied. A
tensile test on the rod showed t h a t the stretch over the same gauge length for a
pull of 60 kN was 0-125 mm. Calculate: (a) the maximum stress in the rod during
each test, (b) the modulus of elasticity, (c) the modulus of rigidity, and (d) Poisson's
ratio. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2 2
(Ans.: 39-75 M N / m ; 47-7 M N / m ; 95-4 G N / m ; 35-6 G N / m ; 0-34)
ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 275
19. Derive an expression showing the relationship between percentage volume
change, Poisson's ratio, elastic modulus and stress for a short column, loaded
axially.
A circular shaft 100 m m in diameter and 1 m long is loaded axially with a
compressive load of 1 MN and is found t o be reduced in volume by 0-27 per cent.
2
I f Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m , determine the angle of twist of one end of a shaft relative
to the other if it is subjected t o a torque of 15 kN m. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1-13°)
20. Deduce the relation between the modulus of elasticity, the modulus of
rigidity and Poisson's ratio.
A hollow shaft of 75 m m external diameter and 5 0 m m internal diameter twists
through an angle of 0-52° in a length of 1 m when subjected t o an axial twisting
moment of 1 kN m. E s t i m a t e the deflection a t the centre of the shaft due to its own
weight when placed in a horizontal position on supports 1 m apart. Weight of
shaft = 2 0 0 N / m and Poisson's ratio = 0-3. ( U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0 0 1 8 1 mm)
2 1 . Two specimens, each 2 0 m m diameter, were machined from the same sample
of metal. One specimen was tested in tension, showing an average extension of
9
3-1 χ 1 0 ~ m / N of axial pull, measured on a 2 0 0 m m gauge length. The second
specimen was subjected t o an axial torque, applied about the longitudinal axis,
and was found t o twist through 0-009 12° in a 2 0 0 m m gauge length for every Ν m
of applied torque. Calculate the modulus of elasticity, the modulus of rigidity
and Poisson's ratio for the metal. (I.CE.)
2 2
(Ans.: 2 0 5 G N / m ; 8 0 G N / m ; 0-28)
22. Establish a relationship between the modulus of elasticity, modulus of
rigidity and Poisson's ratio for an elastic material.
A close-coiled helical spring of circular wire and mean diameter 100 m m was
found to extend 42-6 m m under an axial load of 5 0 N. The same spring, when
firmly fixed a t one end, was found t o rotate through 90° under a torque of 6 Ν m
applied in a plane a t right angles t o the axis of the spring. Calculate the value
of Poisson's ratio for t h e material of the spring. (17. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-3)
23. A closely coiled helical spring of circular wire has a mean diameter of
coils = D. I t is found t o extend a length δ when loaded by an axial load W. When
subjected to an axial torque T, the angle of twist, in radians, is observed to be Θ.
Working from first principles, prove t h a t Poisson's ratio for the material is
1 { υ Μ )
we" - ·
2 4 . The ends of a long thin-walled cylindrical tube are closed by rigid flat plates.
The vessel is then subjected t o internal fluid pressure under the following con-
ditions: (a) free movement of the ends being allowed; (b) the ends being rigidly-
stayed together. Show t h a t , if Poisson's ratio = 0-25, the resulting increase in the
volume of the vessel will be the same in both cases. (U. Lond.)
2 5 . A spherical steel vessel having an inside diameter of 0-75 m and a wall
2
thickness of 11 m m is filled with water a t a gauge pressure of 5-8 M N / m . The
pressure is lowered by allowing some of the water t o escape, and t o reduce the
3
pressure t o atmospheric, the volume of the water released is 0-000 8 8 5 m . F i n d
2
the bulk modulus of the water. Ε for steel = 2 0 0 G N / m andl?oisson's ratio = 0-286.
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2-1 G N / m )
26. The dimensions of a steel cylinder a r e : length 1-8 m, internal diameter
0-3 m, thickness of walls 12 m m . The cylinder is initially filled with water a t
atmospheric pressure. Treating it as a thin cylinder, find the increase in volume
276 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
when the water is pumped in so as to raise the internal pressure to 7 M N / m . I f
the quantity of water which has t o be pumped in to produce this pressure is
3
0-000 53 m , find the value of the bulk modulus of the water. Neglect the de-
2
formation of the ends. Take Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and ν = 0-25. ( U. Lond.)
3 2
(Ans.: 0-000 111 5 m ; 2-13 G N / m )
27. A copper tube of 50 m m internal diameter, 1 -2 m long and 1 -25 m m thick,
has closed ends and is filled with water under pressure. Neglecting any distortion
of the end plates, determine the alteration of pressure when an additional volume
-6 3
of 3 χ 1 0 m of water is pumped into the tube. Modulus of elasticity for
2 2
copper = 100 G N / m . Poisson's ratio = 0-3. Bulk modulus for water = 2 G N / m .
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-445 M N / m )
2 8 . A copper cylinder, 0-9 m long, 0-4 m external diameter and 6 mm thick,
with flat ends, is initially full of oil a t atmospheric pressure. Calculate the volume
of oil which must be pumped into the cylinder in order to raise the pressure to
2 2
5 M N / m above atmospheric pressure. F o r copper, assume Ε = 100 G N / m and
2
Poisson's ratio = J . Take the bulk modulus of the oil as 2-6 G N / m . Neglect
3 3
deformation of the end plates. (U. Lond.) (A?is.: 521 χ 1 0 m m )
29. The internal diameter of a thin straight metal tube full of water is 300 m m
and its thickness 3 mm. The ends are closed with rigid end plates and an axial
compressive load L is applied to it. I f the rise in pressure of the water is observed
2
to be 51 k N / m , find the load L. Neglect bending in the tube due t o end effects.
2
F o r the metal, Ε = 140 G N / m and Poisson's ratio = 0-35. Bulk modulus for
2
water = 2-05 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 10-6 kN)
30. A thin cylinder of 150 mm internal diameter and wall thickness 2-5 mm
has its ends closed by rigid plates and is then filled with water. When an external
axial pull of 18 kN is applied to the ends, the water pressure, read by a gauge, is
2
observed t o fall by 4 8 k N / m . Neglecting any end effects due t o the plates,
2
determine the value of Poisson's ratio for the metal. Ε for the metal = 140 G N / m ;
2
bulk modulus of water = 2-2 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-311)
3 1 . A steel tube having outside and inside diameters of 4 5 m m and 3 8 m m is
firmly plugged a t both ends leaving an internal length of 2 5 0 m m between the
flat ends of the plugs. The plugs are designed so t h a t water can be admitted t o the
inner space and also so that an axial pull can be applied to the tube. I f the tube
is subjected to an axial pull of 4 0 kN and in addition is filled with water a t a
2
gauge pressure of 1-7 M N / m , find the volume of water which will escape from the
tube if the axial load is removed and the inner space opened to the atmosphere.
2 2
Κ for water = 2-1 G N / m , Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m , Poisson's ratio = 0-286.
3
(Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 308 m m )
C H A P T E R 14
THICK CYLINDERS
14.1 Lame's Theory. In Art. 1.6, a formula is derived for the circum-
ferential stress in a thin cylinder, based on the assumption that this is
uniformly distributed across the thickness of the metal. Also, in calculating
the volumetric strain on the contents of a thin cylinder under pressure
(Examples 7 and 9, Chapter 13), it is assumed that the radial stress is
negligible in relation to the circumferential and longitudinal stresses. When
the thickness of the cylinder is appreciable in relation to the diameter,
however, these assumptions are no longer justified and the variation in
radial and circumferential stresses across the thickness is obtained from
Lame's Theory.
Pi
(a) (b)
FIG. 14.1
Fig. 14.1(a) shows a thick cylinder, of external and internal radii rx and
r 2 respectively, with external and internal pressures p x and p 2 , and Fig.
14.1(6) shows the stresses acting on an element of radius r and thickness dr,
subtending an angle do at the centre. The radial and circumferential
stresses, στ and aCi have both been assumed to be compressive, which is
considered positive.
If the radial stress varies from στ to o*r + άστ over the thickness dr, then,
resolving forces on the element radially over a unit length of cylinder,
(<rr + άστ)(τ + dr) άθ = σττ άθ + 2ac dr —
2
i.e. r άστ + στ dr = σ0 dr*
d
or aI + r ^ = ac (14.1)
dr
* If allowance is made for the variation in oc over the radial thickness dr, the further
term obtained is of the second order of small quantities.
277
278 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
άστ
or 2o-rr + r
2
2ar = 0 multiplying through by r
dr"
2 2
i.e. (σττ - ar ) •• 0
dr
2 2
σττ — ar b
h
or -2 •a (14.3)
+
r
b
Therefore, from equation (14.2), a —— (14.4)
2
r
Equations (14.3) and (14.4) are known as Lame's Equations; in any given
application, there will always be two conditions sufficient to solve for the
constants a and b and radial and circumferential stresses at any radius r can
then be evaluated.
Thus, in the common case of a
cylinder with internal pressure only,
Fig. 14.2,
aT = ρ when r = r 2
and σ Γ — 0 when r = rx
b
and
from which a =
and FIG. 1 4 . 2
THICK CYLINDERS 279
» + 4
(14.5)
= -ρ
rt(
l
f i)
and
(14.6)
o*c = —ρ ~
r
i — i
1,r the negative sign indicating tension. . (14.7)
The variations in aT and ac across the thickness are shown in Fig. 14.2.
14.2 Comparison with thin-cylinder theory. From equation (14.7)
<7c = î> (numerically)
2 2
d+ 2dt+ 2t
p. where t = rx — r2 and d = 2r 2
2t(d + t)
ι , _ where Jc = 4
i.e. ρ— = 2k(l + k) + i d
Assuming that σ 0 is constant across the thickness, as in Art. 1.4,
_ pd
or
FIG. 14.3
κ
280 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
The relation between ac/p and k from both theories is shown in Fig. 14.3
and also the error in using the thin cylinder theory, assuming Lamé's
Theory to be correct. The error is 5 per cent when k = 0-05 (i.e. when
t = d/20) but this falls to 0·2 per cent if the mean diameter is used in place
of the internal diameter in the thin cylinder theory.
14.3 Longitudinal and shear stresses. It is assumed in Lamé's
Theory that the longitudinal stress, is
uniform across a cross-section and its value
is obtained by considering the equilibrium
of the forces exerted on the end of the
cylinder.
Thus, in the case of a cylinder with internal
pressure only, Fig. 14.4,
ρ Χ nr\ = σι X n{r\ — r\) FIG. 14.4
14 8
••oi = r ^ < ·>
r r
l 2
To agree with the sign convention adopted for σ Γ and o c , this should be
negative since it is tensile and it will be seen from Art. 14.1 that it then
corresponds with the value of α in Lamé's equations as applied to this case.*
In the absence of any external shearing force or torque, σ Γ, ac and σι are
principal stresses and hence the maximum shear stress at any point is half
the difference of the maximum and minimum principal stresses (see Art
12.2). Eemembering that στ is compressive, while ac and σι are usually
tensile, the maximum shear stress at any point is given by
σ
τ = — τ - — ° c since σ >
^
σι 0
-ΚΚ)-Η)Κ· • <">·
Thus the maximum shear stress in the cylinder will occur at the inside
9
surface, where r = r 2.
14.4 The Lamé Line. Equations (14.3) and (14.4) can be written
and oc = a + - ^
2 2
If, therefore, στ is plotted against 1/r and a c is plotted against — 1/r ,
the two equations will be represented by the same straight line since they
both have the same constant a and the same slope 6. The two conditions
* I t can be shown similarly that in the case of internal and external pressure, the
longitudinal stress is again equal to the corresponding value of α if the external pressure
is also assumed to act on the outside of the end plate.
THICK CYLINDERS 281
which are used to solve for the constants a and b in the analytical solution
are used to determine the position of the line, from which any desired values
of aT and ac can then be read off.
Thus, for the simple case considered in Art. 14.1, the Lamé line is as
shown in Fig. 14.5, σ Γ being equal to ρ at l / r | and zero at 1/rf. The maxi-
mum value of ac is then evidently at — 1/rf and is given by
:+
from similar triangles
r\+rl
2 as in equation (14.7)
r2
r
f 0 ^
ν
FIG. 1 4 . 5
The intercept at 1/r = 0 represents the value of the constant a and from
Art. 14.3, this is the longitudinal stress, o>
evident that the maximum resultant circumferential stress is less than for
a homogeneous cylinder of the same cross-section with the same internal
pressure. Alternatively, for the same maximum stress, a thinner cylinder
can be used if it is pre-stressed, the optimum conditions being when the
resultant circumferential stress is the same at the inner surface of each
cylinder.
r2 / ^0 1-2 r0 _ r
(a)
Initial stresses
Stresses due t o ρ
Resultant stresses /
b)
FIG. 1 4 . 7
p.
Since σ Γ and ac are not infinite at r = 0, it follows that b = 0, so that
c;r = ac = a = ρ at all radii.
Ε Ε
Ε Ε
v
Λ decrease* in diameter = -j^(°'c ~~ Po)
2r „
.*. initial difference in diameter = —-{(o'c — vp0) — (a'c' — vpQ)}
Ε
=^v;-o . . (loo)
If the materials of the two cylinders are different, with moduli of elasti-
city Ex and E2 and Poisson's ratio vx and v2 respectively for the inner and
outer cylinders,
σ
then shrinkage allowance = 2r0\ Î L Z J ^ ? - ° ~ ^ \ (14.11)
E1 E2 /
1. Find the ratio of thickness to internal diameter for a tube subjected to
internal pressure when the ratio of the internal pressure to the greatest circum-
ferential stress is 0-5.
Find the alteration in thickness of metal in such a tube, 0-2 m internal
2 2
diameter, when the internal pressure is 75 MN/m . Ε = 200 GN/m and
ν = 0-3. (U. Lond.)
2 2
r 4- r
1
From equation (14.7), ac = —p \
But .-.4+4=2
2 n-r\
from which rx = V37\2
t = rx - r2 = ( V 3 - l)r.2
1
so that - = = 0-366
d2 2
* I t is assumed that all stresses are compressive but in fact ae will be tensile and the
inner surface will therefore increase in diameter. This will, however, be corrected auto-
matically by the negative sign which will arise in the calculation of σ'0 and the shrinkage
allowance thus involves the numerical sum of the circumferential stresses.
284 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Irl -v * Ο ^
vi Or
σι σι
or
2
0-1 2
= -75 χ 2 2
= - 3 7 - 5 MN/m
(0-1V3) - 0-1
The system of stresses applied to an element of the cylinder is shown in
Fig. 14.9.
Tensile circumferential strain at internal surface
<yc στ σι
E E Ε
e
_ (150 + 0-3 X 75 - 0-3 X 37-5) X 10
9
~ 200 χ ΙΟ
= 0-806 3 χ ΙΟ"
3
= 0-080 63 χ ΙΟ" m
3
3
= 0-055 3 χ 1 0 - m
* I t is convenient to remember t h a t σ t+ acia constant (see equation 14.2).
THICK CYLINDERS 285
3
/ . decrease in thickness = (0-080 63 — 0-055 3) X 1 0 " m
= 0-025 3 mm
2. A thick-walled cylinder, 0-2 m internal diameter, is to contain fluid at a
2
pressure of 50 MN/m . Find the necessary thickness if the maximum shearing
2
stress is not to exceed 100 MN/m . What will then be the greatest and least
values of the hoop stress in the material?
If the inner surface becomes corroded and the cylinder has to be re-bored, by
how much can the inside diameter be increased without raising by more than
5 per cent the maximum shearing stress induced by the same internal pressure?
(U. Lond.)
T
From equation (14.9), τ = ° °° =
2
2 r
so that occurs when r = 0-1 m,
Tmax
i.e. 100 = — Λ b= 1
2
0-1
2
Also, at r = 0-1 m, σ Γ = 50 MN/m
Λ 50 = α + — 2 Λ a= -50
^ 0-1
At r = rv στ = 0, Λ 0= -50 + 4 .*. *Ί = 0-141 4 m
η
Λ thickness = 0-041 4 m
2
At r = 0-1 m, ac = - 5 0 —„ = - 1 5 0 MN/m
c 2
0-1 —
2
At r = 0-141 4 m, <rc = - 5 0 — = - 1 0 0 MN/m
2
0-1414
Alternatively, σ Γ + oc is constant, so that
2
o~c at outer surface = (50 — 150) — 0 = —100 MN/m
When cylinder is re-bored,
2
r m a x = 105 MN/m = A
4
2
Also at r = r 2, at = 50 MN/m = a + — = a + 105
a = —55
At r = 0-141 4 m, orr = 0
b
0 = -55 + 2
0-141 4
Λ b = 1-1
: r L = ( H2 3 M
' *=J W5 °
increase in diameter = 0-004 6 m = 4*6 mm
286 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
230MN/m
FIG. 14.10
Then
6-25 6-25 2
230 5^25
6-25
2
crc = 87-6 MN/m
1
Ol _ 6-25 1
and
230 1 5^25
1
6^25
2
Λ σ, = 43-8 MN/m
The radial stress at the outer surface is zero, so that
e
(87-6 - ν X 43-8) X 10
tensile circumferential strain =
Ε
= 3-69 χ 10-* (1)
THICK CYLINDERS 287
4. A thick cylinder has a length of 0-25 m and internal and external dia-
meters o/0-l m and 0-141 4 m respectively.
(a) Determine the circumferential and longitudinal stresses at the inner
2
surface when the cylinder is filled with water under a pressure of 10 MN/m .
(b) How much more water does the cylinder contain than that required to
fill it at atmospheric pressure?
2
Take Ε for steel = 200 GN/m , ν for steel = 0-3 and Κ for water = 2
2
GN/m .
2 6
Atr = 0-05 m, <rr = 10 MN/m , Λ 10 = a ' 2
0-05
6
At r = 0-070 71 m, crr = 0, Λ 0= a + 2
0-070 7 1
. a = —10 and 6 = 0-05
Therefore, at inner surface,
2
acc = a - — o 2 = - 3 0 MN/m1
0-05
2
and σι=α= - 1 0 MN/m
Alternatively, the stresses may be obtained from Lamé's line as in
Example 3.
lieferring to Fig. 14.9, tensile circumferential strain,
_ /30 0-2 1-3 X 10 0-3 Χ 10N e
X 10
E Ε
e
30 x 10
Ε
and tensile longitudinal strain,
n o 1-3 X 10 0-3 X 30\
ο·: e
X 10
Ε Ε
e
4 x 10
288 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS
5. A steel rod, 0-06 m diameter, is forced into a bronze casing having an out-
side diameter of 0-1 m and thereby produces a hoop tension at the outer circum-
2
ference of the casing of 35 MN/m . Determine (a) the radial pressure between
the rod and the casing, and (b) the rise in temperature which would just elimin-
ate the force fit.
For steel, £ = 200 GN/m , ν = 0-28, α = 12 χ 10~«/deg C
2
(ϋ. Lond.)
2
At the outer surface of the casing, στ = 0 and σ0= —35 MN/m ,
B
.-.O = « + 2
0-05
b
and -35 = a - 2
0-05
Λ a = - 1 7 - 5 and b = 0-043 75
Therefore when r = 0-03 m,
0-043 75 2
p= - 1 7 - 5 + 2 31-11 MN/m
0-03
1
Alternatively, set off σ Γ = 0 at and a0 = —35 at — 2>
1 2 1 2
0-03
2
0-05
2
' /θ·03 " /0O5 Ο 2
1/0O5
2
Then VOO3
35 1
T 2
0-05 ' 0-05
T
2
2
,\ ρ = 31-11 MN/m FIG. 14.11
THICK CYLINDERS 289
6. A solid circular shaft has an outer diameter ο/0·1 m and is pressed into
a uniform sleeve of the same material,\0-12 m, inner diameter 0Ό99 9 m and
outer diameter 0-125 m. If the coefficient of friction at the common surface is
0-3, find the torque which can be transmitted from the shaft to the sleeve.
2
Ε = 200 GN/m .
Let the radial pressure at the common surface be p .
Then, for the sleeve,
_ 256 400 _ _ 41
Ρ
~ 144^ 1 4 4 ^ " Ύ
Alternatively, this stress may be determined from
Example 3.
s' line, as in
Lame
* This may be obtained directly from Fig. 14.11.
t No appreciable error will be introduced by working on the nominal diameter of 0-1 m.
290 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
aT = ρ at r = 0-1V2 m, Λ ρ = αλ + —^ = ax + 5 0 ^
(0-lV2) 2
/. ax = 2p and bx = —0-02^
Therefore, at the inner surface,
b
i A
σ ο = = α ι 2 = P
~οΤ *
For the outer cylinder,
στ = ρ at r = 0-1V2 m, Λ ρ = a2 + — = a« + 506 2
1
(ΟΊ-ν/2)
2 5
and <rr == 0 at r = 0-2 m, Λ 0 = a2 + ^ 7 ^= « 2 + & 2
/ . a2 — — a n d 6 = 0Ό4ρ
Therefore, at the inner surface,
b9
THICK CYLINDERS 291
(6) Stresses dice to internal pressure.
2
σ Γ = 100 MN/m at r = 0-1 m, Λ 100 = a + —• = a + 1006
0-1 Ί Γ Ί Γ ~ ~3
and at r = 0-lV2 m, σ Γ = α — 6 _ _ 100 _ 200
2
(ΟΊλ/2) ~3~ " 3 "
2
= - 1 0 0 MN/m
For the resultant maximum circumferential stress to be as small as
possible, the resultant stresses at the inner surfaces of each cylinder must
be equal, as will be evident from Fig. 14.7,
i.e. -52?+4p=-100-3p
from which ρ = 9-525 MN/m
2
(a)
-1 -1 0
2 2 2 2 2
0-1 0-2 0-2 (0-1J2) 0-1
(=-100) (=-50) (=-25) (=25) (=50) (=100)
2
100MN/m
(b)
1 2
/1
F i a . 14.12
292 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Alternatively, the stresses may be obtained from Figs. 14.12(a) and (6)
which represent the Lamé lines for the initial stresses and the stresses due
to the internal pressure respectively.
t
1 0 0 + 100
From Fig. 14.12(a),
V 100 - 50
tr
U W5 0 T+ W
25
and J= =3
V
Ρ 5 0 - 25
100+25
From Fig. 14.12(6), ^- =
100 100 - 25
5 0 +1 w25
w
and ^ = =1
100 1100
0 0-- 25
8. A compound steel cylinder has a bore of 80 mm and an outside diameter
of 160 mm, the diameter of the common surface being 120 mm. Find the radial
pressure at the common surface which must be provided by shrinkage, if the
resultant maximum hoop tension in the inner cylinder under a superimposed
2
internal pressure of 60 MN/m is to be half the value of the maximum hoop
tension which would be produced in the inner cylinder if that cylinder alone
2
were subjected to an internal pressure of 60 MN/m .
Determine the final hoop tensions at the inner and outer surfaces of both
2
cylinders under the internal pressure of 60 MN/m , and sketch a graph to
show how the hoop tension varies across the cylinder wall. (U. Lond.)
(a) Initial stresses in inner cylinder. Let the shrinkage pressure be p .
and σ Γ = 0 at r = 0-08 m, 0 = a^ + 2
0-08
Λ α4 = —1-286^ and 6 4 = 0-008 229^
The resultant hoop stresses in the compound cylinder are then as follows :
Inner cylinder, inner surface : ac = —
2
= - 7 8 MN/m
l
and ar = ν at r = 0-2 m, .*. ρ = a, + — -
^c = o l - ^ 52 = - 7 7 - 2 - 3-57Ji
0-2
For the outer cylinder,
ρ at r = 0-2 m, Λ ρ = a2 + A
6.2
and σ Γ = 0 at r = 0-225 m, 0 = a2 + 2
0-225
.·. a 2 = —3-76^ and b2 = 0-190 bp
Therefore, at the common surface,
a = a2 — — = —8-52«
18. A thick steel tube with closed ends, of inside and outside diameters 5 0 m m
2
and 70 m m respectively, contains oil a t a pressure of 1 M N / m . The oil is allowed
2
to escape until the pressure in the tube has fallen t o 0-75 M N / m . F i n d how much
oil has been released per metre length of tube, if bending due t o end effects is
negligible.
2 2
Ε for steel = 2 0 0 G N / m ; Κ for oil = 2-75 G N / m ; ν for steel = 0-25.
3
(U. Lond.) {Ans.: 195 m m )
2 3 . I f the diameter ratio of a cast-iron hub is 1-75, calculate from first principles
what driving allowance should be made on the diameter of the steel shaft on which
2
it is to be forced, when the bursting stress is limited t o 2 4 M N / m .
2 2
Ε for steel = 2 0 0 G N / m ; Ε for cast-iron = 100 G N / m ; Poisson's ratio = 0-3
for both materials. ( U. Lond.) (Ans. : 0-000 3 0 9 6d)
· · τ ο 0% ν(σγ + σ ζ )
Strain in direction of ax = — — —
2£ Z£
change in length of side χ
χ
1 χ
Λ work done hy σχ = - Χ σχ X yz χ -{σχ — v(ay + σ ζ)}
χνζ
σσ
Similarly, work done by σγ = r^-fay — v(ayax + γ ζ)}
This work is stored in the material as strain energy and since xyz repre-
sents the volume of the element, strain energy per unit volume,
2E
= 3(1_-^) ^
K 1
2£ 2K
Since the strain energy is due only to change in volume, it is termed the
volumetric strain energy (Uv).
The general case of unequal stresses can be resolved into volumetric and
shear stresses as follows :
_ _ Οχ + Q y + ο ζ , <τχ — σ γ , orx — σζ
σ
χ — 3« Γ 3 3
_ 0·χ + Oy + Ο'ζ _ 0·χ — O y , gy ~ <*%
y
° 3 3 3
σ = Οχ + Oy + Οζ _ Οχ — Οζ _ Oy ~ Οζ
3 3 3
Thus the given stresses σχ, ay and σζ can be represented by Fig. 15.2, the
stresses on element (a) involving .pure volumetric strain and those on
elements (6), (c) and (d) involving pure shear strain in each of the three
co-ordinate planes (see Art. 12.3).
σ χ+ογ·σ ζ σ -σχ ζ θγ-σ χ
σ χ I O x + ^ O j t 3 σ -σ
χ ν * σ -σ
χ ζ I I 3
3 — —
fa/ (b) (c) (d)
FIG. 1 5 . 2
The volumetric strain energy due to the equal stresses on element (a)
σ
= _L^x + ν + . from equation (15.2)
_ 1 2
-r(o* + oy + <rz)
The shear strain energy due to the shear stresses on elements (b), (c) and
(d) is the difference between the total strain energy and the volumetric
strain energy,*
i.e. shear strain energy per unit volume,
U = σ σ
* + 1 + 1- MoxOy + ayaz + ογτ χ)}
* This can alternatively be obtained by considering the work done by each of the
stresses on elements (6), (c) and (d ) due to the resultant strains they produce.
300 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
i.e. when —^
or . (15.5)
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; THEORIES OF F A I L U R E 301
For like stresses, this theory gives ox > o0 but this is not substantiated
by experiment and the theory finds little general support.
(c) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest's or Tresca's Theory). Failure
occurs when the greatest shear stress reaches the maximum shear stress at
the elastic limit in a simple tension test,
i.e. when
" = go
2 2
or ox — oz = o0 . (15.6)
This theory gives generally good correlation with experimental results
obtained with ductile materials.
Care must be taken in applying equation (15.6) to the case of unlike
stresses; the maximum shear stress involves the greatest algebraic differ-
ence of principal stresses.
(d) Strain Energy Theory (Haigh's Theory). Failure occurs when the energy
stored per unit volume in a strained material reaches the strain energy per
unit volume at the elastic limit in a simple tension test, i.e. the maximum
energy a body can store without permanent deformation is a fixed quantity,
irrespective of the manner in which it is strained.
2
1 2
Thus --{ol + o y + a z - 2v(oxoy + oyoz + σζσχ) = | |
2
or ol + o y+ + ογοζ + ozox) = o%
ol — (oxoy . (15.8)
The results given by this theory are generally similar to those given by
the strain energy theory (see Fig. 15.3). It is more recent and may be re-
garded as a refinement of the strain energy theory but experimental
evidence is not conclusive.
* Obtained b2y putting σ7 = σζ = 0 in equation (15.3). This result should not be
confused with r /2G per unit volume, given b y equation (1.21); τ is the shear stress
whereas σ0 is the direct stress.
302 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
f°y
FIG. 1 5 . 3
represents σ χ and the vertical axis represents ory, tension upwards and to
the right, compression downwards and to the left.
For the maximum principal stress theory, the boundary within which crx
and ay must lie for no failure is the square ABCD, the limiting value in
either direction along OX and OY being σ 0 .
For the maximum principal strain theory, the boundaries E F and FG
represent respectively ax — vaY = σ0 (for crx > ay) and ay — νσχ = σ0
(for ay > σ χ ) , the greater principal stress in each case being tensile. The
lines GH and HE represent the corresponding equations when the greater
principal stress is compressive.
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; THEORIES OF F A I L U R E 303
The maximum shear stress theory gives σχ = σ0 (for σχ > ay) and σΎ = σ0
(for ay > σχ) with like stresses; thus, in the first and third quadrants, the
boundary coincides with that for the maximum principal stress theory.
For unlike stresses (second and fourth quadrants), σχ — σγ = σ0 (or
σ σ
tfy ~ χ = ο)> ^ r e the maximum stress in either case can be tensile or
wn
10(1+ V 2 9 ) ^ ^ + +
1 0 ( 1
+
ô ô à
ά ô ô
304 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
and
2 2
Thus the given stress system is equivalent to a bulk stress of -^· MN/m
and shear stresses in the three co-ordinate planes of -V°-(l + V29),
15
_ 23-3 x l O 3
9
= 19>«ff J / m
~~ 6 x 2 0 0 x l 0
From equation (15.2),
2 12
(1 \ °3- ) /x i^o
= = ni J3 / m
v 9
2x200xl0 -—
3
·. Us = 19>βίΓ-111 = 19^eg J / m
i.e. a, = ( °n-f
6
200-60Z+^
2
and a2 = ( +f)~^/ 2 0 0 - 6 0 X + ^
60 5 2
σ> = £ = ^ Μ Ν / π ι ·
t Q ur e 9π X 1 03 2
r = ^ . = N/m
radius X cross-sectional area 0·15(π X 0-3 χ t)
2
= 2j? MN/m
Therefore the principal stresses are given by
1//0-6 , 0·3\ /ÄMJ 0·3\· /0·2\«\
= >9±0·5)
2
.. σχ — — and σ2 = — MN/m
t t
(a) Maximum principal stress theory :
I0-7
—t = 150 t = 0-004 67 m
(b) Maximum principal strain theory:
0·7_
Λ .7 Λ .Ο
t = 0-004 16 m
* Since the second principal stress is of the same sign as the first, the maximum shear
stress is half the difference of the first and third principal stresses, the latter being zero.
306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= k (M + \/M + 2 2 ) + k (M - VM + 22 )
2 2 2 2 2
- 2 χ 0·28& (Μ + VM + 22 )(M - VM + 22 )
from which M = 6-78 kN m
5. A circular shaft 0-1 m diameter is subjected to combined bending and
twisting moments, the bending moment being three times the twisting moment.
2
If the direct tension yield-point of the material is 350 MN/m and the factor
of safety on yield is to be 4, calculate the allowable twisting moment by the three
following theories of elastic failure: (a) maximum principal stress theory;
(6) maximum shearing stress theory; (c) shear strain energy theory.
(U. Lond.)
From equation (12.21), the principal stresses are given by
a = i l ( M ± VM
3
2
+ T)
2
πα
16 2 2
(3T ± V9T + T ) = 5 090Γ(3 ± VÎO)
3
π Χ 0·1
(α) Maximum principal stress theory:
X
5 090Γ(3 + VlO)= /.3P= 2790Nm
4
(b) Maximum shear stress theory :
3 50 X l
5 090T(3 + VÏO) - 5 090T(3 - VÏÔ) = °* Λ Τ = 2 715 Ν m
4
(c) Shear strain energy theory :
2 2
{5 090T(3 + VÏÔ)} + {5 090T(3 - VÎÔ)}
3 5Q l o
- {5 090T(3 + VÏÔ)}{5 090T(3 - VÏO)} = ^ * y
Λ Τ = 2 755 Ν m
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; T H E O R I E S OF F A I L U R E 307
6. A thick cylinder in which the outside diameter is three times the inside
2
diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 80 N/mm . The material has
2
a yield stress of 400 N/mm and ν = 0*30. Calculate the factors of safety
from the five theories of ehstic failure.
From Lamé's line, or otherwise, the principal stresses at the inside surface
2 2
(the most highly stressed point) are 80 N/mm (compressive), 100 N/mm
2
(tensile) and 10 N/mm (tensile).
Let F be the factor of safety.
(a) Maximum principal stress theory :
F
(b) Maximum principal strain theory:
80 - 0-3 χ 10 = ^ ?
100 + 0-3 χ 8< · /. F = 3-31
100 + 80 = — Λ F -= 2-22
F
(d) Strain energy theory:
Λ F = 2-75
(e) Shear strain energy theory:
2 2 2
1 0 0 + 8 0 + 1 0 - ( - 1 0 0 x 8 0 - 8 0 X 1 0 + 1 0 x 100)
-m'
:. F = 2-57
7. A piece of material is subjected t o three mutually perpendicular tensile
2
stresses of 5 0 , 6 5 and 80 M N / m . Calculate the strain energy per unit volume.
Calculate also the maximum shear strain energy per unit volume and explain
the difference between these two strain energies. Poisson's ratio = 0·3*
3 3
(U. Land.) (Ans.: 14-14 k J / m ; 1-00 k J / m )
2
8. A t a point in a steel member the major principal stress is 2 0 0 M N / m , and
the minor principal stress is compressive. I f the tensile yield point of the steel is
2
2 5 0 M N / m , find the value of the minor principal stress a t which yielding will
commence, according t o each of the following criteria of failure: (a) maximum
shearing stress; (b) maximum total strain energy; (c) maximum shear strain
energy. Poisson's ratio = 0-28.
Prove any formula used for (b) and (c). (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 5 0 , 104-1, 80-3 M N / m )
9. A t a point in a stressed material the direct stresses on two perpendicular
2 2
planes are 140 M N / m tension and 9 0 M N / m compression respectively, and the
2
shearing stress on these planes is r . The yield stress for the material is 2 5 0 M N / m .
308 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
10. A close-coiled helical spring has a wire diameter of 2-5 m m and a mean
coil diameter of 4 0 mm. The spring is subjected to a combined axial load of 5 4 Ν
and a torque acting about the axis of the spring. Determine the maximum per-
missible torque if: (a) the material is brittle and ultimate failure is to be avoided.
The criterion of failure is the maximum tensile stress, and the ultimate tensile
2
stress is 1·2 G N / m ; (b) the material is ductile and failure by yielding is to be
avoided. The criterion of failure is the maximum shear stress and the yield in
2
tension is 0*9 G N / m . ( / . Mech. E.) (Ans.: 1-692 N m; 1-665 N m)
11. Derive a formula for the total strain energy per unit volume of a material
subjected t o three principal stresses.
A torque of 1 -5 kN m is transmitted by a cylindrical tube 100 mm external
diameter and of uniform thickness 2-5 mm. I f the elastic limit of the material
2
under simple tension is 2 5 0 M N / m , calculate the factor of safety when the criterion
of failure is (a) maximum shearing stress, (b) maximum shear strain energy.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.:3>0±; 3-51)
14. A hollow cylindrical brass beam, of inner and outer diameter 5 0 and 75 m m
respectively, sustains on a certain cross-section a pure bending moment of
2 kN m and an axial torque. I f a factor of safety of 3 is required, what is the maxi-
mum torque t h a t m a y be transmitted along the shaft if failure is reckoned t o
have occurred when the shear strain energy per unit volume has reached a value
2
corresponding t o a simple tensile stress of 2 0 0 M N / m ? (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1-1 kN m )
15. A shaft of diameter 100 m m is subjected to a bending moment of 5 k N m.
F i n d the value of the maximum torque which can be applied t o the shaft for each
2
of the following conditions: (a) m a x i m u m direct stress not t o exceed 120 M N / m ;
2
(b) maximum shearing stress not t o exceed 6 0 M N / m ; (c) maximum shear strain
2
energy per unit volume not to exceed t h a t induced by simple shear of 8 0 M N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 17-92, 10-66, 14-32 kN m )
16. Show how t o find the total strain energy per unit volume in a piece of
material subjected to pure shearing stress combined with a simple direct stress.
A solid circular shaft is required t o carry a twisting moment of 6 k N m and a
bending moment of 2 kN m. Determine the diameter on the assumption t h a t the
total strain energy per unit volume is not to exceed t h a t in material under a pure
2 2
shearing stress of 30 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and Poissons ratio = 1 / 3 - 5 .
(JU. Lond.) (Ans.: 100-7 m m )
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; THEORIES OF F A I L U R E 309
17. A direct-tension test on a specimen of steel gave elastic breakdown a t
2
300 M N / m . A shaft made of this material is 5 0 mm diameter. Determine accord-
ing t o the following theories the torque required t o produce elastic breakdown
when the shaft also carries a bending moment of 2*5 kN m : (a) maximum principal
stress theory, (b) maximum total strain energy theory. Poisson's ratio = 0*3.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 4-167 kN m; 3-35 kN m )
18. A shaft of circular section is subjected simultaneously to bending and
torsion. Deduce the relation between the combined bending moment and torque
and the simple torque a t elastic failure on the assumption t h a t failure occurs a t a
constant value of (a) the m a x i m u m principal stress; (b) the maximum shearing
stress; (c) the maximum strain. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2 2
(Ans.: TE = M + VN + T; TE = VM + T;
2 2
TE = (1 - v)M + (1 + v)VM + T)
19. Three exactly similar specimens of mild steel tube are 4 0 m m external
diameter and 32 m m internal diameter. One of these is tested in tension and
reaches the limit of proportionality a t an axial tensile load of 9 0 kN. The second
is tested in simple torsion. The third is also tested in torsion, but with a uniform
bending moment of 3 5 0 Ν m applied throughout the test. Assuming maximum
shear stress t o be the criterion of elastic failure, estimate the torque a t which the
two torsion specimens should fail.
How would you expect the practical results of these tests to differ from these
estimates? (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 737 N m ; 648-6 Ν m )
24. Explain clearly what is meant by the theory of elastic failure (a) by maxi-
mum principal stress, (6) by maximum shear strain energy.
A steel drum 0-6 m diameter is required t o hold gas under a pressure of 3-5
310 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
M N / m . Calculate the thickness according t o both the above hypotheses if the
2
material used has a tensile working*strength of 70 M N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 15 m m ; 13 m m )
25. Show t h a t , for a material subjected to two principal stresses crx and σ2 the
strain energy per unit volume is given by
l - { o » + a\ -
2 2 2 1 + ν
{Ans.: Me = \(M + Vjlf * + T ); Me = VM + T ; M< if
2
+
2