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Strength of Materials: Theory and Examples

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The book discusses basic strength of materials theory and examples for engineering students.

The book covers the basic Strength of Materials theory for the first two years of an engineering degree, focusing on the mathematical aspects without descriptive design or testing material.

The book covers topics like simple stress and strain, torsion, bending, shear force and bending moment diagrams etc.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

THEORY AND EXAMPLES

BY

R. C. STEPHENS
M.Sc.(Eng.), CEng., M.I.Mech.E.
FORMERLY PRINCIPAL LECTURER IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
WEST HAM COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

E D W A R D ARNOLD
© R. C. Stephens 1970
First published 1970
by Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd
41 Maddox Street
London W I R OAN
Reprinted 1971

Boards edition ISBN: 0 7131 3210 8


Paper edition ISBN: 0 7131 3211 6

All rights reserved. No part of this publication


may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without the prior permission of
Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited.

Printed in Great Britain by


Butler and Tanner Ltd, Frome and London
PREFACE

This book is intended to cover the basic Strength of Materials of the first
two years of an engineering degree or diploma course ; it does not attempt
to deal with the more specialized topics which usually comprise the final
year of such courses.
The work has been confined to the mathematical aspect of the subject
and no descriptive matter relating to design or materials testing has been
included.
Each chapter consists of a concise but thorough statement of the theory,
followed by a number of worked examples in which the theory is amplified
and extended. A large number of unworked examples, with answers, are
also included.
The majority of examples have been taken, with permission, from
examination papers set by the University of London and the Institutions
of Mechanical and Civil Engineers; these have been designated U.Lond.,
I.Mech.E. and I.C.E. respectively. All questions were originally set in
Imperial units; they have now been converted to equivalent S.I. units but
are otherwise unchanged.
Over 500 questions have been solved and some errors in solutions are
inevitable. Notification of these would be gratefully acknowledged.

R. C. STEPHENS

ν
N O T E ON S . I . U N I T S

The fundamental units in the Système International d'Unités are the metre,
kilogramme and second, with the newton as the derived unit. Where mixed
quantities are involved in a problem, the solution has generally been
2
worked throughout in the basic units, e.g. for a given stress of 200 MN/m ,
the figure 200 X 10 N/m has been substituted and for a density of
e 2

7-8 Mg/m , the figure 7-8 X 10 kg/m has been substituted.


3 3 3

In many examples of stress analysis or thick cylinders, however, it has


2 2
been possible to work throughout in MN/m (or the identical unit N/mm )
and in the calculation of second moment of area of beam sections, etc,
prehminary calculations have often been made in mm where this unit has
been more appropriate.
The cm is not approved in S.I. units and has therefore not been used.

vi
CHAPTER 1

S I M P L E S T R E S S AND S T R A I N

1.1 Introduction. When a load is applied to a member of a machine or


structure, the material distorts. The stress intensity (usually abbreviated to
stress) is the load transmitted per unit area of cross-section and the strain
is a measure of the resulting distortion.
Assuming that the load is insufficient to cause rupture, it is resisted by
the force of attraction between the molecules of the material and the
deformation is the result of the slight re-orientation of the molecules.
If the material returns to its former shape when the load is removed, it
is said to be elastic; if the strain is permanent, it is said to be plastic. Most
engineering materials are elastic up to a certain stress (referred to as the
elastic limit), after which they are partly elastic and partly plastic. The
transition is not always abrupt, but for the purposes of calculation it is
usually assumed to be so, an assumption which is reasonably justified for
common mild steel.
In the simple theory of Strength of Materials, it is assumed that the
material is isotropic (i.e. displays the same properties in all directions) and
that it is equally rigid in tension and compression. It is further assumed
that the stress is uniformly distributed over the area resisting the load;
this is approximately true, except in the near vicinity of the point of
application of the load or a sudden change of section (St Venant's Prin-
ciple).

1.2 Tensile and compressive s t r e s s and strain. If a piece of material


of cross-sectional area a is subjected to equal and opposite forces P, either
tensile, as in Fig. 1.1(a) or compressive, as in Fig. 1.1(6), then
force
stress =
cross-sectional area

i.e. σ = - (1.1)
a
If the original length of the bar is I and under the effect of the force Ρ it
extends or compresses a distance x, then
change in length
strain =
original length

i.e. e = | (1.2)
1
2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The deformed shapes of the bars are as shown dotted in Fig. 1.2; the
strain in directions perpendicular to that of the load is proportional to that
in the direction of the load and is of the opposite sign.
e r s r am
The ratio ^ ^ ^ j s c a j j e ( j p0isson's Ratio and is denoted by v.
axial stram
Thus if the axial strain is ε, the lateral strain is —νε.

(a) (b) (a)


Τ(b)
FIG. 1.1 FIG. 1.2

1.3 Shear s t r e s s and strain. If a piece of material of cross-sectional


area a is subjected to equal and opposite forces Ρ which produce a state of
shear, as shown in Fig. 1.3, then
force
shear stress :
cross-sectional area
Ρ
i.e. τ = (1.3)

If the deformation in the direction of Ρ is χ and the perpendicular dis-


tance between the applied forces is Z, then
deformation
shear strain :
couple arm

i.e. (1.4)

φ is the angular displacement in radians, since - is very small.


V

i/
/
/
1/ p τ
FIG. 1.3
FIG. 1.4
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 3
When a shear stress r is applied to the faces AB and CD of an element of
the material, Fig. 1.4, a clockwise couple (τ X AB χ t) χ BC is applied to
the element, t being the thickness of the material. Since it does not rotate,
however, an equal anticlockwise couple must be applied by means of shear
stresses induced on faces AD and BC.
If the magnitude of these stresses is τ', then for equilibrium,
(r χ AB χ t) X BC = (τ' X BC χ t) X AB
Λ τ' = τ
Thus a shear stress in one plane is always accompanied by an equal shear
stress (called the complementary shear stress) in the perpendicular plane.

1.4 Hooke's Law. Hooke's Law states that when a load is applied to
an elastic material, the deformation is directly proportional to the load
producing it. Since the stress is proportional to the load and the strain is
proportional to the deformation, it follows that the stress is proportional to
the strain, i.e. the ratio stress/strain is a constant for any given material.
For tensile or compressive stresses, this constant is known as the Modulus
of Elasticity (or Young's Modulus) and is denoted by E.

Thus Ε = - = -L- = — . . . . (1.5)


ε x/l αχ
For shear stress, this constant is known as the Modulus of Rigidity and
is denoted by G.

Thus 0 * . . . . (1.6)
φ x/l ax

1.5 Factor of safety. The maximum stress used in the design of a


machine or structure is considerably less than the ultimate stress (i.e. the
stress at failure), to allow for .possible overloading, non-uniformity of stress
distribution, shock loading, faults in material and workmanship, corrosion,
wear, etc.
breaking stress
The ratio is called the factor of safety.
maximum design stress
Instead of basing this factor on the stress at failure, it is sometimes based
on the stress at the yield point (where the material suddenly becomes
plastic) or, for materials which have no well-defined yield point, on the
stress at which the extension is a certain percentage (e.g. 0-1 per cent) of
the original length.
4 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

1.6 S t r e s s e s in thin cylindrical shells. When a thin cylinder is sub-


jected to internal pressure, stresses are induced on the longitudinal section
X X , Fig. 1.5, due to the force tending to separate the top and bottom
halves, and on the circumferential section Y Y due to the force tending to
separate the right- and left-hand ends of the cylinder.
The stress on the longitudinal section is termed the circumferential stress
and that on the circumferential section is termed the longitudinal stress;
the type of stress is determined by the direction of the arrows.
In determining the stresses induced, it is assumed that the thickness is
small in comparison with the diameter so that the stress on a cross-section
may be taken as uniform* and also that the ends give no support to the
sides, an assumption which would be appropriate to a long cylinder such
as a pipe.
Let the internal diameter and length be d and I respectively, the thickness
of metal be t and the internal pressure be p.

Για. 1.5 FIG. 1.6

Circumferential s t r e s s . The force tending to separate the top and


bottom halves is the pressure multiplied by the projected area in a direction
perpendicular to the diametral plane,f Fig. 1.6,
i.e. Pc = pdl
This is resisted by the stress acting on the longitudinal section, X X ,
_ pdl pd
i.e. σ = = (1.7)
° 2 α 2 ί
If the cylinder is made up from riveted plates and the efficiency of the
longitudinal joints is ηι then the average stress in the joint is given by
pd
(1.8)
* See Chapter 14.

t The radial force on an element subtending an angle


de,
άθ, Fig. 1.7, is ρ χ | άθ χ I The vertical component of

this force ie ^ dö.sin θ so that the total force normal to FIG. 1.7

X X is sin θ άθ = pdl
Jo
2
SIMPLE S T R E S S AND STRAIN 5
Longitudinal stress. The force tending to separate the right- and left-
hand halves is the pressure multiplied by the area of one end, Fig. 1.8,
2
i.e. Pi = px-d
4
This is resisted by the stress acting on the circumferential section, YY,

i.e, σι = . . . (1.9)
4*

FIG. 1.8

If the cylinder is made up from riveted plates and the efficiency of the
circumferential joints is r\z then the average stress in the joint is given by

(1.10)

It is evident from equations (1.8) and (1.10) that the efficiency of the
circumferential joints need only be half that of the longitudinal joints.

1.7 Stress in thin spherical shells. Let the internal diameter be d,


the thickness of metal be t and the internal pressure be p, Fig. 1.9. Then the
force tending to separate the two halves on a section X X is the pressure
multiplied by the projected area in the direction perpendicular to XX,

i.e. Ρ= ρ χ ΐ ί
4
This is resisted by the stress acting on the section XX,
π
pd
i.e. Ρ Χ τ < . (i-ii)
Tt
If the shell is made up from riveted
ndtplates and the efficiency of the joints
is η, then
pd
a— . (1.12)
6 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

1.8 S t r e s s in thin rotating r i m s . Let a thin rim (one in which the


radial depth is small in comparison with the mean radius) of cross-sectional
area a, mean radius r and density m rotate at a tangential speed vy Fig.
1.10. Then the centrifugal force, F, on an element subtending an angle
do is
2
v
m Χ a X r άθ —
r
This is resisted by the radial components of the forces on the ends of the
element. I f the stress induced is σ, then

2
mav dd = 2 χ σα χ —
from which mir (1.13)

αθ
2
σα σα

σα σα
FIG. 1.10 FIG. 1.11

Alternatively, the centre of gravity of the half of the rim above the
2/*
diametral plane X X , Fig. 1.11, is at a distance — from X X . The centrifugal
71
force on this part is then resisted by the stress a acting on the section X X ,
2
2r
i.e. « i X a X j i r x c ü X - = 2σα
π
from which 2 r2 .
mir

1.9 S t r e s s e s in composite b a r s . A composite bar is a load-resisting


member which is made up of two different materials.
Let the cross-sectional areas of the two materials be ax and a 2, the
moduli of elasticity be E1 and E2 and the coefficients of expansion be a x
and a 2.

S t r e s s e s due to external load. If the ends through which the load is


applied are rigid, Fig. 1.12, the change in length of each part is the same,
i.e. χτ = x2

i.e. (1.14)
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 7

Also the sum of the loads carried by each part is equal to the applied load,
i.e. P1 + P 2 = Ρ
or σχαλ + σ2α2 = Ρ . . . (1.15)

σλ and σ2 can then be obtained from equations (1.14) and (1.15).

FIG. 1.12 FIG. 1.13

S t r e s s e s due to change in t e m p e r a t u r e . Let X X , Fig. 1.13, be the


initial level of the top of the composite bar and let Y Y be its final level after
a temperature rise t. I f both parts were free to expand, the extension of
material ( 1 ) would be l^t and that of material (2) would be l2ac2t; if, how-
ever, the two materials are rigidly connected at the top, material ( 1 ) is
forced to extend a distance xx and material ( 2 ) is forced to compress a
distance x2. It is only these forced changes in length, xx and x2, which pro-
duce stresses in the materials.
From Fig. 1.13, it will be seen that

χ
ι + 2
χ
= 0
h&é ~~ h *-^
(1.16)
ti1 Ά2

Also, since no external force is applied to the bar,


tensile force in material ( 1 ) = compressive force in material (2),
i.e σΛjαi Λ* ! — (T22 . .
a
. . (1.17)
σχ and a2 can then be obtained from equations ( 1 . 1 6 ) and (1.17)
If the bar is subjected to an external load P, Fig. 1.14,
as well as to a temperature rise t, then, from the
equilibrium of the end plate,
P + P1 = Pi
or σ1α1 — σ2α2 = Ρ . . . (1.18)
assuming Ρ to be compressive and a 2 > ccv FIG. 1.14
8 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Equation (1.16) will still be applicable and hence σ1 and σ2 may be calcu-
lated. In many instances, however, it may be simpler to determine the
stresses due to the external load and temperature change separately and
then combine these values to obtain the resultant stresses, particular care
being taken over the nature of the separate stresses.

1.10 Strain energy. When a body is stressed, it distorts and work is


done on it. This energy is stored in the material and is recoverable when the
stress is relieved, provided that the material remains elastic. The energy is
termed strain energy or resilience and that stored when the material is
stressed to the elastic limit is termed the proof resilience.
Gradually applied load. If an axial load Ρ is gradually applied to a bar
and produces an extension x, then the work done, or strain energy, is
represented by the area under the load/extension diagram, Fig. 1.15,
U=\Px
σΐ
But Ρ = a X a and χ = —
Ε

= — X volume (1.19)
2E FIG. 1.15

The expression — χ volume represents the strain energy in the material


when the stress is a and however this stress is caused, the strain energy will
always be given by the same expression.

Suddenly applied load. Let a mass M be dropped from a height h on


to a collar at the lower end of a bar, Fig. 1.16, producing an instantaneous
extension χ and an instantaneous stress σ. Then the loss of potential
energy of the weight is Mg(h + x)t so that, ignoring any loss of energy at
impact,
T2

Mg(h χ) = — χ volume

i.e. Mg X volume (1.20)


2E
IM
This is a quadratic from which σ can be found; the positive
solution will represent the tensile stress at the point of
maximum extension and the negative solution will repre-
sent the compressive stress at the end of the rebound.
The oscillation of the weight will die away due to internal Fia. 1.16
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 9

friction in the material and its final position will be the same as when
gradually applied.
2
ol o
When h = 0, Μα χ Ε— == — 2Ε χ volume
Mg
from which σ=2
a
i.e. the maximum stress is twice that due to a gradually applied load of the
same magnitude.
1.11 Shear strain energy. Referring to Fig. 1.3, the work done by the
shearing force Ρ is \Px, assuming it to be gradually applied.
rl
But Ρ = τ X a and χ •
G

.*. U: X al
2G
X volume (1.21)
2G
1. A tension specimen of circular cross-section tapers uniformly from 20 mm
to 16 mm diameter over a gauge length of 200 mm. When an axial load of
40 JcN is applied, the extension measured on this gauge length is 0-4 mm. Find
the modulus of elasticity of the material.
Compare the strain energy in this specimen with that in a specimen of the
same material of uniform diameter 18 mm carrying the same load. (U. Lond.)

20mm D

FIG. 1.17

Referring to Fig. 1.17,


0-016 0-02 - 0-016
/. L = 0-8 m
L 0-2
t = 0-016 /. d = 0-02z m
χ
127-4 χ 10·
3
40 χ 10 2
Stress on element = N/m
- X (0-02x)
2

4
6
ol 127-4 χ 10 ax
extension of element = — = 2"Ζ Χ ~ΖΓ"
Ε χ Ε
10 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
6 1 0 6
1274 χ 10 f ' çb _ 31-85 χ 10
.". total extension of bar = 2
Ε J os x Ε
= 0-000 4 m
= 31-85 χ 10* = 79-6GN/m*
7
0-000 4 —
For a bar of uniform diameter 0-018 m, extension under a load of 40 kN
= « = 40 χ 103 χ 0-2 = Q - 0 0 0 3 m
9 5

2 9
- χ 0-018 x 79-6 χ 10
4
.'. ratio of strain energies = ratio of extensions for the same load
m 4
° - =1-012
0-000 395
2. A steel ball, radius r, has equal and parallel flats machined on opposite
#
sides so that the thickness across the faces is l 6r. Calculate the decrease in
thickness when an axial load W is applied to these faces.
Keferring to Fig. 1.18, ι \y
area of element

stress on element =

decrease in thickness of element

total decrease in thickness

nrE
3. A straight steel bar of uniform cross-section, 1 m long, rotates at 2 500
revJ min about an axis at mid-length perpendicular to the length of tine bar. Find
2
the maximum stress and total extension if Ε = 200 GN/m and steel den-
z
sity = 7-8 Mg/m . (U. Lond.)
Tensile force on element
= centrifugal force on part of bar to right of element, Fig. 1.19
2
= Mœ r
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 11

= 7-8 χ ΙΟ χ a χ (0-5 — sc) X (2 500 χ


3
χ ^_!1^N
\ 6 0 / 2
where a is the cross-sectional area
2
= 267·5α(0·25 - χ ) ΜΝ
The maximum stress is at the axis of rotation (i.e. where χ = 0)
267·5α χ 0-25 ββ O Û _ _ τ . 92
i.e. maximum stress = = 66-88 MN/m

1m

ί-
α*
FIG. 1.19

PI
Extension of element =
ÔÈ
6 2
_ 267-5 χ 10 a (0-25 - χ ) ax
9
α X 200 χ 10
3 2
= 1-338 X 10- (0-25 - x ) dx
r 0-5
3 2
Λ total extension = 2 χ 1-338 X 10~ (0-25 — x ) dx
Jο
3
= 0-229 Χ ΙΟ" m or 0-229 mm
9
4. Explain the meaning of the term 'efficiency of a riveted joint .
A cylindrical vessel having a diameter of 2 m is subjected to an internal
2
pressure of 1-25 MN/m . The vessel is made of steel plates 15 mm thick which
2
have an ultimate tensile strength of 450 MN/m . If the efficiencies of the
longitudinal and circumferential joints are 80 and 60 per cent respectivelyt
what is the factor of safety? (U. Lond.)
m , „ . „ . , , . . L . xl ^ strength of riveted joint
J
The efficiency of a riveted joint is the ratio —Λ— —·
strength oi undrilled plate
From equation (1.8), ac = pd
1-25 χ 2 2
= 104 MN/m
1
2 χ 0-015 χ 0-80
pd
From equation (1.10) a% = -f— pd
4tyc
1 - 25 X 2 2
= 69-5 MN/m
4 χ 0-015 X 0-60
450
Therefore factor of safety = Ϊ04 = 4-32
12 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

5. Derive an expression for the tensile strength of a thin rotating ring.


Find the greatest speed in rev/min for a rotor so that the stress due to rotation
2
does not exceed 120 MN/m . The rotor may be treated as equivalent to a ring
3
oflm mean diameter, and the material has a density of 7-S Mg/m .
(U. Lond.)

From equation (1.13), a — mv2


6
i.e. 120 χ ΙΟ = 7-8 χ 1 0 V
.'. ν = 124-2 m/s
_ ν 60
Λ Ν
~ r 2π
124-2 60 Λ Ο_

= Χ — = 2 370 rev/mm
0-5 2π
6. A brass rod 6 mm diameter and 1 m long is joined at one end to a rod of
steel 6 mm diameter and 1-3 m long. The compound rod is placed in a vertical
position with the steel rod at the top and connected top and bottom to rigid
fixings in such a way that it is carrying a tensile load of 3-5 kN.
An attachment is fixed at the junction of the two rods and to this a vertical
axial load of 1-3 kN is applied downwards. Calculate the stresses in the steel
and brass.
The temperature is then raised 30 deg C. What are the final stresses in the
steel and brass?
2
Es = 200 GN/m ;
6
a8 = 12 χ 10- /deg C;
2
Eh = 85 GN/m ;
ab 19 X 10- /deg C. (U. Lond.)
6
=
Let the forces in the steel and brass be P s and Steel 1-3m
Ph respectively, Fig. 1.20. Then, equating upward
and downward forces at the junction,
Ps=Ph + 1 300 .
The tension in the steel increases by (P s —
. (1) π
1-3 kN
1m
3 500) Ν and that in the brass decreases by Brass-
(3 500 - Ph) N. Since the overall length of the
77777,
rod remains unaltered, the increase in length of
the steel is equal to the decrease in length of FIG. 1.20

the brass,

(P s - 3 500) χ Z8 _ (3 500 - Ph) χ lb


i.e. (2)
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 13
Substituting for P s from equation (1), equation (2) becomes
1
( P b - 2 200) X — = (3 500
200 85
from which P b = 3 040 Ν and P s = 4 340 Ν
3 040
2 2
N/m = 107-5 MN/m
π Χ 0-006 2

4 340 2 2
and N/m = 153-5 MN/m
- χ 0-006
2

4
Let the compressive stress in the rod due to the increase in temperature
be a (which will be the same in the steel and brass since they both have the
same cross-sectional area). The reduction in overall length due to a must
be the same as the free expansion due to the temperature increase, since the
ends remain fixed,
σϊ8 olh
i.e ΕΛ Eh
1-3
( 1 - 3 x 1 2 x 1 0 - · + 1 X 1 9 Χ ΙΟ" )χ30
6

i.e 9 9
\ 2 0 0 x l 0 * 85xl0 y
2
from which a = 56-9 MN/m
2
Λ resultant stress in steel = 153-5 — 56-9 '= 96-6 MN/m
2
and the resultant stress in brass = 107-5 — 56-9 = 50-6 MN/m
7. Fig. 1.21 shows a round steel rod supported in a recess and surrounded
by a coaxial brass tube. The upper |
end of the rod is 0-1 mm below that 0-1 mm
of the tube and an axial load is
applied to a rigid plate resting on the
top of the tube. 30mm
(a) Determine the magnitude of the
maximum permissible load if the 45mrrJ
compressive stress in the rod is not to 3 0 0 mm 50mm
2
exceed 110 MN/m and that in the
2
tube is not to exceed 80 MN/m . -Brass
(b) Find the amount by which the
tube will be shortened by the load if , Steel
1
the compressive stress in the tube is -m
the same as that in the rod. 100 mm
2 J
£ 8 t e e l= 200GN/m ;
2
^braes = 100 GN/m . (U. Lond.) F i g . 1.21
14 S T R E N G T H OF M A T E R I A L S

The sum of the loads carried by the brass and steel is equal to the total
load,
i.e. P h + Ps = P

<jb Χ -(0-05 - 0-045 ) + σ3 X - χ 0-03 = Ρ


2 2 2
i.e.
4 4
i.e. 0-000 373 oh + 0-000 707 as = Ρ (1)
After the plate has made contact with the top of the rod, the compression
of the brass exceeds that of the rod by 0-000 1 m,
i.e. xh = x s -I- 0-000 1
ah Χ 0 - 3 _ σ 8 X 0-4*
9 9
100 χ 10 200 χ 10
ah = 0-667 σ 3 + 33-3 Χ 1 0 .
6
or . . (2)
2 2
The maximum stresses of 110 MN/m and 80 MN/m in the steel and
brass respectively will not occur simultaneously. Equation (2) shows that
2 2 2
if ah = 80 MN/m , σ 8 = 70 MN/m and if σ Β = 110 MN/m , ah = 106-7
2
MN/m . Hence the maximum permissible load is that which will produce
2 2
stresses of 80 MN/m and 70 MN/m in the brass and steel respectively.
Therefore, from equation (1),
6 6
Ρ = 0-000 373 χ 80 χ 10 + 0-000 707 χ 70 χ ΙΟ Ν = 79-33 kN
AVhen as = crb, equation (2) becomes
6 2
a b = 0-667 ah + 33-3 χ 10 N/m
2
from which ah = 100 MN/m
_ 100 χ ΙΟ X 0-3 _ q.qqq ^
6
o
r 0 . 3 m m
b 9
100 χ 10
8. A mass of 150 kg is suspended by three vertical wires. The two outer wires
2
are of steel and the middle one of aluminium, each of area 8 mm . The lengths
are adjusted so that each wire carries an equal share of the load. If the tempera-
ture is raised by 50 deg C, find the stresses in the wires.
Find also what rise of temperature would just cause the aluminium wire to
become slack.
Steel Aluminium
2
E(GN/m ) 210 70
12 X 10~ 24 X 10~
6 6
Coefficient of expansion per deg C
(U. Lond.)
Initial stress in steel = initial stress in aluminium
50 ν Q.ftl 2 2
= — ^ — —6 N/m 1 = 61-3 MN/m (tensile)
8 χ 10- / ν /
* Allowance for the 0 Ό 0 0 1 m in the original length of the rod will have a negligible
effect on the answers.
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 15
Let σ 8 and σ& be the stresses in the steel and aluminium respectively due
to the temperature rise only. Then
2a&as : σΛαΛ . from equation (1.17)

i.e. σα . . . . (1)
σΛ σΛ
Also I (24 - 12) χ ΙΟ- χ 50
6

210 χ ΙΟ
9
+ 70 χ ΙΟ
9

from equation (1.16)


2
from which 126 MN/m
2
Substituting for σ 8 from equation (1), £4-0 MN/m (compressive)
and MN/m (tensile)
2

resultant stress in aluminium =

and resultant stress in steel

2
When aluminium wire becomes slack, σ& = 61-3 MN/m (compressive).
Therefore, since o*a is proportional to the change in temperature,

temperature rise =

9. It is estimated that the loads to be carried by a lift may be dropped through


a distance of 100 mm on to the floor. The cage itself has a mass of 100 kg and it
is supported by 25 m of wire rope of mass 0-8 kg/m, consisting of 49 wires
each 1-6 mm diameter. The maximum stress in the wire is not to exceed 90
2 2
MN/m and Ε for the rope may be taken as 75 GN/m . Find the maximum
safe load that can be carried, neglecting loss of energy at impact. (U. Lond.)
Stress in wire due to dead weight of lift and rope
2 2
N/m - 12 MN/m
2
49 χ - χ 0-001 6
4
2
. stress due to falling load = 90— 12 = 78 MN/m
If M is the mass of the falling load, then, from equation (1.20),
2

0-1 + 7 8 χ 1 0 β ^9 5 \ =
ί^0·1
9-81M( (78Χ10Ψ
9
, 0-001 6 χ 25
75xl0 / 2x75xl0 4
from which M= 80-8 kg
16 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

10. A solid steel bar, 200 mm long, is 10 mm square over part of its length.
β 3
The remainder is circular, and alone has a volume of li: χ 10 ~ m . The bar
is subjected to a pull of 20 kN. Find the dimensions of the circular portion so
that the total strain energy may be a minimum, and find its value. Ε = 200
2
GN/m . (U. Lond.)
Let suffices 1 and 2 refer to the square and circular portions respectively,
Fig. 1.22.
Then
Λ 2 2
ax = _ 2 N/m = 200 MN/m
0-01
3
20 χ 10 N/m 2 0-08 2
and σ2 = MN/m
2
d

10 mm sq]

200mm
I
FIG. 1.22

u x r + r
= ï è - â * <

( Ί 2
nd
y
6
6
0-08 * 1 0 \
2

X 24
] X 24 X
χ 10-
e
10- j

But
π2 e
-d (0-2-x) = 24xl0-
4
6
2 96xl0-
Λ nd .
0-2-x
1_ 2
4 s x l 0 + | ^ ( 0 · 2 - ζ ) χ 1 0 | J xX2244xxl lO0 - « |
1 2 1 2 2


12
10 2
{lOOx - 16x + 4}
Ï2Ê
άϋ
For the strain energy to be a minimum, — = 0,
ax
i.e. 200x - 16 = 0
or χ = 0-08 m
Λ length of circular portion = 0-12 m
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 17

0-2-0-12
.·. d = 0-025 5 ra or 25-5 mm
12
ΙΟ 2
U = ———————{100χ0·08
β1 — 16χ 0Ό8 -j- 4}
12χ200χ10 '
= 1-4 J

11. The maximum safe compressive stress in a hardened steel punch is limited t o
2
1 G N / m and the punch is used to pierce circular holes in mild steel plate 2 0 m m
thick.
2
(a) I f the ultimate shearing stress of the plate is 3 0 0 M N / m , calculate the
smallest diameter of hole t h a t can be pierced.
(6) I f the effective length of the punch is 7 5 m m , calculate the m a x i m u m strain
energy stored in the punch during the piercing operation. Assume the modulus of
2
elasticity for the material of the punch to be 2 0 0 G N / m . ( Ans. : 2 4 m m ; 84·8 J )

d2

FIG. 1.23

12. Fig. 1.23 shows a knuckle joint in a tie bar. Allowing stresses of 1 0 5 , 7 5
2
and 150 M N / m for tension, shearing and bearing respectively, obtain suitable
dimensions for Z), dv t and d2 if the load on the rod is 125 kN.
(Ans.: 39 m m ; 32-5 m m ; 12-8 m m ; 79 m m )
13. A steel bar 4 0 m m diameter and 4 m long is raised in temperature through
60 deg C, after which its ends a r e firmly secured. After cooling t o normal tem-
perature again, the length of the b a r is found t o be 1-2 m m less t h a n when a t its
highest temperature. Determine the t o t a l pull exerted by the cold b a r and the
2
intensity of stress in it. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m a n d α = 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 / d e g C.
2
(Ana.: 9 0 - 5 k N ; 72 M N / m )
14. A mild steel rod, 6 0 0 m m long, is 2 5 m m in diameter for 150 m m of its
length and 5 0 m m for the rest of its length. I t carries an axial tensile pull of
18 kN. W i t h the axial pull applied, the ends of the rod a r e secured by rigid fixings.
F i n d the temperature through which t h e rod must be raised t o reduce the axial
e 2
pull by two thirds. a 8 te e l = 11 X 1 0 " / d e g C; Ε steel = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(4ws.;4/degC)
15. A uniform rectangular slab of concrete, 2-5 m by 1-5 m, of mass 1 2 0 0 kg
rests on vertical columns a t the four corners. One of these columns m a y be
regarded as rigid and the others as three identical columns of the same length,
cross-section and elasticity. Assuming t h a t the slab m a y be treated as rigid and
18 STRENGTH OF M A T E R I A L S

t h a t it remains sensibly horizontal when the elastic columns are slightly coin-
pressed under load, determine the reaction a t each support. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3 924 Ν ; 3 924 Ν; 1 962 Ν ; 1 962 Ν )
16. A flat steel bar, 10 m long and 10 m m thick tapers from 60 m m a t one end
to 2 0 m m a t the other. Determine the change in length of the bar when a tensile
2
force Ρ = 12 kN is acting along its axis. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1-648 m m )
17. A boiler shell, 2 m mean diameter, is constructed of steel plate having an
2
ultimate tensile strength of 4 5 0 M N / m . I f the thickness of the shell plates is
20 mm, calculate the maximum internal gauge pressure to which the boiler m a y
be subjected, assuming a factor of safety of 6 and a longitudinal joint efficiency of
2
80 per cent. (Ans.: 1-2 M N / m )
18. Derive formulae to give the longitudinal and circumferential tensions in a
thin boiler shell, stating the assumptions made in your argument.
A cylindrical compressed air drum is 2 m in diameter with plates 12-5 m m thick.
The efficiencies of the longitudinal and circumferential joints are respectively 8 5
2
and 4 5 % . I f the tensile stress in the plating is t o be limited to 100 M N / m , find
2
the maximum safe air pressure, (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-063 M N / m )
19. Derive an expression for the tensile stress in a thin spherical shell of thick-
ness t and internal diameter d when subjected to an internal pressure p.
A thin spherical pressure vessel is required to contain 18 0 0 0 1 of water a t a
2
gauge pressure of 700 k N / m . Assuming the efficiency of all riveted joints t o be
75 per cent, determine the diameter of the vessel and the thickness of the plate.
2
The stress in the material must not exceed 140 M N / m . (Ans. 3·248 m ; 5-41 m m )
20. Derive a formula for the hoop stress in a thin cylinder having a mean radius
R and made of material of density m when rotating a t ω r a d / s about its axis.
W h a t is the most important assumption you make?
Apply this theory to find the maximum allowable speed in r e v / m i n for a fly-
wheel 1 -25 m external diameter and 5 0 m m thick. The material has a density of
3 2
7-3 M g / m and the hoop stress is limited to 2 0 M N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 834 r e v / m i n )
21. Deduce an expression for the centrifugal stress induced in a thin rotating
rim.
A thin rim 1-5 m mean diameter rotates a t 6 0 0 rev/min. The cross-section of
the rim is rectangular, 125 mm χ 12-5 m m thick, and the density of t h e material
3
of which it is constructed is 7-8 M g / m . Calculate the stress and force produced
2
in the rim. (Ans.: 17-34 M N / m ; 27-15 k N )
22. A thin rim, 1-5 m diameter and 150 m m wide, is made of steel plate 12-5 m m
thick. The rim is made in two halves with the joints parallel t o the axis. Determine
the centrifugal stress produced in the material a t a speed of 4 2 0 r e v / m i n . Density
3
of steel = 7-8 M g / m .
The two halves are fastened by three bolts on each side of each joint. The bolts
are 2 0 m m diameter and are in single shear. Determine the shear stress in each
2 2
bolt when the rim is rotating a t 4 2 0 rev/min. (Ans.: 8-5 M N / m ; 16-9 M N / m )
23. State Hooke's Law. Comment briefly on its limitations.
A straight rod of steel, 1 m long, of constant section, rotates a t 1 2 0 0 r e v / m i n
about an axis a t one end, perpendicular to its length. Calculate (a) the m a x i m u m
3 2
stress in the rod, (b) the extension. Density of steel = 7-8 M g / m ; Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 61-65 M N / m ; 0-205 5 m m )
24. Two elastic rods, A and B , of equal free length hang vertically 0-6 m a p a r t
and support a rigid bar horizontally. The bar remains horizontal when a vertical
2
load of 6 0 kN is applied t o the bar 0-2 m from A. I f the stress in A is 100 M N / m ,
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN 19
2
find the stress in Β and the cross-sectional areas of the two rods ; Ε A = 2 0 0 G N / m ;
2 2 2 2
Ε Β = 130 G N / m . (I.CE.) (Ans.: 6 5 M N / m ; 4 0 0 m m ; 307-5 m m )

25. A wire strand consists of a steel wire 2-7 m m diameter, covered by six bronze
2
wires each of 2-5 m m diameter. The tensile modulus for the steel is 2 0 0 G N / m
2
and for the bronze 8 5 G N / m .
2
I f the working stress for the bronze is 6 0 M N / m , calculate the strength of the
strand, also the equivalent tensile modulus for the complete strand. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 2 5 7 5 Ν ; 104 G N / m )
26. A round steel bar, 2 8 m m diameter and 4 0 0 m m long, is placed concentric-
ally within a brass tube which has an outside diameter of 4 0 m m and an inside
diameter of 3 0 m m ; the length of the tube exceeds t h a t of the bar by 0-12 m m .
Rigid plates are placed on the ends of the tube through which an axial compressive
force is applied t o the compound bar. Determine the compressive stresses in the
2 2
bar and tube due t o a force of 6 0 kN. Esteei = 2 0 0 G N / m ; ^brasa = 100 G N / m .
2 2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 48-2 M N / m ; 54-1 M N / m )

27. A steel bolt, 2 0 m m external diameter, is inserted into a copper sleeve,


21 m m internal and 27 m m external diameter, one end of the tube being in contact
with the shoulder of the bolt-head. A rigid washer is placed on the other end of
the sleeve and a nut is screwed on the bolt until the compressive stress in the
2
sleeve is 8 0 M N / m . I t m a y be assumed t h a t the washer slides freely on the end
of the sleeve and consequently t h a t torsional stresses are negligible. F i n d the range
of external axial load t h a t can be applied t o the assembly if the stress in the sleeve
2
is never t o be zero and t h a t in the bolt never t o be compressive. Osteel = 2 0 0 G N / m ;
90 2
^copper = G N / m . (17. Lond.)
(Ans.: 8 0 k N (tensile) t o 19-5 kN (compressive))
2
28. A steel rod of 3 2 0 m m cross-sectional area and a coaxial copper tube of
2
800 m m cross-sectional area, a r e rigidly bonded together a t their ends. An axial
compressive load of 4 0 kN is applied to the composite bar, and the temperature
is then raised by 100 deg C.
Determine the stresses then existing in both steel and copper. The moduli of
2 2
elasticity for steel and copper a t 2 0 0 G N / m and 100 G N / m , and the coefficients
_ e e
of linear expansion 12 χ 1 0 / d e g C and 16 χ 1 0 ~ / d e g C respectively. (I.O.E.)
2 2
(Ans.: 11-11 M N / m ; 45-55 M N / m , both compressive)
29. A copper tube of mean diameter 120 m m , and 6-5 m m thick, has its open
ends sealed by two rigid plates connected by two steel bolts of 2 5 m m diameter,
initially tensioned t o 2 0 kN a t a temperature of 30°C, thus forming a pressure
vessel. Determine the stresses in the copper a n d steel a t freezing point, and the
temperature a t which the vessel would cease t o be pressure tight.
2 e
Osteel = 2 0 0 G N / m ; a s teel = 11 X 1 0 " / d e g C.
2 e
^copper = 100 G N / m ; a C Opper = 18 χ 1 0 " / d e g C. (Ü. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 7-0 M N / m ; 17-4 M N / m ; - 2 2 - 4 ° C )
30. A bar of brass 2 5 m m diameter is enclosed in a steel tube 5 0 m m external
diameter and 2 5 m m internal diameter. The b a r and tube are both initially 1 m
long and are rigidly fastened together a t both ends. Find the stresses in the two
materials when the temperature rises from 15°C t o 95°C.
I f the composite b a r is then subjected t o an axial tensile load of 5 0 kN, find
the resulting stresses and the increase in length from the initial s t a t e .
2 e
Osteel = 2 0 0 G N / m ; a s t ee i = 11-6 X 1 0 " / d e g C.
2 e
^brass = 100 G N / m ; a b r as s = 18-7 X 1 0 ~ / d e g C. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 48-7 M N / m (comp); 16-23 M N / m (tensile); 34-17 M N / m (comp);
2
45-3 M N / m (tensile); 1-115 m m )
20 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

31. A steel tie-rod 2 5 m m diameter is placed concentrically in a brass tube


3 mm thick and 60 m m mean diameter. Nuts and washers are fitted on the tie-rod
so t h a t the ends of the tube are enclosed by the washers. The nuts are initially
2
tightened t o give a compressive stress of 30 M N / m in the tube, and a tensile
load of 4 5 kN is then applied t o the tie-rod. Assuming the rod and tube t o have
the same effective length, find the resultant stresses in the tie-rod and tube;
(i) when there is no change of temperature ; (ii) when the temperature increases by
60 deg C.
2 5
Osteel = 2 0 0 G N / m ; a s teel = M X 1 0 " / d e g C.
2 5
^brass = 80 G N / m ; a br a s s = 1-89 x 1 0 " / d e g C. (U. Land.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 97-2 M N / m (tensile); 4-9 M N / m (comp); 127-1 M N / m (tensile);
2
30-9 M N / m (comp))
32. A wagon, of mass 5 1 , is a t t a c h e d t o a steel wire rope, the other end of which
is wound round a brake drum. The wagon is descending a slope a t a uniform speed
of 5 k m / h and the rope is t a u t . B y the action of the brake the drum is suddenly
stopped and the wagon is brought t o rest. I f the length of the rope between t h e
wagon and the drum a t t h a t instant was 2 5 0 m and its cross-sectional area is
2 2
300 m m , find the m a x i m u m stress in the rope. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 160 M N / m )
33. A bar of certain material, 4 0 m m diameter and 1-2 m long, has a collar
securely fitted t o one end. I t is suspended vertically with the collar a t the lower
end and a mass of 2 0 0 0 kg is gradually lowered on t o the collar, producing an
extension in the bar of 0-25 mm. F i n d the height from which this load could be
2
dropped on t o the collar if the maximum tensile stress in the bar is t o be 1 0 0 M N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 3-58 m m )
34. A bar 10 m m diameter and 3 m long is fixed a t the top and hangs vertically.
A t the lower end is fixed a disc and on t o this disc a mass of 10 kg is allowed t o fall
freely through a distance of 5 0 mm. Calculate the maximum stress induced in the
2
rod, stating a n y assumptions made and proving a n y formula used. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 92-5 M N / m )
35. A steel wire 2-5 mm diameter is firmly held in a clamp from which it hangs
vertically. An anvil, the weight of which m a y be neglected, is secured t o the wire
1 m below the clamp. The wire is t o be tested by allowing a mass bored t o slide
over the wire t o drop freely from 0-5 m above the anvil. Calculate the mass
2
required t o stress the wire to 1-2 G N / m assuming the wire t o be elastic to this
2
stress. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 3-56 kg)

36. Define Resilience. Show how t o calculate the resilience in a rod of uniform
section under a uniform direct stress.
A vertical tie, rigidly fixed a t the top end, consists of a steel rod 2-5 m long and
2 0 m m diameter encased throughout in a brass tube 2 0 m m internal diameter and
2 5 m m external diameter. The rod and casing are fixed together a t both ends.
The compound rod is suddenly loaded in tension by a mass of 1 Mg falling freely
through 3 m m before being arrested by the tie. Calculate the m a x i m u m stresses in
2 2
the steel and brass. E&tee\ = 2 0 0 G N / m ; #brass = 100 G N / m . (U. Land.)
2 2
(Ans.: 135 M N / m ; 67-5 M N / m )
CHAPTER 2

S H E A R I N G F O R C E A N D B E N D I N G MOMENT

2.1 Shearing force and bending moment. The shearing force at a


section of a beam is the algebraic sum of all the forces to one side of the
section.
The bending moment at a section of a beam is the algebraic sum of the
moments of all the forces to one side of the section.
At the point Ρ in the cantilever shown in Fig. 2.1(a), the shearing force
is W1 + W2i which is tending to shear
the beam as shown in Fig. 2.1(6). This is * 1

opposed by the shearing resistance of the * 2 , \Wo

part of the beam to the left of P. (a)


The bending moment at the point Ρ is •p
Wxxx + W^, which is tending to bend

i ι
+ w 2
the beam as shown in Fig. 2.1(c). This
is opposed by the bending resistance of J (b)
the part of the beam to the left of P.
In the case of the simply supported
beam shown in Fig. 2.2, the shearing force
at Ρ is either Rx — Wx or W2 — R2. (c)
These terms are equal since, equating
upward and downward forces on the FIG. 2.1
beam,
^ + R2 = W! + W2.
The bending moment at Ρ is either
Rxa — Wxxx or R2b — W2x2. These terms « - μ —
£

are equal since, equating clockwise I

and anticlockwise moments about P,


Rxa + W2x2 = R2b + Wxxx. FIG. 2.2

It is evident that it is immaterial which side of the section is chosen for


the calculation of the shearing force or bending moment. When calculating
the bending moment due to a distributed load, the part of the load to one
side of the section may be considered as a concentrated load acting at the
centre of gravity of that part.
If the bending moment at a section of a beam changes sign, that point
is called a point of inflexion or contra-flexure.
Sign convention. I f the resultant force to the right of a section is
upward (or to the left is downward), this will be regarded as a positive shear-
ing force and the opposite kind of shearing will be regarded as negative,
Fig. 2.3(a).
21
22 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

If the resultant bending moment to the right of a section is clockwise (or


to the left is anticlockwise), this will be regarded as a positive bending
moment and the opposite kind of bending will be regarded as negative,
Fig. 2.3(6). Thus a positive bending moment bends the beam convex up-
ward and a negative bending moment bends it convex downward.*

Ï χ Positive /r— —^ \ Positive


f
> * shearing Π J bending

-% Negative \ Negative
shearing bending

(a) (b)

FIG. 2.3

2.2 Shearing force and bending m o m e n t d i a g r a m s . These are


diagrams which show the value of
the shearing force and bending ι
moment at all points along a beam.
The most common cases are as
follows :
(a) Cantilever with concentrated W (-ve) S.R
end load, W, Fig. 2.4:
S.F. at Ρ = —W B.M.
B.M. at Ρ = Wx
F L G
Maximum S.F. = -W - 2.4
Maximum B.M. = Wl
(b) Cantilever with uniformly distributed load, w per unit length, Fig. 2.5:
S.F. at Ρ = —wx
X Iw/unit length μ
B.M. at Ρ = wx.-~
2
2
w x
S.F.

Maximum S.F. = —wl


2
wl
Maximum B.M. = — FIG. 2.5

* The a d v a n t a g e s of this convention a r e :


(a) I f the B.M. diagram is drawn directly on the beam, the diagram is on the tension
flange, which corresponds with the usual structural convention ;

(b) Minus signs are avoided in the relation ιυ = ~ = %^ a n d in all deflection


dar a a r*
formula© (Chap. 5 ) .
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 23
(c) Simply supported beam with central concentrated load, W, Fig. 2.6:
W
S.F. at Ρ W
til
B.M. at Ρ :

(+ve)
3r
w
Maximum S.F. WT (-ve)
2
2 L
i f !_ B.M.
Maximum B.M.
2~*2
Wl
FIG. 2 . 6
4
(d) Simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load, w per unit
length, Fig. 2.7:
wl
S.F. at Ρ I - — x \ = wx
2 '
wl
B.M. at Ρ
~~2

w/unit length Ϊ

Maximum S.F. = ---


Δ

wl?
Maximum B.M. = —
8
Where both concentrated and
B.M.
distributed loads act on a beam,
the S.F. and B.M. may be calcu- a F j2i

lated separately for each type of


loading and added together algebraically or they may be calculated directly
for all the loads acting together.
2.3 Relation between intensity of loading, shearing force and
bending moment. Consider a short length, dx, of a beam, Fig. 2.8, carrying
a uniformly distributed load w per unit length. Over this length, let the
shear force change from F to F + dF and the bending moment change
from M to M + dM.
Equating vertical forces on the element,
F+wdx = F+àF
àF
or (2.1)
dx
Β
24 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Taking moments about the right-hand end of the element,

M + Fdx+w dx.— = M+dM


2
i.e. F dx= dM, ignoring the second order

_ dM
i.e. F •- (2.2)
da:
k
F+äF

; (
M

à
,* -
F ι
FIG. 2.8

Thus intensity of loading is the rate of change of shearing force and


shearing force is the rate of change of bending moment. This latter relation
shows that the maximum bending moment occurs where the shearing force
is zero.*
Combining equations (2.1) and (2.2),
w _dF_ dHl
2
dx dx
2.4 Graphical construction of S.F. and B.M. d i a g r a m s . To con-
struct the S.F. and B.M. diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. 2.9(a), first
letter the spaces using Bow's Notation and then draw the load line bed,
Fig. 2.9(6), so that be = W2 and cd = Wv Project across from the points
b, c and d to form part of the S.F. diagram.
Choose any pole ο and join ob, oc and od. Across space B , Fig. 2.9(c),
draw a line parallel to ob, across space C a line parallel to oc and across
space D a line parallel to od. Join the two ends to complete the B.M.
diagram. Draw through ο a line parallel to this closing line to obtain the
point a and then project across from a to complete the S.F. diagram.
The vertical ordinate at any point in the B.M. diagram represents the
B.M. at that point. This diagram may be corrected to a horizontal baseline
* This relation gives the position of the mathematical maximum bending moment,
i.e. the point at which the tangent to the bending moment diagram is horizontal. In
many cases there is no such point and the position of the greatest bending moment must
be found by inspection. In other cases, such as with an overhanging load, the mathe-
matical maximum is not necessarily the greatest bending moment (see E x . 2 ) .
Under a 'point' load, such as in Fig. 2 . 6 , the load must actually be distributed over
a short length of the beam. The vertical line in the S . F . diagram should therefore have
a slight slope and the apex of the B.M. diagram should be rounded, the point of zero
elope corresponding with the point a t which the S . F . diagram cuts the base line.
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 25
by drawing through a a horizontal line ao! and then reconstructing the
B.M. diagram from this new pole.

D Λ
2
Β (a)
A
! 1*2

(b) S.F.

i d B.M.

FIG. 2.9

For a distributed load, Fig. 2.10(a), divide the load into strips (not
necessarily of equal width) and replace the load in each strip by a concen-
trated load of the same magnitude, acting through the centre of gravity of
that strip. Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams, Figs. 2.10(6) and (c) respec-
tively, for these concentrated loads as before. Project the bounding lines
of the strips to intersect the approximate diagrams obtained. The points of
intersection with these diagrams then give points on the true S.F. and
B.M. diagrams, which can then be connected by a smooth curve.

FIG. 2.10

Scales. The scale for the S.F. diagram is the same as the load scale.
If k = 1 m, the load scale is 1 m = ρ Ν and the length scale is
1 m = q m, then the B.M. scale is 1 m = pq Nm. If k = 2 m, the slope of
the lines in the diagram are halved and hence the scale is 1 m = 2pq Nm.
Thus in general, 1 m = kpq Nm.
26 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

1. A beam 4 m long is simply supported over a span of 2m and overhangs


both supports by the same amount. The right-hand overhanging portion carries
a uniformly distributed load of 80 kN/m and a concentrated load of 20 kN
at the extreme end; the left-hand overhanging portion carries a uniformly dis-
tributed load o/40 kN/m and a concentrated load o/30 kN at the extreme end;
in addition a load of 160 kN is concentrated at mid-span.
Draw to scale the shear force and bending moment diagrams and find how
much may be added to the load at mid-span without increasing the maximum
bending moment on the beam. (U. Lond.)

Taking moments about R2i Fig. 2.11(a),


30 χ 3 + 40 χ 2-5 + 160 χ 1 = 2ÄX + 20 χ 1 + 80 χ 0-5
Λ Äjl = 145 kN
Λ R2 = 185 kN
The S.F. diagram is shown in Fig. 2.11(6).
B.M. at Rx = 30 χ 1 + 40 χ 0-5
= 50 kNm
B.M. at R2 = 20 χ 1 + 80 χ 0-5
= 60 kNm
B.M. at centre = 30 X 2 + 40 X 1-5 - 145 X 1
= - 2 5 kNm

4m
30kN 20kN
40kN/m 8
)kN/m
ι <
1m__ J 1m 1m
κ,
*2

FIG. 2.11
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 27
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 2.11(c).
If an additional load W is added at the centre, the bending moments at
the supports remain unchanged. The reactions are each increased by W/2,
so that the central B.M. is increased by

- 1 X - = —0-bW kN m
2
Therefore, when the central B.M. is increased to equal (numerically) the
B.M. at the right-hand support,
25 + 0-bW = 60
Λ W = 70 kN

2. A horizontal beam AB, 8 m long, carries a total uniformly distributed


load of 300 kN. The beam is supported at the end A and at a point C distant χ
from the other end B. Determine the value of χ if the mid-point of the beam is
to be a point of inflexion, and for this arrangement draw the S.F. and B.M.
diagrams, indicating the principal numerical values on each. (U. Lond.)
m 8
ι-M
\ *

D
!• x
•!
125

(bi

(c)

FIQ. 2.12

Taking moments about C, Fig. 2.12(a),


Ä a(8 -x)= 300(4 x)

kN
28 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

B.M. at centre = -300i X 4 + 150 χ 2


(s-x)
= 0
if the centre is to be a point of inflexion.
χ = 8/3 m

= 3 ( x / t — i \ = 75 kN

300 (*)• 400


B.M. at C : x kNm
"8" Ύ "
2
^ ο , 300 2
and B.M. at centre of AD = - 7 5 X 2 + - X -

= - 7 5 kNm
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs. 2.12(6) and (c).
3. A beam ABC is continuous over two spans, being supported as shown in
Fig. 2.13(a). A hinge, capable of transmitting shearing force but not bending
moment, is placed at the centre of span AB. The loading consists of a distri-
buted load, of total weight 20 kN, spread over the span AB, and a concentrated
load of 30 kN at the centre of span BC. Sketch the shearing force and bending
moment diagrams, indicating the magnitude of all important values.
(I.C.E.)
Uniformly distributed
30kN
1 D Β C
(a)
^ P^Hinge 4.I
'6m 3 Λ
15

i 5
I (b)

!
25
v30

ι-75
Fie. 2.13
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 29
The section of the beam AD is simply supported at A and D and hence
exerts a downward force of 5 kN on DBC at the point D.
Considering the section DBC as a simply supported beam with the over-
hanging portion carrying a concentrated load of 5 kN at D in addition to
the distributed load, the reaction at C is given by
Rc X 3 + 5 χ 3 + 10 χ 1-5 = 30 χ 1-5,
taking the moments about B ,
Λ Rc = 5 kN
.·. Rb = 45 - 5
= 40 kN
B.M. at 30-kN load = - 5 X 1-5
= - 7 - 5 kNm
B.M. at Β = - 5 χ 3 + 30 χ 1-5
= 30 kNm
B.M. at centre of AD = —5 χ 1-5 + 5 X 0-75
= - 3 - 7 5 kN m
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs. 2.13(6) and (c).

4. A girder 10 m long, carrying a uniformly distributed load of w Ν /m, is


to be supported on two piers 6 m apart so that the greatest bending moment on
the girder shall be as small as possible. Find the distances of the piers from the
ends of the girder and the maximum bending moment. (U. Lond.)

Let the positions of the reactions


be as shown in Fig. 2.14.

Then B.M. at £ a =

and B.M. at R2

Taking moments about R2,

B.M. at a section distance χ from L.H. end


WX* /ι ι \/ \

= — - -w(l + a)(x - a)
30 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The maximum B.M. between supports occurs when


d i A
= o
dx
5
i.e. when χ = -(1 + α)
ο

,'. maximum B.M. between supports

= Α«,(1 + α ) ( α - 5 )

For the greatest B.M. on the beam to be as small as possible,


B.M. at supports = maximum B.M. between supports

i.e. ^ = - [ ^ 1 + «)(«,-5)]*
2
from which 14a — 10a — 15 = 0
i.e. a = 2-23 m
2
2·23
.·. Mm&x = w χ ——2 =— 2486m;
— —————Ν—
——m

5. A beam, 8 m long, is simply supported at two points and haded with two
concentrated loads, two uniformly distributed loads and a couple, as shown in
Fig. 2.15(a). Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams. (U. Lond.)
Taking moments about Rl9
25 x 2 x 5 + 50 x 2 x 7 + 40 x 4 + 10 x 6
= 6Ä 2 + 100
.·. R2 = 178-5 kN
Λ Rx = 200 - 178-5
= 21-5 kN
B.M. at R2 = 50 χ 2 χ 1 = 100 kN m
B.M. at 40-kN load = 50 x 2 x 3 + 25 x 2 x 1 - 168-5 χ 2
= 13 kN m
B.M. immediately to left of couple
= -21-5 χ 2
= - 4 3 kN m
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs. 2.15(6) and (c).
Note that there is no discontinuity in the S.F. diagram at the point of
application of the couple but the shape of the diagram is affected by it due
to its effect on the reactions.
In going from right to left of the point of application of the couple, there
is a sudden change in B.M. of —100 kN m,
* T h e Β.Μ.Θ a t these points are of opposite sign.
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 31

40kN ,10kN
50kN/m
J (a)

(b)

(c)

FIG. 2.15

6. A brake cross-shaft is carried at its ends in short bearings 4 m apart


which may be assumed to give point support Atlm from one end, it carries a
horizontal arm 1*5 m long which is subject to a vertical force of 2 kN at its free
end, and at 1 m from the other end of the cross-shaft there is a vertical arm 1 m
long, to the free end of which is attached a horizontal rod which actuates the
brake gear.
Draw the resultant bending moment diagram for the shaft and calculate the
position and magnitude of the least bending moment between the arms.
(U. Lond.)
The arrangement is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2.16. For rotational
equilibrium,
Ρ χ 1 = 2 χ 1-5
.\P=3kN r 1[ m2
2kN
In the vertical plane, Fig. 2.17,
Vx = 0-5 kN
and V2 = 1-5 kN FIG. 2.16

Therefore at a distance χ from the L.H. end,


M = 0 5 x kN m for 0 < χ < 3 m
and M = 1-5(4 — x) kN m for 3 < χ < 4 m
32 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

In the horizontal plane, Fig. 2.18,


Ηλ = 2-25 kN
and H2 = 0-75 kN
3kN
2kN

Ί-SkN m 2-25kN m
FIG. 2.17 FIG. 2.18

Therefore at a distance χ from the L.H. end,


Μ = 2-25z kN m for 0 < χ < 1 m
and M = 0-75(4 - x) kN m for 1 < χ < 4 m
Therefore, for 0 < χ < 1 m,
V(0-5z) + (2-25z)
2 2
resultant B.M.
= 2-305z kN m
For 1 < χ < 3 m,
resultant B.M. = V(0-5z) + 0·75 (4 -
2 2 2
χ)
2
= 0·25λ/13ζ - 72z + 144 kN m
For 3 < χ < 4 m,
resultant B.M. = V l - 5 ( 4 χ) + 0·75 (4 -
2 2 2 2
χ)
·= 1-678(4- χ) kNm
The resultant B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 2.19.
The minimum B.M. between the arms occurs when

1(13** 72s + 144) = 0 2·305


ax 1-678
i.e. when χ = 2-77 m
Λ Mmin = 0-25V44-2
= 1-662 kNm
7. A beam ABC is 8 m long and simply
supported at A and B, 6 m apart. A trian-
gularly distributed load acts on the span FIG. 2.19
AB, varying linearly in intensity from 0 at
A to 30 JcN/m at Bf and a concentrated load of 10 kN acts at C
Sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams, giving critical
values, and determine the position and magnitude of the maximum bending
moment. (I.C.E.)
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 33
Fig. 2.20(a) shows the loading system on the beam. Taking moments
about B ,
(i χ 6 x 30) χ i χ 6 = 6Ä + 10 χ 2a

80.
kN

and Ä bb = 1 0 0 - ^ = ^ ° k N
3 3
30kN/m

26-67

At a section distance χ from A,

S.F. = -wx — R* a
2
1 Χ Λ/"ν 80 5 80
kN
= - X - X 3 0 x r
2 6
B.M. = χ - — R&x
2 3
34 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

1 £ 0. X 80 bx, ν Ο. Λ
= - X - x 3 0 x x x -
2 0
a; = —(z V — 32) kN m
2 6 3 3 6 '
The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in Figs. 2.20(6) and (c).
The maximum B.M. occurs when the S.F. = 0,
i.e. when χ = 3-267 m
5 2
A M m a x= - A | ^ ! ( 3 . 2 6 7 - 32)

= - 5 8 - 1 kNm

8. Fig. 2.21(a) shows the curve of upward distributed water pressure re-
action on a pontoon. This reaction is uniformly distributed over the central
9 m and decreases to zero at the two ends, the equation of this curve being
2
y = lex , where k is a constant.
The pontoon carries a uniformly distributed load of 50 hN/m run over the
central 7 m.
Sketch the S.F. and B.M. diagrams due to this loading and find the maximum
values of S.F. and B.M. (U. Lond.)
If ρ is the uniform upward force per metre on the central part of the
pontoon,

i.e.
total upthrust =
50 χ 7 :
9p + 2 χ fχ 3p
Up
.". V- 26-9 kN/m
Upthrust on parabolic part of curve = 26-9 - kx
2

When i = 3 m , upthrust = 0, Λ k _ 26-9


9~
2
Λ intensity of loading, w = -26.9(l-| )

w Ax = - 2 6 - 9 / χ + A
\
When χ = 3 m, F = 0, :.A = 26-9 X 2
;.F = -26-9^ -
27
M =

= - 226 6- 9-( ^9- ^ - ^ - 2 x ^ + 5


= \2 108 /
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 35

When χ = 3 m, M = 0,
.·. Β = 26-9 χ 2-25

.·. M= —26-9, 'x* χ* 2χ + 2-25


1

Λ ~ ÏÔ8

S.F. at A : - 2 6 - 9 χ - 2 7m
53-8 kN 50kN/m
S.F. at Β = 53-8 + 26-9 X 1
80-7 kN
B.M. at A : - 2 6 - 9 χ 2-25
- 6 0 - 6 kNm
B.M. at Β = - 6 0 - 6 - 53-8 X 1
2
l
- 26-9 X -
-127-85 kNm
B.M. at C = 60-6 - 53-8 X 4-5
2
4-δ
- 26-9 X
2~
2
3-δ
+ 50x
2
269-1 kNm

The S.F. and B.M. diagrams are


shown in Figs. 2.21(6) and (c).

9. A beam 9 m long is freely supported


over a span of 7 m and overhangs the
right-hand support 2 m. I t carries a
uniformly distributed load of 2 5 k N / m to-
gether with loads of 150 kN, 7 0 kN and
120 k N concentrated a t 3 m, 5 m and 8 m
respectively from t h e left-hand support.
Draw t o scale t h e S . F . a n d B . M . dia-
grams and calculate the value of the maxi-
'269-1
mum B.M. (U. Land.)
(Ans.: 394-2 kN m under 150 kN load) FIG. 2.21

10. A beam A B C D , 10 m in length, is simply supported a t Β and C, which are


5 m apart, and overhangs the support Β by 3 m. The overhanging p a r t A B carries
a total load of 180 kN, uniformly distributed, and the p a r t B D carries a total load
of 2 1 0 kN uniformly distributed. Draw t o scale the S . F . and B.M. diagrams for
the beam. Calculate the position and magnitude of the least value of the B.M.
between the supports. (Î7. Land.) (Ans.: 41-85 k N m a t 1-1 m from C)
36 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

11. A beam A B C D is simply supported a t Β and C, 6 m apart, and the over-


hanging parts A B and CD are 2 m and 4 m long respectively. The beam carries
a uniformly distributed load of 6 0 k N / m between A and C and there is a con-
centrated load of 4 0 k N a t D.
Draw t o scale the S.F. and B.M. diagrams. Calculate the position and magnitude
of the m a x i m u m B.M. between Β and C. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 130 k N m a t 2-89 m from B )

12. A horizontal beam is 16 m long, has supports 10 m a p a r t , the overhangs


being 2 m and 4 m a t the left and right-hand ends respectively. The beam supports
vertical loads of 6 0 kN a t the left and 8 0 k N a t the right extremity, with a uni-
formly spread load of 15 k N / m over the whole length. Draw t o scale diagrams
of S.F. and B.M., giving m a x i m u m values and stating where these operate.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 140 k N a t R . H . support; 4 4 0 k N m a t R . H . support)

13. A log of wood 5 m in length and of square cross-section 0-4 m by 0-4 m


rendered impervious t o water, floating in a horizontal position in fresh water, is
loaded a t the centre with a weight just sufficient t o immerse it completely. Plot,
on squared paper, careful diagrams of S.F. and B.M., stating their m a x i m u m
values. Take the specific gravity of wood as 0-8. (U. Lond.) .
(Ans. : 7 8 5 Ν a t centre ; 98£ Ν m a t centre)

14. A beam 2-4 m long is simply supported a t one end and a t a point 0-6 m
from the other. The beam carries a series of point loads a t intervals of 0-2 m
starting 0 4 m from the overhanging end with a load of 5 Ν and increasing by
increments of 5 Ν to a load of 6 0 N. In addition there is a uniformly distributed
load of 4 0 N / m . F i n d the position and magnitude of the maximum B.M.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 91*35 Ν m a t 0-768 m from simply supported end)

15. A horizontal beam AD, 10 m long, carries a uniformly distributed load of


200 N / m run, together with a concentrated load of 5 0 0 Ν a t the left-hand end A.
The beam is supported a t a point Β which is 1 m from A and a t C which is in the
right-hand half of the beam and x m from the end D.
Determine the value of a; if the mid-point of the beam is a point of inflexion
(or contra-flexure) and for this arrangement draw the B.M. diagram, indicating the
principal numerical values.
L o c a t e a n y other points of inflexion. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3 m ; 6 0 0 and 9 0 0 Ν m a t supports, 156-25 Ν m a t 3-75 m from A;
2-5 m from A )
16. A beam is 10 m long and carries a uniformly distributed load of 15 k N / m
over its whole length. F i n d from first principles the position of two supports t o
keep the maximum B.M. on the beam as low as possible. Give the corresponding
m a x i m u m S.F. and m a x i m u m B.M. acting on the beam. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 2-07 m from each end; 43-95 k N ; 32-2 k N / m )
17. Two slings are t o be used in raising a newly-cast reinforced concrete pile of
length I and uniform cross-section, the pile remaining horizontal during the lift.
Determine the most suitable positions for the slings and sketch t h e S . F . and
B.M. diagrams. I t m a y be assumed t h a t t h e damage t o the pile due t o the S.F. is
negligible and t h a t faüure would be by bending of the pile under its own weight.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-207 I from ends)

18. A beam A B , 10 m long, carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 0 k N / m


run, together with concentrated loads of 5 0 k N a t the left-hand end A and 8 0 kN
a t the end B . The beam is t o be supported on the two props a t t h e same level, 6 m
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 37
a p a r t , so t h a t the reaction is the same on each. Determine the position of the beam
and draw diagrams of B.M. and S . F . S t a t e t h e value of the maximum B.M.
(U. Land.) (Ans.: Supports 2-455 m and 8-455 m from A ; 183 kN m )

19. A beam 7 m long rests on two level supports A and B , 4 m apart with a i m
length of beam overhanging the right-hand support B . The beam carries a uni-
formly distributed load w N / m from A t o the right-hand end and a uniformly
distributed load nw N / m on t h a t p a r t of the beam t o the left of A. I f a point of
contra-flexure occurs a t a point 0-5 m t o the left of B , find the value of η and the
other point of contra-flexure. Also find the m a x i m u m B.M. between the points
of contra-flexure. Sketch and S.F. and B.M. diagrams. (7. Mech. E.)
7 9 L
(Ans.: - ; 2 m from Α ; — | Ν m a t 2-75 m from A )

20. A horizontal beam 10 m long, carries a uniformly distributed load of 3 0


k N / m over the whole length and a concentrated load of 30 k N a t the right end.
I f the beam is freely supported a t the left end, find the position of the second
support so t h a t the greatest B.M. on t h e beam shall be as small as possible.
Draw diagrams of S . F . and B.M. and insert the principal values. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 7-66 m from L . H . end)

21. Fig. 2.22 shows the dimensions of, and the loading carried by, a beam A B C .
The beam is encastré a t A, has a hinge a t Β and is supported on a roller bearing
a t C. Sketch and dimension the shearing force and bending moment diagrams,
and determine the position and magnitude of the m a x i m u m positive and negative
bending moments., (I.C.E.) (Ans.: 67-5 kN m, 1-5 m from C; 160 kN m a t A )

20kN 60kN/m
Β

1-
2 m
. 2m 2m t
FIG. 2.22

22. The beam A B C is loaded as shown in Fig. 2 . 2 3 . I t is supported by a uni-


formly distributed reaction of w/m over A B , acting vertically upwards, and by
a single concentrated reaction R a t C.
Obtain the values of w and R and hence sketch the S.F. and B.M. diagrams,
stating all significant values including the position and value of the maximum
B.M. (U.Glas.)

50kN
20kN/m lOkN/m

70kN
1m 1m 4m 4m
Η *i
FIG. 2.23

23. A horizontal beam 3-5 m long, is freely supported a t its ends and carries a
vertical load of 5 kN, 1 m from the left-hand end. A t a section 2 m from the left
end a clockwise couple of moment 3 kN m is exerted, the axis of the couple being
horizontal and perpendicular t o the longitudinal axis of the beam. Draw the
B.M. and S.F. diagrams and mark on them the principal dimensions. (7. Mech. E.)
(Ans.: 28-7 k N between A and D ; 57-4 kN m a t D )
38 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

24. Fig. 2.24 shows a beam A B C , 11 m in length, which is supported on a pin


joint a t A and rollers a t B . A t a point D on the beam a vertical a r m D E is rigidly
connected t o it. Sketch diagrams of shearing force and bending moment, indicating
maximum values, when the loading shown in the figure is applied. (I.CE.)
{Ans.: S . F . = 21-95 kN; m a x . B.M. = 43-9 kN m, 2 m from L . H . end)

30kN

FIG. 2.24

2 5 . A beam A B C , 9 m long, is simply supported a t A and B , 6 m apart. I t


carries a load of 2 0 k N a t a point 2 m from A, together with a distributed load
whose intensity varies in linear fashion from zero a t A and C t o 3 0 k N / m a t B .
Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams, and calculate the position and magnitude
of the m a x i m u m B.M. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 66*67 kN m a t 2-514 m from A )
2 6 . Write down the relationship between load, S.F. and B.M. Use these t o
determine the position of no shear and the value of the m a x i m u m B.M. for a
simply supported beam of length L m, carrying a distributed load which increases
uniformly from zero a t one end to q N / m a t the other. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: L/\/3 m from end of zero load; L q/9^3 Ν m)
27. A simply supported beam with a span of 4 m carries a distributed load
which varies in a linear manner from 3 0 k N / m run a t one support t o 9 0 k N / m
run a t the other support. L o c a t e the position of the m a x i m u m bending moment
and calculate the value of this maximum. Sketch the S.F. and B.M. diagrams.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 121 kN m a t 2-16 m from lightly loaded end)

2 8 . A horizontal beam, 4 m long, is freely supported a t its two ends a t the same
level. A distributed load, increasing steadily from zero a t both ends t o a m a x i m u m
of 6 0 k N / m a t the middle, is supported by the beam. Draw the S . F . and B.M.
diagrams. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: M a x . S.F. = 60 kN a t each end; m a x . B.M. = 80 kN m a t centre)
2 9 . Prove relations between B.M., S.F. and intensity of loading on a beam.
A beam 8 m long is supported a t the ends and carries a distributed load which
varies uniformly in intensity from zero a t one end t o 30 k N / m a t a section 2 m
from the other end and over the remaining length is constant a t 3 0 k N / m .
Derive equations for S.F. and B.M. a t a n y section of the beam, and sketch
the S . F . and B.M. diagrams, marking on the diagrams the m a x i m u m values.
(U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 97-5 kN a t heavily loaded end; 160-5 kN m a t 4*58 m from
lightly loaded end)

30. A horizontal beam, simply supported on a span of 4 m, carries a t o t a l load


of 8 k N ; the load distribution varies parabolically from zero a t each end t o a
m a x i m u m a t mid-span. Calculate the values of the B.M. a t intervals of 0-5 m
and draw the B.M. diagram for this loading. State the values of (a) the m a x i m u m
B.M., and (b) the S.F. a t the quarter span points. (U. Lond.)
( 4 n * . ; 5 k N m ; 2-75 kN)
CHAPTER 3

BENDING STRESSES

3.1 Pure bending. I f a beam is subjected to a pure bending moment*


M, Fig. 3.1, the fibres in the upper part are extended and those in the lower
part are compressed. Tensile and compressive stresses are thereby in-
duced in the beam which produce a moment, called the moment of resistance,
which is equal and opposite to the applied bending moment.

FIG. 3.1

In the theory of bending, which relates the stresses and curvature of the
beam to the applied bending moment, the following assumptions are made :
1. The beam is initially straight and the radius of curvature is large in
comparison with the dimensions of the cross-section.
2. The material is homogeneous, elastic and obeys Hooke's Law.
3. The material has the same modulus of elasticity in tension and com-
pression.
4. The stresses are uniform across the width and do not exceed the limit
of proportionality.
5. The cross-section of the beam is symmetrical about the plane of
bending.
6. A transverse section of the beam which is plane before bending re-
mains plane after bending.
7. Every longitudinal fibre is assumed to be free to extend or contract
without being restrained by its neighbour.

3.2 Second moment of area. I f each element of an area is multiplied


by the square of its distance from an axis, the summation of these quantities
for the whole area is termed the second moment of area about the axis and
is denoted by I. It will be found that the stresses and curvature in a beam
for a given bending moment are proportional to the second moment of
area of the cross-section about an axis through the centroid perpendicular
to the plane of bending.
* A pure bending moment is one which is uniform along the length of the beam,
i.e. it is not accompanied by shear forces. The distortion caused by shearing action is,
however, usually very small (see Chap. 1 0 ) .
39
40 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The second moment of area of an element of area da, Fig. 3.2, about the
2
axis Y Y = x da
2
,". total second moment about Y Y χ da.
- ί
2
Similarly, total second moment of area about X X = j" y da.
The second moment of area about the axis ZZ (perpendicular to the
2
plane of the paper) = j*r da. This is termed the polar second moment of
area and is denoted by J .

(a)
FIG. 3.2 FIG. 3.3

If the area of the plane is a, the second moment of area may be written
2
in the form I = dk \ k is termed the radius of gyration and is the radius at
which the area would have to be imagined concentrated to give the same
value of / .
Values of / for s o m e simple c a s e s
(a) Kectangle, breadth b and depth d, Fig. 3.3(a) :
τ _
b d
* bd*
Ι ο ο =
Ύ
(kxx= i/2V3, k00 = d/V3)
(6) Circle, diameter d, Fig. 3.3(6):

= Zw
YY = -^r d
4
J(=
1
Z7j
64
( & X X
:
kYY = d/i, kZz = d/2V2)
3.3 Theorem of parallel a x e s . The second moment of area of a plane
about any axis is equal to the second moment about a parallel axis through
the centroid, together with the product of the area and the square of the
distance between the axes.
Let Ιχχ be the second moment of area of a plane about an axis X X
passing through the centroid G, Fig. 3.4. It is required to find the second
moment about a parallel axis 0 0 , distance h from X X .
BENDING STRESSES 41

Second moment of area of element da f

about 0 0 6a
2
= (y + A) da
2 2
= (y + 2yh + h ) da
2
= y da +
2yh da
2
h da +
Λ for the whole area,

£
oo = Jy 2
da + 2h j y da + A J da
2
FIG. 3.4

2
= Ιχχ + aA + 2h X (total first moment of area about X X )
Since X X passes through the centroid of the section, the total first
moment of area about X X is zero.
2
Hence /oo=^xx+^ . . . . (3.1)
3.4 Theorem of perpendicular a x e s . Referring to Fig. 3.2 and de-
noting the second moments of area of the element about the axes X X , Y Y
and ZZ by d / x x, d / Y Y and dJ respectively, then
2 2 2
d^xx + d/γγ = y da + x da = r da = dJ
Therefore, for the whole area,
* χ χ + ί γ γ = «7 (3.2)
3.5 E q u i m o m e n t a l s y s t e m . It can be shown* that for the determina-
tion of the first and second moments of area of a triangle, its area α is
equivalent to three areas, each a/3, imagined concentrated at the mid
points of the sides. Since these areas are considered concentrated at par-
ticular points, they will have no second moment of area about their own
axes.
This principle can be extended to any area which can be divided into
triangles (see Examples 2 and 5).
3.6 S t r e s s due to bending. Fig. 3.5(a) represents the cross-section of
a beam, to which is applied a bending moment Μ, acting in a vertical plane
through the centroid G. Since the section ab, Fig. 3.5(6), remains plane

Fio. 3.5
* See Dynamics, Part I I , by A. S. Ramsey (C.U.P.), Chap. V.
42 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

after bending, it takes up the position cd (shown exaggerated) and the


figure acdb then represents the strain distribution diagram for the section,
ac and bd representing the strains at the top and bottom faces respectively.
It is evident that the strain varies linearly from a maximum at the top
fibres to another maximum at the bottom fibres and, in doing so, changes
from tensile to compressive. The plane X X at which the strain is zero is
termed the neutral plane and its intersection with a cross-section is termed
the neutral axis. Thus the strain at any point, and consequently from
Hooke's Law the stress, is directly proportional to the distance of that
point from the neutral axis.
If the stress on a layer at a distance y from the neutral axis is a, then the
stress on an element da at a distance ν from the neutral axis
ν
= -a
y
.'. force on area da = - σ da
y
ν
- (
.'. moment of force about X X = - a da ν
y
2
Λ total moment of resistance = - \v da = - ,
yj y
This is equal to the applied bending moment M,
i.e.

or (3.3)

The maximum stresses induced in a section occur where ν is a maximum,


where crt and ac are the maximum tensile and

compressive stresses respectively.


3.7 Modulus of section. The maximum stress in a beam section is
given by

The quantity I/ym3LX is called the modulus of section and is denoted by Z.


Thus (3.4)
For a rectangular section, breadth b and depth d,
BENDING STRESSES 43

For a circular section, diameter d,

3.8 Position of neutral a x i s . In Fig. 3 . 6 , let the total force on the


section above the neutral axis be Fx and that below this axis be F2. Since
the beam is subjected only to a bending moment, there is no resultant
longitudinal force applied to the section,

Force on element da

FIG. 3.6

first moment about X X of area above X X

Similarly, first moment about X X of area below X X

total first moment of section about X X

But a/y cannot be zero, hence the total first moment about X X must be
zero. For this condition to be satisfied, the neutral axis must pass through
the centroid of the section.
The couple produced by the two equal forces F1 and F2 acting at a dis-
tance h apart provides the internal moment of resistance, balancing the
external bending moment M.

3.9 R a d i u s of curvature. Due to the action of the bending moment,


the beam will bend; let the radius of curvature of the neutral axis at a
particular section be R, Fig. 3.7. The layer formerly of length ce has become
extended to cd,

strain = (3.5)

From similar figures,

i.e. (3.6)

Therefore, from equations (3.5) and (3.6),

(3.7)
Pia. 3.7
44 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Combining this with equation (3.3) gives the general bending formula

. . . . (3.8)
I y R
3.10 Composite b e a m s . A composite beam is one which consists of
two or more materials rigidly fixed together throughout their length;
examples of composite sections are shown in Fig. 3.8.
If M1 and M2 are the parts of the applied bending moment M carried by
the two materials, then
M1 + M2= M . . . . (3.9)
Also the radius of curvature of the two parts is the same,
i.e. R,. R2
ΒΑ
i.e. M1 '

or (3.10)

ii
m
FIG. 3.8
Mx and M2 can be determined from equations (3.9) and (3.10) and the
stresses in the two materials are then given by
M1 , M2
1
= —- and σ2 —2 —
Zi Z2
Alternatively, the composite section may be replaced by an equivalent
homogeneous section. Thus the section shown in Fig. 3.9(a) is equivalent to
the section in Fig. 3.9(6), composed entirely of material (1) or to the section
in Fig. 3.9(c), composed entirely of material (2), where B2/Ex = n.
\

1
nb

(b) (c)
FIG. 3.9
Having obtained the value of I for the equivalent section, the stresses
M
may then be obtained from a = —y, these being the stresses which would
BENDING STRESSES 45
exist in the homogeneous section. In section (6), the actual stresses in
material (2) would be η times those in the equivalent section and in section
(c), the actual stresses in material (1) would be 1/n times those in the
equivalent section.
In the foregoing analysis, it has been assumed that the compound
sections are all symmetrical about the plane of bending, otherwise twisting
of the section would occur.
3.11 Combined bending a n d direct s t r e s s e s . A combination of
bending and direct stresses may occur in a variety of circumstances but in
every case, the stresses due to the bending moment and direct load may be
calculated separately and the results combined to give the resultant
stresses. Thus σ = σ& ± ob where # d and a b are the direct and bending
stresses. The shape of the resultant stress distribu-
tion diagram will depend on whether ah is greater
or less than crd.
Fig. 3.10 shows a bar which is subjected to an
axial load Ρ and a bending moment M and Figs.
3.11(a), (b) and (c) show the possible forms of the
resultant stress distribution. FIG. 3 . 1 0

(a) (b) (c)


FIG. 3.11

3.12 Short column with eccentric load. A common example of com-


bined bending and direct stresses occurs in short* columns subjected to
eccentric loading. Let such a column be subjected to a load Ρ which is
applied at a distance e from the centroidal axis of the column, Fig. 3.12(a).
The equihbrium of the column will not be affected if equal and opposite
loads Ρ are applied along the axis, as in Fig. 3.12(6). The original downward
load together with the upward load along the axis constitute a moment
Pe\ thus the original load is equivalent to a direct load Ρ along the axis
together with a moment Pe.
* A long column would bend under the eccentric load and the analysis would be
more complex; (see Chap. 7).
46 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The maximum and minimum stresses in the cross-section are there-


fore given by
Ρ . Pe
. (3.11)
a Ζ

(a) (b)

FIG. 3.12

If there is to be no tensile stress in the section (as in the case of a masonry


or brick structure), the maximum eccentricity of the load is given by

0
a Z
For a rectangular column, of breadth b and depth d,
1 _ e
2
bd~~ bd /ß
d
Λ e= -
6
i.e. the load must lie within the middle third of the column.
For a circular column, of diameter d,
1 _ e
n
-d* ^d*
4 32

" " 8
i.e. the load must lie within the middle quarter of the column.

3.13 Bending beyond the limit of proportionality. I f a bending


moment is applied to a beam sufficient to cause yielding of the material, the
bending moment/angle of bending graph is of the form shown in Fig. 3.13.
The onset of yield is less defined than in a simple tension or compression
test as it occurs first in the outer fibres only and gradually extends towards
the axis of the beam.
BENDING STRESSES 47
The stress/strain relation for a particular fibre, however, is that for
simple tension and compression and for the purposes of calculation, it is
assumed that, after yield, the stress at a particular point remains constant
for a considerable increase in strain, giving a theoretical curve as shown in
Fig. 3.14. Such a relation is approximately true for common mild steel
where, after yield, the stress remains sensibly constant for a strain up to
about 10 times that at the commencement of yield.

Φ Φ
FIG. 3.13 FIG. 3.14

When yielding has commenced at the outer fibres, the stress distribu-
tion over the section is as shown in Fig. 3.15(6), the maximum stress re-
maining constant at the yield stress, cry, as M increases.

FIG. 3.15

Fig. 3.15(c) shows the forces represented by the various parts of the
stress diagram.
If the beam is subjected to pure bending, there is no resultant force
normal to the section, so that
F1 + F% = FZ + FA . . . . (3.12)
This condition gives the position of the neutral axis.* Having ascertained
this,
*>i + t#% + **, + = M . . . (3.13)
* F o r a symmetrical section, this remains unaffected by the onset of yielding.
48 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

1. Fig. 3.16 represents the cross-section of an extruded alloy member, which


acts as a simply supported beam with the 60-mm wide flange at the bottom.
Determine the moment of resistance of the section, if the maximum permissible
2
stresses in tension and compression are respectively 60 and 45 MN/m .
(I.C.E.)
140mm
20mm
Τ
j20mm
15mm
\
X—1 — X i

5mm
60mm
y
1
t
j 5mm
60mm

FIG. 3.16

If y is the distance of the neutral axis above the base, then, taking
moments about the base,
20 χ 20 χ 70 + 140 χ 5 χ 57-5 + 5 χ 50 χ 30 + 60 χ 5 χ 2-5
= (20 χ 20 + 140 χ 5 + 5 χ 50 + 60 χ b)y
Λ y = 46-36 mm

.·. / « _ ^ + » x » x e « , U + U 0 X 5 X:)ΐ ι · ΐ 4 2 ^
12 12
3
, / 5 χ 50 ,
3
60 χ 5
+ ί - ^ - + 5κ x 5ΚΛ0 x 11 if6 • 3 6 ^ + ^! 60χ5χ43·86
2

12
4
= 1 022 000 mm
2
For a maximum tensile stress of 60 MN/m ,
12
/ 1022 000 χ Ι Ο - „Λ ^ e , __
Ι = - Χ σ = ——— χ 60 χ 10 = 1 322 Nm
y 0-046 36
2
For a maximum compressive stress of 45 MN/m ,
12
1 022 000 χ 1 0 -
M- e
X 45 X 10 = 1 366 Nm
0-033 64
maximum allowable moment of resistance
= 1-322 kNm
BENDING STRESSES 49

2. A cast iron beam of the section shown in Fig. 3.17 is simply supported
at its ends and carries a had of18 kN at mid-span. Find the maximum allow-
2
able span if thje stress due to bending is not to exceed 3 0 MN/m tension.
Neglect the weight of the beam.
What will be the maximum compressive stress? (U. Lond.)
30mm

600

X 120mm 600

1800
FIG. 3.17 FIG. 3.18

Dividing the section into two triangles and placing \ of the area of each
triangle at the mid-point of its sides, the equi-momental system is as
shown in Fig. 3 . 1 8 (see Art. 3.5).
Taking moments about the base,
600 χ 120 + 4 800 χ 60 + 1 800 χ 0 = 7 200£
.'. y = 50 mm
2 2 2 4
Λ *xx = 600 χ 7 0 + 4 8 0 0 X 1 0 + 1 8 0 0 χ 5 0 = 7 9 2 0 0 0 0 mm

^max = — = ^ * ^ * ^= 4 500Z Nm, where I is in m.


4 4

i.e. 30 χ 10« = ± 6 0 0 l x 0
' 0 b

12 f mr ow h hi ι
c = χ.056 m
7 920 000 X 10-
The maximum compressive stress is given by

a = 2 ^ ! χ 3 0 = 4^MN/m
2

3 . A steel tube 4 0 mm outside diameter and 3 0 mm inside diameter is used


as a simply supported beam on a span oflm and it is found that the maximum
safe load it can carry at mid-span is 1-2 kN.
Four of these tubes are placed parallel to one another and firmly fixed to-
gether to form in effect a single beam, the centres of the tubes forming a square
of 4 0 mm side with one pair of centres vertically over the other pair. Find the
maximum central loafjwhich this beam can carry if the maximum stress is not
to exceed that of the single tuée above. (U. Lond.)
50 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The load W oc M
ce Ζ foi a, given value of σ.
For a single tube, Fig. 3.19,

/ χ χ = ^π( ± 0 - 30 ) = 85 900 mm
4 4 4

„ 85 900 3
= 4 295 mm
20

FIG. 3.19 FIG. 3.20

For four tubes, Fig. 3.20,

Ιχχ = M 85 900 + π- (40 - 30 ) χ 20


2 2 2

4
4
= 1 223 600 mm
1 223 600 3
= 30 950 mm
40
Therefore the load which can be carried by the four tubes
30 950
X 1-2 8-65 kN
4 295

4. Fig. 3.21 shows the section of a steel beam in the shape of an inverted
semicircular channel with flanges. Determine the position of the neutral axis
XX and the second moment of area of the section about XX.
Calculate the moment of resistance of the beam in Ν m if the maximum stress
2
due to bending is 125 MN/m .
For a semicircular area of radius r, ίλβ distance of the centroid from the
diameter is 0-424 4r. (U. Lond.)

FIG. 3 . 2 1
BENDING STRESSES 51
Centroid of outer semi-circle from base = 0-424 4 X 55 = 23-35 mm.
Centroid of inner semi-circle from base = 0-424 4 X 50 = 21-20 mm.
Taking moments about the base,

60 χ 5 χ 2-5 + 1 Χ 55 χ 23-35 - 1 χ 50 X 21-20


2 2

π χ 55 2 π Χ 50 2 )£
-(• 60 χ 5 + 11

>
·· y 25-3 mm

Ιχχ

2 2 2
+Ç1 χ 55* - % Χ 55* χ 23·35 + ^ χ 55 χ 2·95
° 2 2

χ 50* - ΐ Χ 50 Χ 21-20 + ξ χ 50 χ 4
2 2 2

{5 2
4
2
= 413 600 mm

y
12
_ 413 600 χ ΙΟ" Χ 125 Χ 10 e = 1740Nm
~ 0-055 - 0-025 3
5. Prove that the moment of resistance of a beam of square section with its
diagonal in the plane of bending is increased by flattening the top and bottom
corners, as shown in Fig. 3.22, and that the moment of resistance is a maximum
g
when y = -Y. (U. Lond.)
9
2(Y-y)

FIG. 3.22 FIG. 3.23

The section may be divided into a rectangle and a square which is being
bent about its diagonal, Fig. 3.23.
* J of semi-circle about neutral axis of section = / about the diameter 1
— area X (distance from diameter to centroid of semi-circle)
-f- area X (distance of centroid of semi-circle to neutral axis of section)*
52 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

2 ( 7 - y ) X (2y)» „4* 4
'XX » — * V , , 3 _
12 3 *

Μ χ

For σ to be a minimum, — = 0
ay
3 x 2 2

i.e. -Yy — y — y(4:Yy — iy ) from which ?/ =

6. A horizontal cantilever 3 m long is of rectangular cross-section 60 mm


wide throughout its length, the depth varying uniformly from 60 mm at the free
end to 180 mm at the fixed end. A load of A kN acts at the free end. Find the
position of the most highly stressed section, and find the value of the maximum
bending stress induced. Neglect the weight of the cantilever itself. (U. Lond.)

60mm
180mm

FIG. 3.24
At a section χ m from the load, Fig. 3.24,
3
M = 4 χ 10 x Nm
and d = 60 + - χ 120 = 60 + iOx mm
i t 2 (*r\
3 2 3
Z = — = -(60 + 40z) = 4 000(3 + 2x) mm
6 6
3
_ M _ 4 χ 10 x 10*x
2 9 (1)
° ~ ~Z ~ 4 000(3 + 2x) χ 1 0 - (3 + 2x)
2

do-
For a to be a maximum, ^ = 0
dx
2
i.e. (3 + 2x) = 4x(3 + 2x)
from which χ = 1*5 m
Substituting in equation (1),
9
Ί Ο ν I·"!
2
< W = ( 3 ^ 3 ) 2 N/m* = 41-6 MN/m
2 2
* The area of each half2 of the square is y . Placing τ/ /3 at the mid-point of each o f
the sloping sides and 2t/ /3 at the mid-point of the diagonal,
/ - 4 y » * * Λ Ύ - y*
/ xx 4 x x

2
- a " \V "Τ'
the area 2 y / 3 having no second moment about X X .
BENDING STRESSES 53
7. A timber beam 80 mm wide by 160 mm deep is to be reinforced with two
steel plates 5 mm thick. Compare the moments of resistance for the same value
of the maximum bending stress in the timber when the plates are alternately:
(a) 80 mm wide and fixed to the top and bottom surfaces of the beam;
(6) 160 mm deep and fixed to the vertical sides of the beam.
Osteel = 20 X £ t i m b e. r ( U . Lond.)

5mm

160mm

5 mm

5mm 5mm
(a) (b)
FIG. 3 . 2 5
3
80 χ 160 e 4
(a) = 27-3 X 10 mm ,
12
^(1703
v
- 160 3) = 5-447 x 10 e mm4
12
M: from equation (3.9)

and from equation (3.10)


Ms+Mt

= 3-98
27-3
. M-.= 3-98M
20 χ t + eMt = 4 4-98M
5 4 47

(b) 27-3 X 10 mm
3
10 χ 160 e 4
= 3-413 X 10 mm
12
~β 3-413
ΟΛ
= 2-5
—? — 20 χ
ΛM 2-73Mt = 3-5Mt
Mt = 2-5if t +
Therefore ratio of moments of resistance in cases (a) and (b) for the same
4-98
value of M% (i.e. for the same value of at) = = 1-425
3-5
54 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

8. A compound beam is formed by joining two bars rigidly together, one of


steel and the other of brass, each bar being 40 mm wide. The bars are of thick-
ness tx and t2 respectively so that the total depth is (tx -f- t2). If Ε for the steel
is twice that for the brass, find the ratio of tx to t2 so that the neutral axis cf
the section is at the dividing line of the two bars.
If the total depth of the section is to be 20 mm and the stresses in tine steel and
2
brass are not to exceed 110 and 40 MN/m respectively, determine the maxi-
mum moment of resistance of the beam. (U. Lond.)
40mm 80mm

(a)
3 X —

40mm
(b)
FIG. 3 . 2 6
Fig. 3.26(a) shows the cross-section of the composite bar and Fig. 3.26(6)
shows the equivalent brass section.
For the neutral axis to be on the dividing line, the moments of the parts
on each side of this line must be equal,
l

i.e. 80 X tx χ ±l = 40 χ t2 X 4
2
1
from which
V2
h + t2 20 mm and
V2
h
8-28 mm and 11-72 mm
h-
a Ε
y R
Therefore, for a given radius of curvature, R, the stress in the materia)
at a given distance, y, from the neutral axis is proportional to E. Hence, if
2
the maximum permissible stress in the steel is 110 MN/m , the corres-
ponding stress at the top edge of the equivalent brass section is
2
110/2 = 55 MN/m .
Since t2 = \/2tv it is evident that the stress at the bottom edge will
2 2
reach 40 MN/m before that at the top edge reaches 55 MN/m , so that the
moment of resistance is that which will produce the former stress.
3 3
80 χ 8·28 , 40 χ 11-72 4
= 36 000 mm
+
M- 36 630 χ 10- e
x a = X 40 x 10 = 125 Ν m
0-011 72
BENDING STRESSES 55
9. A steel chimney is 30 m high, 1 m external diameter and 10 mm thick. It
is rigidly fixed at the base. It is acted upon by a horizontal wind pressure which
2
is taken tobe of a uniform intensity of 1 kN/m of projected area for the lower
2 2
15 m and to vary uniformly from 1 kN/m to 2 kN/m over the upper 15 m.
Calculate the maximum stress in the plates at the base. Steel has a density of
7-8 Mg/m*. (U. Lond.)

The pressure distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 3.27. The total wind
2
force can be divided into Pv the force due to a uniform pressure of 1 kN/m
over the whole height, and P2, the force due to the additional pressure over
the upper 15 m.
3 1m dia.
Pj = 1 χ ΙΟ χ 1 χ 30 Ν
= 30 kN

P 2 = Ι * ™ * χ 1 χ 15 Ν
= 7-5 kN
moment about base = 30 X 15 30m
+ 7-5 χ 25
= 637-5 kN m
4 4
/ of cross-section = — ( l — 0-98 )
64
4
= 0-003 815 m

,\ maximum bending stress = y χ y FIG. 3 . 2 7

3
637-5 χ ΙΟ 2
χ 0-5 N/m
0-003 815
2
== 83-6 MN/m
Direct stress at base = specific weight X height
3
= 7-8 χ ΙΟ χ 9-81 χ 30
2
= 2-3 MN/m
2
·. total stress at base = 83-6 + 2-3 = 85-9 MN/m

10. A short column of I-section 200 mm X 160 mm has a cross-section as


shown in Fig. 3.28. A vertical load W acts through the centroid of the section
together with a paraUel load of TP/4 acting through a point on the centre line
of the web, distance 60 mm from the centroid measured towards the longer flange.
Calculate the greatest allowable value of W if the maximum compressive
2
stress is not to exceed 80 MN/m . What is the minimum stress in the section?
(U. Lond.)
c
56 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Taking moments about the top edge,


160 x 10 χ 5 + 180 χ 10 X 100 + 120 χ 10 χ 195 = 4 600^
yx = 91-74 mm and y2 = 108-26 mm

/ x x = i ° *12
1 6
+ 160 X 10 X 86
3
180
12
3
+ 10 χ 180 χ 8-26 J 2

'120 χ 10
12
6
+ 4120 χ 10 χ 103-26^
= 29-85 χ 10 m m

160mm

200 mm

10mm

FIG. 3 . 2 8

Transferring the load W/4 to the axis X X , there is then a total direct
load of 5W/4, together with a bending moment about X X , of magnitude
We/4: where e is the eccentricity of the load from X X .
bW , TFxO-06 0-108 26 6 2
80 χ 10 N/m
4x0-004 6 + — Ϊ — χ 29-85 x l 0 -
e

from which
W = 245 kN
Minimum stress
3 3
_ 5 x 2 4 5 x l 0 _ 245 χ ΙΟ χ 0-06 0-086 74 Λ Τ/ 2
X N m2
" 4x0-004 6 4 29-85xl0-e /
2
= 55-92 MN/m
BENDING STRESSES 57
11. A piUar 1·5 m high is of rectangular section 50 mm thick and tapers
longitudinally from a width of 150 mm at the
lOOkN base to 50 mm at ihœ top, as shown in Fig. 3.29.
5 0 mm,
A compressive load of 100 kN acts through the
centroid at the top end and parallel to the ver-
tical edge.
Determine the magnitude of the maximum
compressive stress and the cross-section at
which it will occur. (U. Lond.)
1-5m 0-025m

0O5m

0 2 5 + m
100 kN °' 35
X
150mm 0-05 + 15 m

FIG. 3 . 2 9 FIG. 3 . 3 0

Fig. 3.30 shows the section of the pillar at a distance χ m below the top.
The width of the section is 0-05 - X 0-10 = 0-05 + m so that the

load has an eccentricity of m with respect to the centroid of the section.


3
100 χ 10 2 30 2
Direct stress, a& • N/m = MN/m
0-75 + χ
0-05^0-05 + ^

3
100 χ ΙΟ χ —
30 2 90 2
Bending stress, ah = N/m 2
MN/m
(0-75 + χ)

30 90 22-5 + 120z MN/m 2


.'. resultant stress, σ =
0-75 + χ +
(0-75 + x )
2
(0-75 + x)
2

For σ to be a maximum,
άσ
- 0
dx
from which χ = 0-375 m
Substituting in equation (1),
67-5 2
a — 1-1252 = 53-33 MN/m
58 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

12. A steel bar of circular section, 100 mm diameter, carries a longitudinal


pull whose line of action is parallel with the axis of the bar. At a certain trans-
verse section the longitudinal stresses are measured at the surface of the bar at
three points A, Β and C, these points being equally spaced round the section.
2 2
Thœ tensile stresses at these points are A, 90 MN/m ; B, 75 MN/m ; C, 30
2
MN/m .
Determine (a) the magnitude and location of the greatest and least stresses at
the section; (b) the magnitude and eccentricity of the applied pull. Make a
diagram showing the stresses and their positions relative to the points A, Β
and C. (U. Lond.)
It will be evident that the line of action of Ρ lies within the sector AOB,
Fig. 3.31.
Ρ . Pecos θ
At
ΑΑ
A,
A
a= \-
n
-d
2
Max. stress
32
Pe cos θ
π Χ ΟΊΟ2 • +— Χ ΟΊΟ 3

32
400P
= — { l + 8Oecos0} Min. stress
2
- 90 MN/m (1)
Similarly, at B,
400P
or = {1 + 80e cos (120 - 0)}
π
4oop r 2
1 -f 80e( - J cos θ + — sin θ ) } = 75 MN/m
π \ )}• (2)

400P
At C, σ = {1 + 80e cos (120 + θ)}
π
400PÎ
? / V3 2
\ \ + 80e,[ — i2 cos θ — — sin ( 30 MN/m (3)
π { \ 2
These equations simplify to
QTT-
1 + 80e cos θ = — . - (4)
40P
1 + 40e(-cos
v Θ + V 3 sin 0) = 1 — . . (5)
40P

1 + 40e(—cos 0 - V 3 sin 0) = . . (6)
40P
BENDING STRESSES 59
From equations (5) and (6),
2 -—8 O o s 0ft = i ^
e cnos
RH* . . . . (7) v
40P
40P '
19·5ττ
19-5:
. from equations (4) and (7), Ρ = "Ï2Ô = 0-51 MN
From equations (5) and (6),
80V3esin6 = ^ = 0-693 . (8)
40P
and from equation (4),
80e cos 0 - -—- - 1 - 0-386 . . . . (9) v
40P '
tane = - ^ ? ? r = 1-035
Λ
0-386V3
Λ θ = 46^
From equations (8) or (9), e = 0-006 95 m or 6-95 mm
Λ OOP
< W = — - ( 1 + 80e), when 0 = 0
π
4-00 νΛ 0 ^ 1 2
= (1 + 80 χ 0-006 95) = 101 MN/m
π
Λ OOP
= I i r i ( l - 80e),
a m in when θ = 180°
π
400 χ 0-51( 1 _ 8 0 χ 0. 0 0 6 9 5) = 2 8. 9 MN/m»
π
13. A steel bar of rectangular section 80 mm X 40 mm is used as a simply
supported beam on a span o / 1 4 m and loaded at mid-span. If the yield stress
2
is 300 MN/m and the long edges of the section are vertical, find the load when
yielding first occurs.
Assuming that a further increase in had causes yielding to spread in to-
wards the neutral axis with the stress in the yielded part remaining constant at
2
300 MN/m , determine the load required to cause yielding for a depth of
10 mm at the top and bottom of the section at mid-span, and find the length of
beam over which yielding at the top and bottom faces will have occurred.
(U. Lond.)
Mm
=-^, a xFig. 3.32
4
. „ _ ^max _ Wl 6
' * °™ - ~Z Τ M"
W X 14 X 6
i.e. 300 χ 10« =
4 χ 0-04 χ 0(
W - 36-57 kN
60 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

After yielding, resisting moment


= 2{FX χ 0-035 + F2 χ 0-02}, Fig. 3.33
W χ 14 6
i.e. = 2{(300 χ ΙΟ χ 0-01 χ 0-04) χ 0-035
+ (150 χ 10« χ 0-03 χ 0-04) χ 0-02}
.·. W = 44-6 kN
If yielding ceases at x m from the centre
4 4 6 103
M = " * ( O 7 - *) = 300 χ 10« χ 2 ^ 2 1 ^ !

.·. x = 0-126 m
.*. length over which yielding occurs = 2x = 0-252 m

W'
2 1?

35mm

FIG. 3.33

14. Fig. 3.34(a) shows the section of a beam which is subjected to a bending
moment of such magnitude that yielding occurs at the lower part of the web
2
over a depth of 50 mm. The yield stress of 300 MN/m may be assumed con-
stant over the yielded area, while over the remainder of the section the stress is
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
Determine: (a) the position of the neutral axis Ν A; (b) the stress at the top
of the section; (c) the moment of resistance of the section. (U. Lond.)
The stress distribution diagram is shown in Fig. 3.34(6).
If the neutral axis after yielding is at a depth h mm below the top, then
a _ 300
h~ 150 — h
300ft 2
a = MN/m (1)
150 — h
BENDING STRESSES 61

2 0 0 mm 150-/)

(a) (b)
FIG. 3.34

Stress at underside of flange = —cr

Therefore, equating forces above and below the neutral axis,


, h - 20
<*+••—τ—ο-
h— 20 σ
χ 120 χ 20 + - Χ (h — 20) χ 20
h 2
300
= 3 0 0 x 5 0 x 2 0 + — χ (150 - Ä) Χ 20
2
300(250Ä-Ä )
from which a = —2 -—- --—- (2)
h + 200Ä - 2 000
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2),
h = 65-8 mm
a = 234-5 MN/m
2
and Stress at underside of flange
65-8 - 20 ,
Λ Ο e

=
"1er x 234 5

2
'
= 163-3 MN/m
Assuming that the force on the flange acts through its geometric centre,
moment about Ν A
e
_ (234-5 + 163-3) x 10 Χ 0-12 χ 0-02 χ (0-065 8 - 0-01)

= 26 650 Ν m
62 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Moment about Ν A of force on web above Ν A


e
163-3 X 10
X (0-065 8 - 0-02) χ 0-02 χ §(0-065 8 - 0-02)
2
= 2 285 Ν m
Moment about Ν A of force on web below Ν A
6
300 Χ 10
X (0-15 - 0-065 8) χ 0-02 χ §(0-15 - 0-065 8)
2
= 14 170 Ν m
Moment about Ν A of force on plastic part of web
= 300 x 10« x 0-05 χ 0-02 χ (0-175 - 0-068 5)
= 31 950 Ν m
.". total moment of resistance
= 75 055 Ν m or 75-055 kN m

15. An I-section girder, 2 4 0 m m deep, has a web 2 0 m m thick. The top flange
is 120 m m by 2 0 m m and the bottom flange is 160 m m by 2 0 mm. I f the girder is
simply supported a t its ends, find the m a x i m u m span which can be used if the
total distributed load per m run is 6 k N / m , and the m a x i m u m stress is limited t o
2
70 M N / m . (U. Land.) {Ans.: 7-67 m )
16. The cross-section of an I-beam has dimensions as follows: overall depth
2 4 0 mm, top flange 8 0 m m wide by 2 0 m m thick, bottom flange 160 m m wide by
2 0 m m thick, web 10 m m thick. The girder is simply supported over a span of
5 m and carries two concentrated loads each of 2 0 kN a t points 1 m from the ends.
Calculate the maximum bending stress due t o this loading. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 48-4 M N / m )
17. A t a n k 1-5 m χ 1-5 m χ 1-0 m in depth is supported symmetrically by a
pair of steel cantilevers 1-5 m long, which it completely covers. I f the cantilevers
are of T-section 100 m m χ 100 m m χ 10 m m and t h e m a x i m u m tensile stress
2
is not t o exceed 100 M N / m , determine the m a x i m u m safe depth of oil of density
s
0-9 M g / m to which the t a n k m a y be filled. Neglect the weight of the tank. W h a t
would then be the m a x i m u m compressive stress in the cantilevers? ( U. Lond).
2
(Ans.: 0-842 5 m; 2 4 8 M N / m )
18. A steel beam is in section an inverted channel; outside dimensions 2 2 0 m m
wide, 8 0 m m deep, thickness of web 10 m m , thickness of vertical flanges 12 mm.
The beam is simply supported over a span of 3 m and carries two equal concen-
trated loads a t points distant 0-5 m from each support. F i n d the value of each of
2
these loads if the m a x i m u m tensile stress is not t o exceed 100 M N / m . ( U. Lond. )
(Ans.: 7-725 kN)
e 4
19. A compound girder is a 2 6 0 m m χ 100 m m steel joist, /max = 168 χ 1 0 ~ m
with a 180 m m χ 2 0 m m steel plate riveted t o each flange of the beam. Neglect
the effects of the rivets and calculate the moment of resistance of the girder for
2
a working stress of 120 M N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 247-4 kN m )
20. The T-section of a beam has the following dimensions: width of flange,
100 m m , overall depth, 8 0 mm, thickness of stem and flange, 10 mm.
Determine the maximum stress in the beam when a bending moment o f 2 0 0 Ν m
is acting in the plane of symmetry of the section.
BENDING STRESSES 63
A l s o , d e t e r m i n e a new w i d t h for t h e flange r e q u i r e d t o g i v e m a x i m u m s t r e s s e s
in c o m p r e s s i o n a n d tension in t h e r a t i o o f 2 t o 1. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 12-5 M N / m ; 59 m m , a s s u m i n g flange in tension a n d web in c o m p r e s s i o n )

21. A horizontal cantilever, 1-2 m long, h a s a T - s h a p e d cross-section, a s s h o w n


in F i g . 3 . 3 5 , a n d carries a u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d a l o n g t h e full l e n g t h of t h e
t o p flange. C a l c u l a t e t h e g r e a t e s t i n t e n s i t y of t h e l o a d which c a n b e c a r r i e d if t h e
2
m a x i m u m tensile a n d c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s a r e n o t t o e x c e e d 3 0 M N / m a n d
2
9 0 M N / m respectively. (I.CE.) (Ans.: 3 - 9 4 / N / m )

120 mm

12· 5 mm
120 mm 100 mm
12-5 mmj
X
Ti 100 mm

F i a . 3.35 FIG. 3.36

22. A steel I - b e a m of t h e section s h o w n in F i g . 3.36 r e s t s on t w o s u p p o r t s in


a steel s t o r e . D e t e r m i n e t h e m a x i m u m l e n g t h o f b e a m which c a n b e s u p p o r t e d
in t h i s w a y w i t h o u t yielding occurring a n d t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e s u p p o r t s . T h e yield
2 3
s t r e s s is 2 4 0 M N / m a n d t h e d e n s i t y of steel is 7-8 M g / m . (7. Mech. E.)
(Ans.: 66-9 m ( s u p p o r t p o i n t s a t 0-207 I f r o m ends))

23. A cast-iron b e a m h a s a section a s s h o w n in F i g . 3.37, b e i n g s y m m e t r i c a l


a b o u t t h e a x i s Y Y . D e t e r m i n e t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e n e u t r a l a x i s of t h e section,
X X , a n d the second moment of area about X X .
If, w h e n s u b j e c t e d t o a b e n d i n g m o m e n t in t h e p l a n e Y Y , t h e tensile s t r e s s a t
2
t h e b o t t o m e d g e is 2 5 M N / m , find (a) t h e v a l u e of t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t a n d
2
(b) t h e s t r e s s a t t h e t o p e d g e . (Ans.:βΧβ k N m ; 31 MN/m )

FIG. 3.37 FIG. 3.38


64 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

24. Fig. 3.38 shows the section of a beam. W h a t is the ratio of its moment of
resistance t o bending in the plane Y Y t o t h a t for bending in t h e plane X X if t h e
maximum stress due t o bending is the same in both cases?

F o r a semi-circle of radius r the centroid is a distance of from t h e centre.

(U. Land.) (Ans.: 2-85)

25. A wooden beam is 8 0 m m wide and 120 m m deep with a semicircular groove
of 2 5 m m radius planed out in the centre of each side. Calculate the m a x i m u m
stress in the section when simply supported on a span of 2 m and loaded with a
concentrated load of 4 0 0 Ν a t a distance of 0*7 m from one end and a uniformly
distributed load of 750 N / m run over the whole span. (U. Land.)
2
{Ans.: 2-825 M N / m )
26. A cantilever specimen for a fatigue-testing machine is of circular cross-
section throughout its length, but in a length of 7 5 m m the diameter decreases
from 10 m m a t the fixed end t o 6·25 m m a t the free end. Calculate the m a x i m u m
stress due to bending when a static load of 3 0 0 Ν is applied a t the free end in a
direction perpendicular to the length of the specimen. (U. Land.)
2
{Ans.: 231-5 M N / m a t 62-5 m m from load)
27. A vertical flagstaff, standing 9 m above t h e ground, is of square section
throughout, the dimensions being 150 m m by 150 m m a t the ground, tapering
uniformly t o 75 m m by 7 5 m m a t the top. A horizontal pull of 3 0 0 Ν is applied
at the top, the direction of loading being along a diagonal of the section. Calculate
the m a x i m u m stress due t o bending. (U. Land.)
2
{Ans.: 8-05 M N / m a t 4-5 m from top)
28. A timber beam 150 m m wide and 3 0 0 m m deep is t o be reinforced by two
steel plates 10 m m thick firmly attached t o its sides and symmetrically placed
about the horizontal centre line of the beam section. I f the beam is t o carry a
central concentrated load of 52-5 kN on a span of 3 m, and the maximum stress
2
in the timber is not t o exceed 8-5 M N / m , find the niinimum depth of the steel
plates required, assuming the beam t o be simply supported a t the ends.
Ε for steel = 2 0 χ Ε for timber. {U. Land.)
{Ans.: 2 2 0 m m )
29. A flitched beam is made of two timber joists each 120 m m wide by
300 m m deep, with a steel plate 2 0 m m thick and 3 0 0 m m deep firmly fixed
between them. Calculate the moment of resistance of the combined beam if t h e
2
maximum stress in the timber is limited to 7-5 M N / m . Also find the m a x i m u m
uniformly distributed load which the beam can carry on a simply supported span
2 2
of 5 m. ^ e e i = 2 0 0 G N / m ; ^timber = 10 G N / m . (U. Land.)
{Ans.: 72 kN m; 23-04 k N / m )
30. A wooden beam 2 5 m m wide by 5 0 m m deep is reinforced by two similar
steel plates, each 2 5 m m wide, one being secured t o the upper face of t h e beam
and one t o the lower face. Calculate the necessary thickness of the plates in order
t h a t the beam can resist a bending moment o f 6 0 0 Ν m in the vertical plane without
2 2
the maximum stress in the wood exceeding 5-5 M N / m . 2£8teel = 2 0 0 G N / m ;
2
# w o o d = 2 0 G N / m . {U. Land.) {Ans.: 6-22 m m )
3 1 . A steel tube of 5 0 m m outside diameter fits very accurately over a brass rod
of 2 5 m m diameter. Determine the moment of resistance t o bending of the assembly,
assuming t h a t the maximum stresses for steel and brass should not exceed 1 5 0
2 2 2
and 120 M N / m respectively. Esiee\ = 2 0 0 G N / m ; EhT&ss = 100 G N / m .
{U. Land.) {Ans.: 1-786 kN m )
BENDING STRESSES 65
32. Two bars of rectangular cross-section, one brass and one steel, each 3 0 m m
wide by 10 m m deep are placed together t o form a beam 30 m m wide by 2 0 m m
deep. The beam is placed horizontally on two supports 0-75 m apart and a vertical
central load is applied. Detennine the m a x i m u m load if the bars are, (i) separate
and can bend independently, (ii) firmly secured together throughout their length.
2
The maximum permissible stresses in brass and steel are 7 0 M N / m and 105
2 2 2
M N / m respectively; EB = 8 5 G N / m and J £ s = 2 0 0 G N / m . {I.C.E.)
(Ans.: 373-3 Ν ; 8 2 5 Ν )

33. A timber beam, 2 4 0 m m deep by 100 m m wide, has a steel plate 10 m m


thick and 100 m m wide bolted firmly t o its lower edge. The beam is freely sup-
ported on a span of 4 m and is loaded uniformly. F i n d the load it will carry when
2
the m a x i m u m compressive stress in the timber is 8-5 M N / m and calculate the
maximum stress in the steel under this load. The ratio of the elastic moduli of
2
steel and timber is 18. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 6-77 k N / m ; 67-5 M N / m )

34. A timber beam 2 0 0 m m wide by 3 0 0 m m deep is reinforced with two rect-


angular steel plates each 2 5 0 m m deep by 10 m m thick. The steel plates are bolted
on each side of the beam with t h e bottom edges of the plates flush with the under-
side of the beam. Determine the position of the neutral axis and find the moment
of resistance of the composite beam when the limits of bending stresses in t h e
2
steel and timber are 8 5 and 5-5 M N / m respectively. Modular ratio = 2 0 .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 134*4 m m from bottom of beam; 31-4 k N m)

35. A tie-bar of rectangular cross-section is required t o take a tensile load of


2 5 0 kN. The depth of the section is to be three times the width and the m a x i m u m
2
allowable tensile stress is 100 M N / m . I f the allowable offset of the pull (from the
centroid of the section) is ^ of the width, measured in the horizontal plane a t the
middle of the depth, find the dimensions of the cross-section. F i n d also the
minimum tensile stress. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 102-6 m m χ 34-2 m m ; 42-85 M N / m )

36. A tie-bar 7 5 m m wide and 2 5 m m thick sustains a n axial load of 100 kN.
W h a t depth of metal m a y safely be removed from one of the narrow sides in order
2
t h a t the m a x i m u m stress over the reduced width m a y not exceed 100 M N / m ?
(Ü. Land.) (Ans.: 1 2 0 5 m m )

37. A short vertical column consists of a channel section 150 m m wide by 100
m m deep and of uniform thickness 2 5 m m . A bracket attached t o the 150 m m face
of the column carries a vertical load whose line of action is offset 7 5 m m from the
face and on the centre-line of the section. F i n d the maximum value of this load
2
if the tensile stress induced in the section is not t o exceed 3 0 M N / m and find t h e
corresponding compressive stress. (U. Land.)
2
(Ans.: 32-45 k N ; 24-9 M N / m )

38. A short hollow pier, 1-2 m square outside and 0-75 m square inside, supports
a vertical point load of 120 kN located on a diagonal and 0-69 m from the vertical
axis of the pier. Neglecting the self-weight of the pier, calculate the normal
stresses a t the four outside corners on a horizontal section of the pier. ( U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 616-8 k N / m (comp); 136-8 k N / m (comp); 343-2 k N / m (tensile))

39. The dimensions of a T-section a r e : flange 130 m m , overall depth 8 0 m m ,


thickness throughout 10 m m . The Τ is used as a tension member with the line of
pull parallel t o its length, 4 5 m m from the base and on the centre line of the leg.
2
Calculate the m a x i m u m tension if the stress is limited t o 100 M N / m . ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.:ll'S kN)
66 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

40. A bar of Τ section, 8 0 m m χ 8 0 m m χ 10 m m , is subjected t o a tensile


load, the axis of which passes through the middle of the depth of the section. F i n d
2
the value of this load if the stress in the material is limited t o 100 M N / m . Show
by means of a diagram the variation of stress across the section. ( U. Lond. )
(Ans.: 59 kN)
41. A short cast-iron column is of hollow section of uniform thickness, the
external diameter being 2 0 0 m m and the internal diameter 125 m m . A vertical
compressive load a c t s a t an eccentricity of 5 0 m m from the axis of the column.
8 2
I f the maximum permitted stresses are 8 0 M N / m in compression and 16 M N / m
in tension, calculate the greatest allowable load.
Assuming this load acting, plot a diagram of normal stress across the section of
the column. (Ü. Lond.) (Ana.: 627-5 kN)

42. A short hollow column of circular section, 2 0 0 m m outside diameter and


2 5 m m thick, carries an axial loading of 4 0 0 k N together with a parallel offset
load W a t an eccentricity of 125 m m . Calculate the m a x i m u m value of W if there
is t o be no tensile stress in the column.
Under these conditions, what is t h e m a x i m u m compressive stress? ( U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 181-8 k N ; 84-6 M N / m )
43. A short hollow C.I. column of square section 2 0 0 m m χ 2 0 0 m m externally
and 150 m m χ 150 m m internally sustains a compressive load of 1-4 MN, whose
line of action passes through the centre of the external section. I f the inner section
is symmetrical about one centre of the outer section but is displaced t o one side
owing t o the movement of the core during casting, find the m a x i m u m permissible
2
amount of such a displacement if the m a x i m u m stress is not t o exceed 100 M N / m .
(Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 8-68 m m )
44. A brick chimney weighs 2-9 MN and the section a t the base is a regular
octagon, 3 m across the flats, the thickness of the brickwork being 0-675 m.
Calculate the moment of resistance of the base eection if, with t h e resultant
wind load acting normal t o a plane face, there is no resultant tension across the
section. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-495 MN m)

45. A 3 0 m high brick chimney is 2-3 m outside diameter a t the top and tapers
uniformly t o 3-3 m outside diameter a t t h e bottom. The chimney weighs 2-2 MN
2
a n d is 0-675 m thick a t t h e base. I f a uniform horizontal wind pressure of 1 k N / m
a c t s on t h e projected area of the chimney, determine the m a x i m u m and minimum
2 2
normal stresses on the base. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 7 7 8 k N / m ; 12 k N / m )
46. A rectangular steel beam 6 0 m m deep by 3 0 m m wide is supported on
knife-edges 2 m a p a r t and loaded with two equal point loads a t one-third of the
span from each end. F i n d the load a t which yielding just begins, the yield point
2
of the material in simple tension being 3 0 0 M N / m .
I f the loads are increased to 2 5 per cent above this value, estimate how far the
yielding penetrates towards the neutral axis, assuming t h a t the m a x i m u m stress
remains constant and t h a t the yield point in compression is the same as t h a t in
tension. (Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 8 1 0 k N ; 13-42 m m )
47. A rectangular steel beam A B , 2 0 m m wide by 10 m m deep, is placed sym-
metrically on two knife-edges C and D, 0-5 m apart, and loaded by applying equal
weights a t the ends A and B . The steel follows a linear stress/strain law (E = 2 0 0
2 2
G N / m ) up t o a yield stress of 3 0 0 M N / m ; a t this constant stress considerable
plastic deformation occurs. I t m a y be assumed t h a t the properties of the steel are
the same in tension and compression.
Calculate the bending moment on the central part of the beam CD when yielding
BENDING STRESSES 67
commences and the deflection a t the centre relative t o the supports. I f the loads
are increased until yielding penetrates half-way t o the neutral axis, calculate the
new value of the bending moment and t h e corresponding deflection. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 100 Ν m ; 9-375 m m ; 137-5 Ν m ; 18-75 m m )
48. Two plates of mild steel, each of cross-section 4 0 m m by 3 m m , a n d one
plate of alloy steel 4 0 m m by 6 m m are placed side by side and fastened rigidly
together t o form a symmetrical composite sandwich b a r 4 0 m m by 12 m m . The
2
müd steel has a definite yield point a t 2 4 0 M N / m in both tension and compression ;
2
the alloy steel is elastic up t o 8 0 0 M N / m and Ε is the same for both steels. The
bar is tested as a beam of span 0-6 m with the 4 0 m m dimension as the depth, a
concentrated load being applied a t the centre of the span.
F i n d the central load a t which the mild steel will just commence t o yield and
also the load a t which t h e m a x i m u m bending stress in the alloy steel will reach
2
4 8 0 M N / m . I t m a y be assumed t h a t the mild steel follows a linear stress/strain
law up t o the yield point, a t which considerable yielding occurs. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 5-12 k N ; 8-63 kN)
49. A steel bar of T-section as shown in Fig. 3.39 is used as a simply supported
beam on a span of 2 m t o carry a point load a t mid-span. A load of 9 k N is just
sufiicient t o cause yielding t o commence a t the bottom of the vertical leg of the
section a t mid-span. E s t i m a t e the load which would be required t o cause yielding
t o commence a t the t o p of t h e section. S t a t e a n y assumptions made in deriving
the answer.
_β 4
Before yielding occurs, h = 19-74 m m and Ιχχ = 1-003 χ 1 0 m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 14-9 k N )

ι 120mm , I

8 0 mm

FIG. 3.39
CHAPTER 4

TORSION

4.1 Stress due to twisting. If a shaft is subjected to a pure torque,


i.e. not accompanied by bending or axial thrust, every cross-section is in
a state of pure shear. The shearing stress induced in the shaft produces a
moment of resistance, equal and opposite to the applied torque.
In the theory of twisting, which relates the shear stress and angle of
twist to the applied torque, it is assumed that :
1. The material is homogeneous, elastic and obeys Hooke's Law, i.e. the
shear stress at any point is proportional to the shear strain at that
point.
2. Stresses do not exceed the limit of proportionality.
3. Radial lines remain radial after twisting.
4. Plane cross-sections remain plane after twisting.*
From the third assumption, it follows that the strain (and hence the
stress) is directly proportional to the radius. Thus, if the shear stress at the
surface of the shaft is τ, then the stress on an element da at a distance χ
from the axis, Fig. 4.1

Λ shear force on element

Λ moment of force about Ο

2
Λ total moment of resistance = - \x da

This is equal to the applied torque, T,


τ Τ τ
i.e. T=-J or 1 = 1 . . (4.1)
r J r
This formula gives the shear stress at the surface in terms of Τ and*/ but
the stress at any other radius can be readily obtained since it is proportional
to the radius at that point.
* F o r non-circular shafts, the assumption t h a t plane sections remain plane after
twisting is not justified and this theory ceases to apply.
68
TORSION 69

4.2 Modulus of section. The maximum shear stress in a shaft is given

τ τ

The quantity - is called the modulus of section and is denoted by Z.

Thus r = J (4.2)

7
For a solid shaft, Z = ^ ^ = — . . . . (4.3)
v
d/2 16 '
For a hollow shaft Ζ = ~ ^
D/2
where D and d are the outer and inner diameters respectively

• <»>
3
It should be noted that Ζ for a hollow shaft is NOT —(Z) - d%
v 1
16
4.3 Angle of twist. Due to the shear strain in the shaft, the longitudinal
line AB, Fig. 4.2, will move to the position AC, the end A being considered

FIG. 4.2

fixed. The angle BAC is the shear strain, φ (see Art. 1.3), and the angle
BOC is the angle of twist, 0.
BC = Ιφ = τβ

(4.5)
70 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

Combining this with equation (4.1) gives the general twisting formula
Τ τ GO*
7J - =r - ΓI - * * * * ·
= ( 4 6)

4.4 Strain energy. If a torque Τ is gradually applied to a shaft and


produces an angle of twist 0, then the work done, or strain energy, is the
average torque multiplied by the angle through which it acts,
i.e. ϋ = \ΤΘ
But T=-J and 0= ^
r Gr

2\r )\Gr) 2G'r*


4
For a solid shaft, J = ~ d and r = ^
32 2
2 4
τ π<Ζ Ζ/32
Î7 =
2(?' ά*μ

g . ^ = gxvolume. . . (4.7)
π 4 4 D
For a hollow shaft, J = — (Z) - d ) and r =
32 2
2
τ π(Ό* - d*)l/32
E7: 2β'
2
Χ> /4
2 2 2
τ π(Ζ> -ό )(Ζ) +
2 2
4- <ί ). ίΖ2\
2<? 8 D
2
ι

Κ)
2
" / ~ .
4G χ volume χ ( 1 + ™ · · (4-8)
As d -> 0, U volume, as in equation (4.7).

As d D, 17 - volume, as in equation (1.21), the shear stress


becoming uniform as the tube thickness decreases.
* Comparing this equation with equation ( 3 . 8 ) , it may be considered
— σ —
that the two formulae are not completely analogous owing
to the discrepancy in the last term. However, in the
corresponding case of a beam subjected to a uniform
bending moment the beam bends in the arc of a circle,
Fig. 4 . 3 , and if the change of slope between the ends is φ,
then

Thus, in this case


Pio. 4.3
TORSION 71
Equations (4.7) and (4.8) give the mean strain energy per unit volume of
the shaft in terms of the maximum stress. The actual strain energy per
2
τ
unit volume at a particular point is — where r is the shear stress at that
2G
point.
4.5 Composite shafts. A composite shaft is one which consists of two
or more materials rigidly fixed together so that they share the applied
torque.
If Tx and T2 are the parts of the applied torque Τ carried by the two
materials, Fig. 4.4, then
Τλ + Τ2=Τ . . . . (4.9)
Also the angle of twist of the two parts is the same,

i.e. 0! = 02

i.e.
GXJ j G2J 2

or (4.10)
Τ2 G F r o . 4.4

Tx and Τ2 can be determined from equations (4.9) and (4.10) and the
stresses in the two materials are then given by

Ti = ^ and To
:

4.6 Twisting beyond the limit of proportionality. When a torque


is applied to a shaft sufficient to cause yielding in the material, the relation
between the shear stress and the angle of twist is assumed to be similar to
that between the direct stress and angle of bending for an overstrained
beam (Art. 3.13). Thus the stress is proportional to the radius up to the
limit of proportionality, after which it remains constant over the remainder
of the shaft section.
Consider a shaft section of radius R, Fig. 4.5,
which is subjected to a torque sufficient to cause
yielding to a radius r\ let the stress at the limit
of proportionality be r.
Then, for the elastic part,

3
Τ=τΖ = τ χ -r
2
For the plastic part, the torque on an elementary
ring, of radius χ and thickness dx is
τ Χ 2π X dx Χ χ FIG. 4 . 5
72 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

2
/ . total torque on plastic part = r Χ 2πχ dx
3 3
= τ Χ §π(Α - r ) . (4.11)
The total torque carried by the shaft is then the sum of the torques
carried by the elastic and plastic parts.

1. A shaft 50 mm in diameter and 0-75 m long has a concentric hole drilled


for a portion of its length. Find the maximum length and diameter of the hole
so that when the shaft is subjected to a torque of 1-67 kN m, the maximum
2
shearing stress will not exceed 75 MN/m and the total angle of twist will not be
2
greater than 1£°. G = 80 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
Τ
π D d
^7 ^ ν i* ~~ *\ · from equations (4.2)
T = = T Z = TX
ü\-^-j and (4.4)
3 Q Q 5 4
Λ 1.67xl0 =75xl0eX^ ' -^
16\ 005 /
from which d = 0-027 7 m or 27-7 mm
Let I be the length of the hole.
Τ GO
Then —= — . . . . . from equation (4.6)
J I

:.e= l T

GJ
7 5 1
η 1·67Χ103[°· -* +.
1| X
4 4
i.e. 1 80 - 80 χ 1 0 » ^ χ 0-05* —(0-05 - 0-027 7 ) I
v 1
132 32
from which I = 0-19 m

2. A hollow marine propeller shaft turning at 110 rev/min is required to


propel a vessel at 47 km/h for the expenditure o/6-4 MW, the efficiency of the
propeller being 68 per cent. The diameter ratio of the shaft is to be § and the
2
direct stress due to the thrust is not to exceed 8 MN/m .
Calculate: (a) the shaft diameters, (b) the maximum shearing stress due to
the torque. (U. Lond.)
3
r\ ι ι 47 χ 10 _ _1T
Output power = χ Ρ W
where Ρ is the propulsive force in Ν 3 600
3
47 χ 10 6
Ρ = 0-68 χ 6-4 χ 10
3 600
Λ Ρ = 334 kN
TORSION 73
3 2 2 e
Λ 334 χ ΙΟ = - ( D - d ) χ 8 χ 10 ,
4
where D and d are the outside and inside diameters respectively
2 e
= ? χ _ D χ 8 X 10 since d = § D 3
4 9
/. Z) = 0-309 3 m and d = 0-206 2 m
y = 6 4 x l 0 e x 6 0 = 5 5 6 0 Q 0 mN

2π X 110
556 000 = τΖ = r χ

: τ χ £L χ 0-309 33(1 - [§]*)


Ιο
!
119 MN/m2
3. A hollow steel shaft of 400 mm external diameter transmits 9 MW at
120 rev/min. If the angle of twist measured over a length of 2 m is 0-45° and
2
G is 80 GN/m , estimate the internal diameter of the shaft, the maximum
shearing stress and the strain energy per metre length of shaft.
Find the diameter of the solid shaft which will transmit the same power at
the same maximum stress and find the ratio of the strain energy per metre
length in this shaft to that in the hollow shaft. (U. Lond.)
6
m 9 Χ ΙΟ X 60 η λ η ΓΛΛ "\τ

Τ = = 717 500 Ν m
2π Χ 120
T___G6
J ~ I
8 0 1 09 4 5
π
χ χ °' χ
i.e. 717 500 180
£<ο*-*)
from which d = 0-22 m
τ = 7ζ
4 4

i.e. ^ η ,λλ π /0·40 - 0·22 \ η


717 500 = τ Χ —( ) = τ Χ -— Χ 0-058 1
τ = 62-9 1MN/m
6\ 2 0-40 / 16
Strain energy per metre length

= £ χ 717 500 χ ^ X = 1410 J


2 180 — ^
74 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

For the solid shaft to transmit the same power (i.e. the same torque) at
the same maximum stress, it must have the same modulus of section,
i.e. d = ^0-058 1 = 0-387 3 m
, 717 500
Twist per metre length = • = 0-004 515 rad
71 4
80 χ 10» χ — χ 0-387 3
32
Λ ratio of strain energies = β Q Q 4 ^15 _ 145
0-45 π
X
~2~ Ï8Ô
4. A shaft tapers uniformly from a radius (r + a) at one end to a radius
(r — a) at the other end. If the shaft is under an axial torque Τ and a — 0-lr,
determine the percentage error
in the angle of twist for a given
length when the twist is calcu- r-a Γ + σ

lated on the assumption of a


constant radius r. (U. Lond.)
Let the length of the shaft
be I and let the radius at a
distance χ from the small end FIG. 4.6
be R> Fig. 4.6.
Then R= (Γ- α) + - Χ 2α
L
= ,(o, + - ) since a — 0-lr

Angle of twist of an element of length dx


Tdx Tdx
GJ
G χ

,'. total angle of twist of shaft


_ 2W r âx
4
Gnr*) 0 (0-9/ + 0-2x)
10W Γ 1 Τ Tl
Gnr* |_3(0·9Ζ +t = 2-068 —
3

For a uniform shaft of radius r, • 0-2z) Jo Gnr*


Tl
0 2 —
4
ftzrr
Gx π

2-068- 2 1 ΛΛ
error = ———— χ 100 = 3-30 per cent
2-068
TORSION 75
5. A horizontal shaft, securely fixed at each end, has a free length of 10 m.
Viewed from one end of the shaft, axial couples of 30 kN m clockwise and
40 kN m counterclockwise act on the shaft at distances of 4 and 7 m respec-
tively from the viewed end. Determine the end fixing couples in magnitude and
direction and find the diameter of the solid shaft for a maximum shearing
2
stress of 60 MN/m .
Draw a diagram to show how a line, originally parallel to the axis and on
the outer surface of the shaft, will appear after the application of the couples
and find the position along the shaft where the shaft suffers no angular twist
(U. Lond.)
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.7. Let the fixing torque at A be T,
assumed clockwise.

40 kNm FIG. 4 8

30kNm

FIG. 4.7

Then torque on AB = Τ kN m
torque on BC = Τ + 30 kN m
and torque on CD = Τ + 30 - 40 kN m = Τ - 10 kN m
Τ χ 4 (Τ + 30) χ 3 (Τ - 10) χ 3
Ohe = and ö c d =
GJ
1
~
υϋ
GJ GJ
Since there is no relative twist between A and D,
4Γ + 3(T + 30) + 3(T - 10) = 0
Λ Τ = — 6 kN m (i.e. anticlockwise)
Torque on CD = —6 — 10 = —16 kN m, anticlockwise looking from A.
Hence the fixing torque at D is clockwise, of magnitude 16 kN m.
The maximum torque occurs in BC and is —6 + 30 = 24 kN m.
Τ=τΖ
3 e
i.e. 24 χ 10 = 60 χ 10 x ^ d*
16
.'. d = 0-127 m
m . . .« 6x4 24 16 X 3 48
Twist at 13 = — — = — and twist at C = ——— = —
GJ GJ GJ GJ
Fig. 4.8 shows the variation in twist along the length of the shaft.
From similar triangles,
χ 3—χ
76 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

6. A bronze liner of 60 mm outside diameter is fitted over and firmly attached


to a steel shaft of 4 0 mm diameter. The working shearing stresses are 6 0 and
2
3 8 MN/m for the steel and bronze respectively. Calculate the power which can
2
be transmitted by the compound shaft at 5 0 0 rev/min. 6 r s t el e = 8 0 GN/m ;
2
Gbronze = 4 4 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
From equation (4.10),

80
4
0-04
= TT X 4 4
0-447 5 (1)
44 0-06 - 0-04
Τ, = r 8 Z s = T s X -π X 0-043 (2)
4
rp rr U 0Ό6
4
0-04
(3)
Th = r b Z b = r b X — X 0-06
II l ! χ — = 0-447 5 from equation (1)
TB 65
1-212

It is therefore evident that the bronze will reach its limiting stress of
2 2
38 MN/m before the steel reaches its limiting stress of 60 MN/m .
2
The maximum stress in the bronze is therefore 38 MN/m and the
maximum stress in the steel is 38 X 1-212 = 46-1 MN/m .
2

Therefore T 8 = 580 Ν m from equation (2)


and Th = 1 293 Ν m from equation (3)
Λ Τ = 1 873 Ν m
•500

.·. power
r = 1 873 χ 2π Χ — W
60
= 98 kW
7. A shaft having a diameter of 90 mm is turned down to 87 mm diameter
for part of its length. If a torque is applied to the shaft of sufficient magnitude
just to produce yielding at the surface of the shaft in the unturned part, deter-
mine the depth of yielding which would occur in the turned part. Find also the
ratio of the angle of twist per unit length in the turned part to that in the un-
turned part of the shaft. State any assumptions made. (U. Lond.)

FIG. 4.9
TORSION 77
Let τ be the maximum stress in the elastic part of the shaft and the
uniform stress in the plastic part.
3
Then torque applied to 90 mm diameter shaft = τΖ = τ X — Χ 90
16
For the 87 mm diameter shaft, let r be the outer radius of the elastic
part, Fig. 4.9.
Then torque carried by elastic part
3
= xZ = χ Χ % r
2
and torque carried by plastic part
= χ Χ §π(Α — r )
3 3
from equation (4.11)
= χ Χ §π(43·5 - r )
3 3

Equating torques on the two parts of the shaft,


3 3 3 3
T X 90 = T X ^ r + T X §π(43·5 - r )
Z L X
16 2
from which r = 38*2 mm
i.e. depth of yield = 43-5 — 38-2= 5-3 mm

For the elastic parts of the shaft,


r I

Λ θ oc -
r
twist per unit length in turned part 4-5 ^
twist per unit length in unturned part 3-82

8. A hollow shaft is 50 mm outside diameter and 30 mm internal diameter. An


applied torque of 1*6 kN m is found to produce an angular twist of 0*4°, measured
on a length of 0-2 m of the shaft. Calculate the value of the modulus of rigidity.
Calculate also the maximum power which could be transmitted by2 the shaft at
2 0 0 0 rev/min if the maximum allowable shearing stress is 6 5 MN/m . ( U. Lond.)
8
(Ans.: 8 6 GN/m ; 2 9 2 kW)
9. A hollow shaft of diameter ratio 3 : 5 is required to transmit 600 kW at
110 rev/min, the maximum torque being 12 2
per cent greater than the mean. The
shearing stress is not to exceed 60 MN/m and the twist in a length of 3 m is not
to exceed 1°. Calculate the minimum
2
external diameter of the shaft satisfying
these conditions. Ο = 8 0 GN/m . (U. Lond.) (Ana.: mm)
10. A hollow shaft is to have an internal diameter of 0-6 χ the external
diameter and is required to transmit 1 500 kW at a speed of 2 500 rev/min. It is
to be fitted with aflangedcoupling having 8 bolts on a circle of diameter twice
that of the 2
shaft. Assuming
a
allowable shearing stresses in shaft and bolts of
70 MN/m and 55 MN/m respectively, determine the necessary diameters.
(17. Lond.) (Ans.: 78-2 mm; 46-9 mm; 14-54 mm)
11. Aflangecoupling is required for a shaft transmitting 220 kW at 240 rev/min.
The bolts are 16 mm diameter and are to be arranged on a circle of 250 mm
78 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
diameter; the working shearing stress in the bolts must not exceed 6 0 M N / m .
Determine the number of bolts required and the actual stress realised.
Briefly describe and explain how the power transmitted by the shaft m a y be
2
measured. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 6 ; 59-4 M N / m )
12. A hollow shaft, subjected t o a pure torque, attains a m a x i m u m shearing
2
stress τ . Given t h a t the strain energy stored per unit volume is τ / 3 6 ? , calculate
the ratio of the shaft diameters.
Determine the actual diameters for such a shaft required t o transmit 3 7 0 0 k W
3
a t 110 r e v / m i n with uniform torque when the energy stored is 2 0 k J / m of
2
material. G = 8 0 G N / m . (Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: V3 : 1 ; 298-2 m m ; 172 m m )
13. A hollow shaft having the external diameter twice t h e internal diameter,
subjected t o a pure torque, attains a m a x i m u m shear stress τ . Show t h a t the strain
2
energy stored per unit volume of the shaft is 5 τ / 1 6 ( ? .
Such a shaft is required t o transmit 4 5 0 0 k W a t 110 r e v / m i n with uniform
2
torque, the m a x i m u m stress not exceeding 7 0 M N / m . Calculate the shaft dia-
3 2
meters and the energy stored per m when transmitting this power. G — 8 3 G N / m .
3
(Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 312 m m ; 156 m m ; 18-44 k J / m )
14. A steel shaft A B C D has a total length of 1-3 m, made up as follows:
A B = 0-3 m, B C = 0-4 m a n d CD = 0-6 m. A B is hollow, its outside diameter
being 100 m m and its inside diameter d m m . B C and CD a r e solid, having dia-
meters of 100 m m and 8 8 m m respectively. I f equal opposite torques are applied
t o the ends of t h e shaft, find, t o the nearest 1 m m , the m a x i m u m permissible
value of d for the m a x i m u m shearing stress in A B not t o exceed t h a t in CD. I f t h e
torque applied t o t h e shaft is 9 k N m, what is the t o t a l angle of twist? G — 8 2
2
G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 7 5 m m ; 1-148°)
15. A steel shaft A B C D having a total length of 1-5 m is made of three lengths
A B , B C and CD, each 0-5 m long. A B and B C are solid, having diameters of 6 0 m m
and 7 0 m m respectively, and CD is hollow having outside and inside diameters
of 70 m m and 4 5 m m respectively. When a n axial torque of 2 kN m is transmitted
from one end of the shaft t o the other, t h e t o t a l angle of twist from A t o D is
1-2°. Determine: (a) the m a x i m u m shearing stress in the shaft and state where it
occurs, (b) the angle of twist for each of the three lengths A B , B C and CD, (c) t h e
modulus of rigiditv of the material. ( U. Lond.)
2 2
(Aw.:49-4 M N / m in A B ; 0 - 5 4 8 ° ; 0-296°; 0 - 3 5 6 ° ; 8 2 2 G N / m )
16. A shaft runs a t 3 0 0 r e v / m i n and transmits power from a pulley A a t one end
t o two pulleys, Β and C, which each drive a machine in a workshop. The distance
between pulleys A and Β is 3 m and t h a t between Β and C is 2-4 m (i.e. the t o t a l
length of the shaft is 5-4 m ) . The shaft has a diameter of 5 0 m m between A and Β
and a diameter of 4 0 m m between Β and C. I f the m a x i m u m permissible shear
2
stress in the shaft is 8 0 M N / m , calculate the m a x i m u m power which m a y be
supplied from each of the pulleys Β and C, assuming t h a t both machines would
be in operation a t the same time. Also calculate the total angle of twist of one end
2
of the shaft relative t o the other when running on full load. G — 8 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 3 0 1 k W ; 31-6 k W ; 13-75°)
17. A cylindrical steel shaft, 4 5 0 m m long and 5 0 m m external diameter, has
one end rigidly fixed and the other end free. A central hole, 150 m m long and
2 5 m m diameter, is drilled axially into the free end of the shaft. An axial twisting
moment of 2-5 k N m is applied t o the free end and another of 1-25 k N m in the
same direction t o a point 100 m m from t h e end. F i n d t h e m a x i m u m shearing
2
stress in the shaft and the total angle of twist in radians. G = 7 5 G N / m .
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 163 M N / m ; 1-985°)
TORSION 79
18. P a r t of a steel tube 2 4 m m external diameter and 6 mm thick is enlarged
to an external diameter of 3 6 m m . F i n d the diameter of the bore of the enlarged
section so t h a t when t h e tube is twisted the m a x i m u m shearing stresses in both
sections of the tube are equal. I f the t o t a l length of tube is 1 m, find the length of
each section when the t o t a l angle of twist is 4 ° a n d the m a x i m u m shearing stress
2
is 7 5 M N / m . G = W GN/m*. (U. Land.)
(Ans.: 33-2 m m ; 0-688 m ; 0-312 m )

19. A solid cylindrical shaft, 5 0 m m diameter and 1-5 m long, is passed through
the centre of a hollow cylindrical shaft of the same material, 1-5 m long, 5 5 m m
and 7 5 m m inner and outer diameters. The ends of the two shafts a r e rigidly
joined, with the shafts concentric. The composite shaft so formed is used t o
transmit 3 7 5 k W a t a speed of 6 0 0 r e v / m i n . F i n d the m a x i m u m and minimum
stress in the two shafts. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 79-3 M N / m ; 5 8 1 M N / m ; 52-9 M N / m )

20. A solid alloy shaft of 5 0 m m diameter is t o be coupled in series with a


hollow steel shaft of the same external diameter. F i n d t h e internal diameter of
the steel shaft if the angle of twist per unit length is t o be 7 5 per cent of t h a t of
the alloy shaft.
Determine the speed a t which the shafts a r e t o be driven to transmit 2 0 0 k W
2
if the limits of shearing stress are t o be 5 5 and 80 M N / m in the alloy and steel
respectively. Osteel = 2-2 χ Cr a]i 0y. (U. Land.)
(Ans.: 39-6 m m ; 1605 r e v / m i n )

21. A hollow steel shaft 0*6 m long is firmly connected t o a hollow duralumin
shaft which is 0*9 m long and a torque is transmitted from one e x t r e m e end t o the
other. The outside and inside diameters of the shafts are : steel, 6 5 m m and 4 0 m m ;
duralumin, d m m and 6 5 m m . F i n d the outside diameter of the duralumin shaft
4 2
if the m a x i m u m shearing stress in the shafts a r e steel, 9 0 M N / m ; duralumin,
2
60 M N / m . I f the connection is made by fitting the steel shaft into the duralumin
shaft for a length of 150 m m and securely joining the shafts over this length, find
2
the t o t a l angle of twist in the overall length of 1-35 m. Crsteei = 78 G N / m ,
2
^duralumin = 2 6 G N / m . (U. Land.) (Ans.: 71-1 m m ; 3-9°)

22. A composite shaft consists of a steel rod 8 0 m m diameter surrounded by a


closely fitting tube of brass firmly fixed t o it. F i n d the* outside diameter of the
tube so t h a t when a torque is applied t o t h e composite shaft, it will be equally
shared by the two materials. I f the torque is 16 k N m, calculate the m a x i m u m
shearing stress in each material a n d the angle of twist on a length of 3-5 m,
2 2
ftteel = 8 0 G N / m ; (? brass = 4 0 G N / m , (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 105-3 m m ; 79-6 M N / m ; 52-3 M N / m )
23. A round steel rod is surrounded by a close-fitting tube of duralumin, the
two being secured fastened together t o form a composite shaft. F i n d the diameter
of the steel rod a n d t h e outside diameter of the duralumin tube so t h a t the
2
m a x i m u m shearing stresses in the two materials do not exceed 9 0 and 6 0 M N / m
respectively when the composite shaft is subjected t o a torque of 0-7 kN m. Also
2
calculate the angle of twist on a length of 1-2 m. Crdurahmun = 2 6 G N / m ;
2
ögteel = 78 G N / m . (U. Land.) (Ans.: 18-76 m m ; 37-52 m m ; 8-46°)

24. A steel bar 19 m m diameter is encased in a closely fitting brass tube of


32 m m external diameter, securely fixed together a t the ends. The compound bar
is subjected t o a torque of 5 2 0 Ν m a n d the angle of twist measured on a gauge
2
length of 2 5 0 m m is found t o be 1-8°. I f G for the steel is assumed t o be 8 0 G N / m ,
calculate G for the brass.
80 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

F i n d also the maximum shearing stresses in the two materials and the propor-
tions of the total strain energy taken up by each part. (U. Lond.)
2 2 8
(Ans.: 34-6 G N / m ; 95-5 M N / m ; 69-5 M N / m ; 0-248 : 0-752)

2 5 . A steel shaft 9 0 m m diameter is solid for a certain distance from one end
but hollow for the remainder of its length with an inside diameter of 38 m m . I f a
pure torque is transmitted from one end of the shaft t o the other of such a mag-
nitude t h a t yielding just occurs a t the surface of the solid part of the shaft, find
the depth of yielding in the hollow part of the shaft and the ratio of the angles of
twist per unit length for the two parts of the shaft.
State a n y assumptions made in arriving a t the results. ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1-5 m m ; 1 0 3 4 5 : 1)

2 6 . A hollow shaft 5 0 m m outside diameter and 2 5 m m bore is made of steel


2 2
with a yield stress in shear of 150 M N / m and a modulus of rigidity of 83 G N / m .
Calculate the torque and the angle of twist when the material first yields, if the
shaft has a length of 2 m.
On the assumption t h a t the yield stress, after initial yield, then remains constant
for a considerable increase of strain, calculate the depth of penetration of plastic
yield for an increase of torque of 10 per cent above t h a t a t initial yield. Determine
also the angle of twist of the shaft a t the increased torque. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3-45 kN m; 8-29°; 2-83 m m ; 9-35°)

27. A hollow steel shaft having outside and inside diameters of 32 m m and
18 m m respectively is subjected t o a gradually increasing axial torque. The yield
stress is reached a t the surface when the torque is 1 k N m, the angle of twist per m
length then being 7-3°. F i n d t h e magnitude of the yield stress.
I f the torque is increased t o 1*1 kN m, calculate (a) the depth t o which yielding
will have penetrated, (b) the angle of twist per m length. State a n y assumptions
made and prove any special formula used. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 172-7 M N / m ; 1-8 m m ; 8-22°)
CHAPTER 5

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

5.1 Integration method. From Art. 3.9


M E
T~R
If χ and y are the horizontal and vertical co-ordinates of a point on the
beam,

where R is the radius of curvature.

In any practical case of bending of beams, the slope is very small and

so is negligible in comparison with 1.

Thus

so that

or

If the bending moment M can be expressed as a function of x, successive

integration will give expressions for EI and Ely. The constants of


integration may be determined from the end-fixing conditions.
If the cross-section of the beam is varying, so that / is a function of x,
then equation (5.1) must be expressed in the form Ε , the function

then being integrated.

Since F = and w from Art. 2.3, it follows that

(5.2)

and (5.3)
82 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

In cases of distributed loads which vary in a mathematical manner, it


may be difficult to obtain an expression for M in terms of x. In such cases,
it may be simpler to start from equation (5.3) and integrate four times to
obtain the deflection equation (see Ex. 7 ) .
Beam deflections are inversely proportional to EI, which is termed the
flexural rigidity of the beam.

5.2 S t a n d a r d cases of b e a m deflections.


Case (a)—cantilever with concentrated end load, Fig. 5.1.
Taking the origin at the fixed end,

El = w(lx-*) + Λ FIG. 5.1

Ay
When χ = 0, - 2 = 0, so that A = 0,
dx

V
/. Ely + B

When χ = 0, y = 0, so that Β = 0.
The maximum slope and deflection occur at the free end, where x=l,
d

i.e. ( J>) = . . . (5.4)


2EI
3
Wl
and (5.5)
3EI
Case (b)—cantilever with uniformly distributed load, Fig. 5.2.

w/unit length
==£(/*-2/x+x*)

Fia. 5.2
Λ Εΐψ=™(ΐ*χ-Ιχ*+*>) + Α
άχ 2\ 3/

When χ = 0, = 0, so that ^ = 0,
dx
2 2 3 4
w/7 x Zx x \
* 2\2 3 12/ ^
When χ = 0, y = 0, so that 5 = 0 .
* Positive, to agree with the sign convention of Art. 2 . 1 .
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 83

The maximum slope and deflection occur at the free end, where χ = I,
wP
i.e = (5.6)
SEI

and !/max — «ι* (5.7)


81/
Case (c)—cantilever with end couple, Fig. 5.3.

2
dz

.*. EI^= Mx+ A


ax

When χ = 0, ^ = 0, so that ^ = 0, Fia. 5.3


dx

When χ = 0, y = 0, so that 5 = 0 .
The maximum slope and deflection occur at the free end, where χ = I
Ml
i.e. (5.8)
χ
\ά )τ Yl
_ MP
and y x
(5.9)
™ ~2ËÏ '
Case (d )—simply supported beam with central concentrated load, Fig. 5.4.

W
2 5
FIG. 5.4
Taking the origin at the centre,

dx
2
2 \2 J
2
dy W/lx _ x \
EI
dx ~2\2 ~2J

When χ = 0, = 0, so that A = 0,
dx
_ W/lx*
:. Ely
=
+ B
Τ "6/
* The B.M. in this case is negative, since the beam is bending convex downwards.
84 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

When χ = - , y = 0, so that Β = W Ρ
2 * 2 24
. _ _ΤΓ/Ζχ2 s* _ ΡΛ
y _
" 2\T 6 24/

The maximum slope occurs at the ends, where χ = -,


2
/M Wl
i.e.
=
(5.10)
\d^/max 16£/
The maximum deflection occurs at the centre, where χ = 0,

i.e. (5.11)
48#/
Case (e)—simply supported beam with uniformly distributed loady Fig. 5.5.
w / u n i t length

wl wl
2 I 7
FIG. 5 . 5

» 2 -
win
—\ - — x)
\ ,
4- ivl
/
.6-)
: . e i * * = -
dx
dy
When χ = 0, = 0, so that ,4 = 0,
dx
2 22 2
_w/l flxx _ x*\
\ Ely
~ 2 V ~Ί 8Γ~ '~ 12,
12/
4
l w 5Z
When χ = -, y = 0, so that 5 = ,
Γ 2 192'
Λ JS/y =
ϊV 8 12 192/

The maximum slope occurs at the ends, where χ = -,


2
3
wZ
i.e. (5.12)
2ÏËÏ
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 85
The maximum deflection occurs at the centre, where χ = 0,

max — 5 13
y™=mu • • • ·< · >
NOTES. (1) With the sign convention adopted for bending moment, deflec-
tions are positive downwards and slopes are positive downwards moving
away from the origin.
(2) The same results for slope and deflection may be obtained with other
choices of origin for χ but a fixed end or axis of symmetry usually provides
the most convenient origin.
(3) Slope and deflection formulae for simply supported beams may be
deduced from the cantilever formulae. Thus the central deflection for a
simply supported beam of span I carrying a uniformly distributed load w
per unit length is the same as the end deflection of a cantilever of length
1/2 carrying a downward uniformly distributed load w per unit length and
an upward concentrated load wl/2 at the free end, as shown in Fig. 5.6,
i.e. central deflection for simply supported beam
wl/lV n\*
2\2 from equations (5.5) and (5.7)
3EI SEI
5 wl*

\W

% w/unit length
Λr --1 c
X J

]wl/2 Wb / Η Wg
1/2 I
I
FIG. 5.6 F I G . 5.7

5.3 Single concentrated load not at centre—Macaulay's method.


Let the distances of the load W from the ends A and Β be α and 6 respec-
Wb Wa
tively, Fig. 5.7. The reactions at A and Β are then —— and respectively.
I ι
Consider first the part AC. Taking the origin at A,
ΕΙ Λ
ά
2 = W b
(5.14)
dx I

. (5.15)
3
Wh τ ·
and . (5.16)
86 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

When x=0,y=0,so that Bx = 0.


The point at which the slope is zero is unknown and the condition that
y == 0 when χ = I cannot be used since the equations do not apply beyond
the point C. Thus the constant A1 must remain unknown for the present.
Now consider the part CB, keeping the point A as origin.
2
dv Wb
EI%\=~x+W[x-a\
Δ . . . .(5.17)
αχ I
:.EI—=—^ — +W\ Ί — —
— ax\+A
ax\ 2.1 2
. . (5.18)
v 1
dx 12

and E l y ^ - ^ + W ^ - a ^ + A t X + B . , (5.19)
2
Wal
When χ = l, y = 0, so that B2 = — A2l.
3
For similar reasons to those given above, the constant A2 cannot be
determined at this stage.
Equating the slopes at C as given by equations (5.15) and (5.18) when
χ = a, 2 2
Wba*. A Wba faw 12
2
—— + ΑΛ = — + W — — a + Ao
12
Equating 12 at C as[_2
the deflections given by J
equations (5.16) and (5.19)
when χ = a,
3
Wb a ' ι A Wba* fa
w
3 3
αΊ /TfaZ
2
Λ
Τ 6
and may be determined from these equations and hence the slope
and deflection obtained at any point, using equations (5.15) and (5.16) for
x< a and equations (5.18) and (5.19) for x> a.
For two concentrated loads, three sets of equations are required for the
three ranges of the beam, leading to six constants of integration. Two of
these are obtained from the conditions that y = 0 at χ = 0 and χ = I, and
the remaining four are determined by equating slopes and deflections under
the loads.
This method becomes cumbersome and it should be noted that the
constants of integration are different in each range of the beam.
Referring to equation (5.17), this could just as legitimately be in-
tegrated as follows :
2
„ dy Wbx , W , A, .^ r\fw
ElfT = - — -+—[x-a]*r + A' . . . (5.20)
dx 12 2 2

3
Wh r W 3
and Ely = —f — + - [ χ - a ] + A'& + B'2 . . (5.21)
Ζ 6 6
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 87

The constant A'2 will not be the same as A2 previously obtained

^A2 — ^ 2 + and B2 will not be the same as B2 ^B2 = B'2 — ^j.

If the slopes at C are now equated, using equations (5.15) and (5.20)
when χ = a,
Wba* Wba* Wr 12 ,
2
h ΑΛ = — [α — α ] + Αο

•••A = i j ( = 4 )
Similarly, equating deflections at C, using equations (5.16) and (5.21)
when x= a,
W b a
* i j ι z> Wba* Wr . Ώ,
-— - + Aa + B1 = - — - + - [ a - af + Aa + B2
:.B1=B'2( = B)
Thus, by this method of integration, the constants of integration for
each range of the beam are the same and there is the further advantage
that equations (5.17), (5.20) and (5.21) are identical with equations (5.14),
(5.15) and (5.16), except for the additional term involving [x — a], which
only comes in when x> a, i.e. when [x — a] is positive. Thus equations
(5.17), (5.20) and (5.21) may be regarded as applying to the whole beam
provided that, for any value of χ which makes [x — a] negative, this term
is ignored.
This method is known as Macaulay's Method and it is conventional to use
square brackets for terms such as [x — a] which have to be treated in this
special manner.
Proceeding with this case, the deflection equation (5.21) simplifies to

EIy= —- - + - [x - af + Ax + Β

When χ = 0, y = 0, so that Β = 0 since [x — a] is negative for this value


of χ and the term involving this is therefore ignored.

When χ = l, y = 0, so that A = ^-(l + b).

The deflection under the load is then given by


„τ Wba* , Wabn ,
^
=
- χ 6 -
+
-6Γ
(ϊ+δ)α

y s i
(5.22)
" ZEIl
Wl*
* When a = b = 1/2, this reduces t o . Q - r , a s in equation (5.11).
4oAI
88 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The maximum deflection will occur between the load point and the centre
of the beam. I f a > 6, this point will correspond to χ < α, so that, from
equation (5.20),
Wab
v
I 2 6i '
Writing a= I — b, this reduces to χ =
Substituting in equation (5.21),

0+»
2
_ Wb/l* - 6 y
Ely™* _
~M\ 3 )
2 8 3 2
Wb(l - è ) ' (5.23)
or
9λ/3£/Ζ
As 6 -> 0, χ -> Z/\/3, which is approximately 1/13 from the centre of the
beam. Thus the maximum deflection is very close to the centre of the beam,
even for an extremely unsymmetrical load and for most normal cases of
loads on beams simply supported at the ends, the maximum deflection is
virtually identical with the central deflection.
5.4 Distributed loads. I f the beam shown in Fig. 5.8 carries also a
uniformly distributed load w per unit length over the whole span, then the
bending moment equation becomes
EIp-=-Rx+W[x-a\
2 + w%
dx 2
W
W
w/unit length •
b
I

Γ (
FIG. 5.8 Fw. 5.9

If the distributed load only covers the part DB, Fig. 5.9, then
EI^= 2 -Rx+ W[x a) + ^[x~b]
2

ax
The last term must be treated in the same way as that for the concen
trated load, i.e. it must be integrated
with respect to [x — b] and must be
ignored when negative. W
If the distributed load does not con-
tinue to the end of the beam remote
from the origin, as shown in Fig. 5.10,
it must be continued to the end and a
FIG. 5.10
compensating load added underneath.
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 89
The bending moment equation then becomes

-fix + W[x -a] + -[x

Only by this device can an expression be obtained which can apply to the
whole beam under the usual Macaulay conditions. In general, any dis-
tributed load, when started, must continue to the end remote from the
origin, so that the load system shown in Fig. 5.11(a) must be converted to
that shown in Fig. 5.11(6) before Macaulay's Method can be applied.

(a) (b)
F i a . 5.11

5.5 Couple applied at a point. Taking the origin at A, Fig. 5.12, the
B.M. at a point within AC is
Μ
M M /
A Β
and at a point within CB, it is M
I
M . „
—_ x+ M,
FIG. 5.12

the action of M being to bend the beam convex upwards if imagined held
at the point P.
Thus the additional term, Μ, comes in only for χ > a and so, to corres-
pond with the treatment necessary for loads, it must be integrated with
respect to [x — a]. In order to proceed correctly, it is advisable to write the
bending moment equation in the form

—Tx+M[x-a]o
CiX ν

5.6 A r e a - m o m e n t method. Let AB, Fig. 5.13(a), be part of a beam,


which has been deflected to the position A'B' and let Fig. 5.13(6) represent
the corresponding part of the B.M. diagram.
From equation (5.1),
EI- .ay
dz
2 M

Λ slope of beam at any point

dx )EI

= -Jj äx, if Ε and / are constants.


90 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

(b)
FIG. 5.13

If the slopes at A and B , distances xx and x 2 from an origin, are θχ and


0 2 respectively,
Xt
then d2-d1 = ~ [ M dx (5.24)
EI) xx

area of B.M. diagram between points A and B .

If θχ is zero, then 0 2 is the actual slope of the beam at B .


Multiplying both sides of equation (5.1) by x,

Integrating by parts between the limits of xx and x2,

(5.25)

moment of area of B.M. diagram about origin.

By a suitable choice of origin, can usually be made zero at both


limits and y can be made zero at one limit, leaving the value of y at the
other limit to represent the required deflection.
The area-moment method is usually convenient to use only when a
point of zero slope is known.
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

Case (a)—cantilever with concentrated end load, Fig. 5.14.

2
Wl
Le
* 0b =
Wisince Θά = 0

FIG. 5.14

Taking the origin at B ,

Γ I
1

EI
X \Wl.l χ \l
3
TfZ
i.e. (0 _ 0) - (0 - yh) = yh = —

Case (b)—cantilever with uniformly distributed load, Fig. 5.15,

1 ι wZ
2
7
A
1 --^je^
i.e. b =
üTi 8ince0
» = o

FIG. 5.15

Taking the origin at B ,

[ 4 h :

i.e. ( 0 - 0 ) - ( 0 - y b ) = yb =
8£Z
Coee (c)—cantilever with end couple, Fig. 5.16.

0„-0Λ=2_χ M
EI

i.e. 0b = | ? since 0 & = 0


1
« [
te
FIG. 5.16
92 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Taking the origin at B,

X
L ds *Jo EI
2
Ml
i.e. (0-0)-(0-yh) = yh =
Wi
Case (d )—simply supported beam with
central concentrated load, Fig. 5.17.
1 Wl I *
0 - 0 =
h c
~EI T'2
Xi

2
Wl
i.e. 0b since 0 C = 0
WEI
Taking the origin at Β and con-
sidering the part BC only, FIQ. 5.17
2
Γ dy Τ/ 1 t Wl
X

WP
( o - y ) - ( o - o ) =
i.e. c
Ϊ8ΕΙ
WP
i.e. ÎSEI
A c
Case (e)—simply supported beam with
uniformly distributed had, Fig. 5.18. |

X
u
~EI * 8 '2

i.e. 0 b = - — τ - since 0C = 0

F i a . 5.18

Taking the origin at Β and considering the part BC only,


2
Γ dy I'/ 1 , wl* I . II

NM„ = - M T - 2 :2
x f x f

i.e.
5 trf*
i.e. 384 JSZ
* The area of the B.M. diagram is negative.
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 93
5.7 Maxwell's Reciprocal Rule. Let an elastic body be subjected to
forces W& and Wh at points A and Β respectively, Fig. 5.19.
Let <5aa be the deflection at A in the direction of W& due to W&*
J> ^ab »> >> " >> >> >> >» » ^a >> »
>> ^bb >> »> >> »> »J >> >» >» ^ b >> >» ^ b
>» ^ba »> >> >> >> >> >> J» " ^b >> >> ^ a

Let TFa be applied first. Then work done = \W& o a a, assuming the load
to be gradually applied.
If Wh is now applied, the additional work done = \Wh <5bb + W& <5ab,
the whole of WA moving through the additional distance d a b.
Thus the total work done = $W& δ&Ά + \Wh <5bb + Wa <5ab.
If the loads are removed and then re-applied in the reverse order (i.e.
TFb is applied first), it will be seen, by analogy, that the total work done
= i ^ a ( 5 a a + i T T b ( 5 b b+ T r b ( 5 b a.

Irrespective of the order in which the loads are applied, the body will
assume the same strained position and hence the work done by the loads
will be the same, so that

In the case where W& = TPb, o a b = o b a, i.e.


the deflection at A due to a load at Β is the
same as the deflection at Β if the load is applied
at A, the deflections being the movements of
the points A and Β in the directions shown in
Fig. 5.19.
This simplified case is sometimes of use in
beam deflection problems. For example, if a can- FIG. 5.19
tilever carries a concentrated load not at the free
end, Fig. 5.20, the deflection at C due to the load at Β is the same as the
deflection at Β if the load were moved to C. Similarly, the central deflection

A Β

FIG. 5.20
ι <
FIG. 5.21
ι
of a simply supported beam carrying an offset load, Fig. 5.21, is the same
as the deflection at C if the load were moved to the centre, this being a
standard case dealt with in Art. 5.2.

* T h e total deflections a t A a n d Β will also have components perpendicular to the


lines of action of a n d FT b respectively, b u t no work is done due to these movements.
94 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

5.8 Deflection due to impact. Let a mass M dropping through a height


h produce a maximum instantaneous displacement y and let a load W
gradually applied produce the same deflection y. Then the work done in
the two cases is the same,
i.e. Mg(h + y) = $Wy
But y = kW
where k depends on the nature of the beam and the position of the load.
.·. Mg(h + kW) = \kW* . . . . (5.26)
This is a quadratic from which W, the equivalent static load, can be
obtained.
Then y = kW
1. A horizontal cantilever of uniform section and of length L carries a point
load Wata distance I from the fixed end. Derive expressions for the slope and
deflection at the had and from these or otherwise obtain an expression for the
deflection at the free end.
A horizontal cantilever of uniform section has an effective length of 2-5 m
and carries a load of 50 kN at the free end. If the 50-kN load is replaced by two
equal loads, one at the free end and the other at 1-5 m from the fixed end, such
that the maximum deflection is the same as in the first case, find: (a) the magni-
tude of the equal loads; (b) the maximum bending stress in the second case
expressed as a percentage ofthat in the first case. (U. Lond.)
The deflected form of the beam is as shown in Fig. 5.22(6), the beam
being straight between Β and C.

Λ
1
W

\ Β
%, L (a)

(b)

(c)
F I G . 5.22

Using the formulae derived in case (a), Art. 5.2,

deflection at Β = and sloper at Β = -5^-


3^/ 2EI
DEFLECTION OP BEAMS 95

.'. deflection at C = -5^- + ^-(L — I)


3EI 2ΕΓ '
Wl
- *(3L I)

Alternatively, using Maxwell's Reciprocal Rule, the deflection at C due


to the load at Β is the same as the deflection at Β if the load were at C,

i.e. deflection at C = ^ - ( — — — |,
EI\ 2 6/'
substituting I for χ in the general deflection equation for a cantilever,

Alternatively, using the area-moment method and taking the origin at C,


L
Γ dy ~\ 1
\x ά— — y\ = — X moment of area of B.M. diagram about C
L Jo
χ
EI
i.e. (o _ 0) - (0 - yc) = JL X \Wl.l χ (l - ^
W72

Figs. 5.23(a) and (b) show the two cases.

2-5 m
2-5m 50kN a, 1'5m w

(a) (b)

FIG. 5.23

For equal end deflections,


5 0 2 53 W 2 53 W
X ' X ' + Χ ( 3 χ 2-5 - 1.5)
1 > 5 2
=
3EI 3EI 6EI '
from which W = 34-9 kN
50 χ 2-5 125
In case (a), o~ max = Ζ Ζ
_ 34-9 χ 2-5 + 34-9 χ ! · 5 _ _ 139-6
In case (6), σ,
max - ζ γ~
maximum stress in case (b) 139-7 , „ Λ/
Λ : : — = — — = 1-117 or 111-7%
maximum stress in case (α) 125
96 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

2. A wooden flag-post 6 m high, is 50 mm square for the upper 3 m and


100 mm square for the lower 3 m. Find the deflection of the top due to a hori-
zontal pull of 40 Ν at that point, applied in a direction parallel to one edge of
2
the section. Ε = 10 GN/m .
The total deflection at the top is made up of:
(1) the deflection at Β (yx),
(2) the slope at B , multiplied by the distance BC (y2),
(3) the further deflection due to bending of BC (yz).
These deflections are shown in Fig. 5.24(c).

FIG. 5.24

In calculating yx and y2 (but not y3), it is convenient to move the load to


the point B , introducing a moment of 40 χ 3 Ν m to compensate for this
movement. The equivalent system is as shown in Fig. 5.24(6). The slope
and deflection at Β due to the load and moment at this point can then be
written down, using the formulae derived in case (a) and (c), Art. 5.2;
yz represents the further deflection due to bending along BC due to the
load at C.
Let the second moments of area of parts AB and BC be Ix and 7 2 re-
spectively. Then
y = Vi + y2 + ys
3 2 3
= Γ40 χ 3 120 x 3^1 [40 x 3 120 χ 3^1 40 x 3

_ 360 X 12 Γ 7 1 1
~ 10 χ ΙΟ^δαΟ " 4
0-05 J
4

= 0-099 36 m
Alternatively, using the area-moment method and taking the origin at
the top,
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 97

\x — — y\ = — X moment of area of — diagram


6
about top.
L àx *Jo Ε I
M
The j diagram is shown in Fig. 5.24(d).
Thus (0 - 0) - (0 - yc)

E[2 I2
2
= If! » ? . S X .3 + * ™ .
3 ^ 2 7X
6
2
χ -.6 -
3
l 2™/ Λ χ ?.3l
3 J
x

. _ 360 χ 12Γ 1 7 1
1,e
' Vc
~ 10 χ 10» 0-10 J
4

= 0-099 36 m
3. A horizontal cantilever 2 m long has its free end attached to a vertical
2
tie-rod 3 m long and 300 mm cross-sectional area, which is initially
unstrained. If the second moment of area of the section of the cantilever is
e 4
6·5 X 10~ m , determine the load taken by the tie-rod and the deflection of the
cantilever when a distributed load of 30 kN/m is placed on the outer 1 m of the
2
cantilever. Assume Ε for both cantilever and tie-rod to be 200 GN/m
(U. Lond.)
In order to use the results obtained for standard cases, it is necessary to
continue the load to the fixed end and compensate with a load underneath,
as shown in Fig. 5.25.
Downward deflection at end due to load
on top of beam
30x2* 60
SEI EI 3m
Upward deflection at end due to load
underneath beam Τ
1 m
30 χ 1* , 30 χ 1» Ί I« -
_ ι X1 '\
ΥΥΎΥΥΊ

_ 35SEI 6EI |;χκχ<χ<>


2m ^
~~ 4ËI F i o . 5.25

If the tension in the tie-rod is T, then upward deflection at free end due
to Τ
5
_ Τ χ 2 _ ST
3ËT~~3ËÏ
The resultant downward deflection at the free end is equal to the stretch
Tl
of the tie-rod, — .
aE
98 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

35 _ ST)
60
Thus,
Ε χ 6-5 χ ΙΟ-
Τ ΤΓ 6
Γ χ 3
300 χ 10~«Ε
from which Τ = 18-76 kN
Deflection at free end = stretch of tie-rod
3
18-76 χ ΙΟ χ 3
β
300 χ 1 0 - χ 200 χ 10*
= 0-000 938 m or 0-938 mm

4. Two beams AB and CD, as shown in Fig. 5.26, are of the same material
and have the same cross-section. The support at Β is at the same level as the
fixed end A. Determine the reactions at Β and D if the beam CD carries on its
whole length a uniformly distributed load of 1 JcN/m. (U. Lond.)

* 4m 1kN/m
Id

\ A
5m
•/•^

FIG. 5 . 2 6 FIG. 5 . 2 7

Let the reaction at Β be R and the force in the spacer at D be P, Fig. 5.27.
Then the downward deflection at Β due to Ρ must equal the upward
deflection due to R, since the point Β is level with A,
8 2 3
Ρ χ 4 Ρ χ 4 R χ 5
le + X
* SEI 2EI ~~ SEI
125
from which P = —R . . . (1)
88
The deflection at D must be the same for the upper beam as it is for the
lower beam, since the spacer is assumed rigid. For the deflection at D on
the lower beam, it will be convenient to move the force R to D and intro-
duce an anticlockwise moment R X 1 to compensate,
3 3 2
1 χ 4* _ Ρ χ 4 _ (P - R) x 4 _ R χ 4
Le
' ~8ΕΓ SEI ~~ SEI 2EI
from which 16P - 11Ä = 12 (2)
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2),
P = l - 4 5 4 k N and 1-023 kN
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 99
5. A vertical beam, 10 m long, is direction fixed at the lower end. The load
is distributed, increasing uniformly from zero at 2 m from the top toSw/m at
the fixed end. What horizontal force must be applied to the top if the beam must
not deflect at this point? (U. Lond.)

The load diagram is shown in Fig. 5.28. At a section distance χ from the
ground, the intensity of loading is w(S — x)/m.
The B.M. at this section due to the distributed load is therefore

(S-x)
|- χ w(S — χ) χ (8 — χ) χ

i.e. 2 V }
dx 6
4
10m
EI (8 - J ) + A
dx 24
4
When χ = 0, ^ 0, so that A = ~- χ 8 ,
dx 24

Λ Ely =—(8 v -xf + ^-X&x +B


* 120 24
w X 8 5, Για. 5.28
When χ = 0, y = 0, so that Β =
"Ï2Ô

At χ = 8 m, w X 84
dx UEI

w
and y
lj{24
X 8
-Ï2Ô
X 8 5

}
5
X 8
30EI
Therefore, at the top,

Χ 8 5 + Χ 8 4 1 χ 4 2 36 3
^ 3 5 / 2 5 / = · Α

Equating this to the deflection produced by the horizontal force R,

1 433-6 ^ = ^ L I 2 !
EI 3EI
:. R = 4-3w
100 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

6. A cantilever of circular section tapers uniformly from a diameter Ό at the


free end to 2D at the fixed end. It carries a single concentrated load at the free
end. Calculate the diameter of a cantilever of uniform diameter which would
have the same end deflection. Prove any formula used for calculating the
deflection of the tapered cantilever. (U. Lond.)

The simplest expression for the second moment of area of a typical


section will be obtained by taking the point Ο as the origin for x, Fig. 5.29.
χ
Then diameter of section = - D
V

w
64 1«
2D
M _ W(x - I)
Τ
2
dz
64 I*
3
= k(x~ - lx-*) Fio. 5.29

64W
where k = 4
πΖ>
dy
dx

When χ = 21, = 0,9 so that A = —,


dx 121*
x l
:.Ey=k( —- ^ -^)
+ + B

_3&
When x=2l,y=0, so that Β =
~8f
3
64TFZ
When χ—l, y = —( — - 2 2 4
6Z 12J 8Z7 24#*Z)
Deflection at free end of cantilever of uniform diameter d
z
Wl
3E — d*
64
UWP 64TFP

: . ä = D x ^ 8 = 1-6822)
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 101
7. The overhung crankpin of a locomotive can be considered as a cantilever
of length ly and the distributed load applied to the pin by the hydrodynamic
2
lubricating film can be assumed to be of the form k(lx — x ) per unit length;
χ is the distance from the built-in end and k is a constant
Find the expression for the deflection at the free end of the pin.
(I.Mech.E.)
The load diagram is shown in Fig. 5.30.
2
2 k((x-x )
EI^- = k(lx-x )
ax*
X _

3
dx \ 2 3J
FIG. 5.30

When x=l, S.F. = 0, so that A = -—


6
2
dx V6 12 6/ ^
When x=l, B.M. : 0, so that Β = —,
12
2
dy Px
EI
dx 24 60 "Ϊ2 + 12/
dy
When χ = 0, -2 = 0, so that C ·•0,
dx
2
l*x* l*x \
* \120 360 — + I+ D
36 24 J ^
When χ 0, y = 0, so that D = 0.
Ikl*
Therefore deflection at free end
360 36 + 24/ ZWEI
8. A uniform beam AB, 8 m long, rests symmetrically on supports C and D,
4 m apart. A load ofiO kN is applied at each of the ends A and B. Neglecting
the weight of the beam itself, calculate the 'deflection relative to the level of
the supports (a) at the ends A and B, (b) at the centre of the span CD.
2
EI = 10 MN m . (U. Lond.)
If the beam is imagined to be cut in half and built-in at the centre, Fig.
5.31(6), deflection of Β relative to Ε
3 3 2
_ "40 χ 4 _ J 40 χ 2 , 40 χ 2 _
•}]
3
+ X2 χ io
~~ 3EI ~~ X 3EI 2EI
3
586-7 χ 10
EI m
102 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

4 0 kN 4 0 kN i40kN 40kN
C [ 1e £OkN m Β
2m * 4m 2m 2m 2m
'40kN
(a) (b)
FIG. 5 . 3 1

To find the deflection of D relative to E, it is convenient to move the


load from Β to D, introducing a clockwise couple of 40 X 2 = 80 kN m to
compensate. The upward and downward loads of 40 kN at D then balance
each other, so that the deflection at D
3 2
_ 80 Χ ΙΟ χ 2
~~ '2ËÏ
3
160 χ 10
m
= —ÊT
Therefore, in the actual beam, deflection at centre relative to D
3
160 Χ 10
6 = 0-016 m
10 χ 10
3
(586-7 - 160) Χ 10
Deflection of Β relative to D = e
= 0-042 67 m
10 χ 10
Ε
NOTE. The B . M . between C and D is uniform at 8( kN m. Since ^
then if Μ, Ε and / are constants, R is a constant, i.e. the beam bends in
the arc of a circle. Hence, from the product of intersecting chords, Fig.
5.32, the central deflection is given by
y(2R - y) = 2 χ 2
2

i.e. 2Ry = 4, neglecting the term y in comparison with 2Ry

y = =
R

2 x ——
EI
3
2 x 80 χ 10
e
10 χ 10
0-016 m, as before.
FIG. 5 . 3 2

9. A horizontal beam which is uniformly loaded is supported at each end and


at the centre. The length of the beam is 8 m, the distributed load is 12 JcN/mt
_ 4 4
and the second moment of area of the cross-section of the beam is 10 m . If
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 103
the central support sinks 7 mm, determine the maximum bending moment in
2
the beam. Ε == 200 GN/m . (I.Mech.E.)
The downward deflection at the centre due to the uniformly distributed
load exceeds the upward deflection due to the force Ρ in the centre support
by 7 mm, Fig. 5.33,
3
. J>_
3
12 χ ΙΟ χ 8
4
Px8
9 4
0-007
1,β X
' 384 200 χ 10» X 1 0 -
4
48 χ 200 χ ΙΟ χ 1 0 "
from which Ρ = 46-88 kN
12 χ 8 - 46-88
R = - 24-56 kN

pOÛQQQÛQÛQOeûQ
nnnonooc A93-76kN m

FIG. 5.33

At a distance x m from one end,


F = - 2 4 - 5 6 + 12x kN
2
and Μ = -24-56z + 6z kN m
For maximum B.M., F = 0,
24-56
i.e χ = • = 2-047 m 96kN m
12 FIG. 5.34
24-56 X 2-047 + 6 χ 2-047 = - 2 3 - 1 kN m
2
M =
Fig. 5.34 shows the resultant B.M. diagram for the beam, the dotted lines
representing the B.M. diagrams due to the distributed load and prop force
separately.
10. A horizontal beam, simply supported at the ends, carries a load which
varies uniformly from 15 kN/m at one end to 60 kN/m at the other. Estimate
the central deflection if the span is 6 m, the section 0-45 m deep and the maxi-
2 2
mum bending stress 100 MN/m . Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
Dividing the load system up into a rectangle and a triangle, the loads
represented by these areas are 90 and 135 kN respectively, acting at the
centroids of the areas, Fig. 5.35.
90 kN 135 kN
90
•n , 135
1
2 3 45kN/m
= 90 kN
D 90 , 2 χ 135
Ko2 = — - J -
2 3
= 135 kN
FIG. 5.35
104 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

At a section x m from Rx,


x 45 χ χ
EI^y= 2 - 9 0 x + 15» X - + Ü X
dx 2
2 3
- - 9 0 x + 7·5χ + l-25x
2 3 4
Λ EI^= - 4 5 x + 2-5x + 0-312 5x + -4
dx
3 4 5
Ely = - 1 5 x + 0-625x + 0-062 5x + + Β
When χ = 0, y = 0, so that 5 = 0 .
When χ = 6 m, y = 0, so that ^ = 324.
At χ = 3 m,
3 4 5 3
EIy= - 1 5 x 3 + 0-625 x 3 + 0-062 5 x 3 + 324 x 3 = 632-8 kNm
For maximum B.M.,
ΕΙ^Ϊ=03
dx
2
i.e. - 9 0 + 1 5 x + 3-75x = 0
from which χ = 3-293 m
2 3
.'. ^ m a x = - 9 0 X 3-293 + 7-5 χ 3-293 + 1-25 χ 3-293
= 170-5 kN m
3
_ M _ 170-5 χ ΙΟ 3 3
6 1-705 Χ ΙΟ" m
~~ ~ä ~~ 100 χ ΙΟ
3 0-45 3 4
.'. I = 1-705 χ ΙΟ" χ — - = 0-384 χ ΙΟ" m
2
3
632-8 χ ΙΟ
.". central deflection = 9 3
= 0-008 24 m
200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-384 χ ΙΟ" or 8-24 mm
NOTE. Since only the central deflection is required, this will be the same as
if the load were uniform at 37-5 kN/m but the above analysis gives the
deflection at any point in the beam.
11. A horizontal beam, of uniform section and 6 m long, is simply supported
at its ends. Two vertical concentrated loads of 48 kN and 40 kN act 1 m and
3 m respectively from the left hand support. Determine the position and magni-
2 - 6 4
tude of the maximum deflection, if Ε = 200 GN/m and I — 85 X 1 0 m .
(I.C.E.)
3m
^
Taking moments about R2, ( 1m m
|48kN |40kN
Fig. 5.36,
48 x 5 + 40 x 3 = 6Ä! X
.·. R1 = 60 kN Äi 6m
FIG. 5.36
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 105
Taking the origin at the L.H. end and using Macaulay's method,

Εΐφ{ 2 = - 6 0 x + 48[x - 1] + 40[x ~ 3]


dx
2 2 2
.*. 2 ? / ^ = 30x + 24[x - l ] + 20[x - 3 ] + A
dx
20
3 3 3
.·. Ely = - 1 0 x + 8[x - l ] + — - 3 ] + Ax + Β
3
When χ = 0, y = 0, therefore Β = 0 since all negative terms in square
brackets are to be ignored.
When χ = 6 m, y = 0, so that A = 163-4.
For maximum deflection, dy 0
dx
2 2
i.e. - 3 0 x + 2 4 [ x - l ] + 1 6 3 - 4 = 0*
from which χ = 2-87 m
3 3
.'. % m a x = - 1 0 χ 2 · 8 7 + 8 x l - 8 7 + 163-4x2-87
3
= 284-8 kN m
3
_ 284-8 Χ ΙΟ
01
ΥΛ™ °'
y m ax =
'· " 200x109x85x10-*
or 16-75 mm
12. The beam shown in Fig. 5.37 is of uniform flexural rigidity, EI. Calcu-
late the deflection at the centre of span AB, in terms of W, L and EI. (I.C.E.)
Distributed load
W intensity Wh 2W
\ A
L.B
L

L \ i- L
F i a . 5.37

Taking moments about R2,


WL
2W X L
W x 3L + ϋψ = Rx χ 2L

R, = -W and R9 = — W

* I t is assumed t h a t the solution for χ is between 1 m and 3 m, so t h a t the term


[x — 3] will be negative a n d hence is ignored. If it is assumed that the m a x i m u m
deflection occurs either to the left of the 48 k N load or to the right of the 40 k N load
and the terms in square brackets are ignored or included, a s appropriate, the solution
for χ will not lie within the assumed range, thus indicating that a false assumption has
been made.
F r o m Art. 5.3, it will be evident t h a t the m a x i m u m deflection will occur very close
to the centre of the beam.
106 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Taking the origin at the L.H. end and using Macaulay's method, it is
necessary to extend the distributed load to the H.H. end and add a com-
pensating load underneath, as shown in Fig. 5.38.
Then

Integrating twice and inserting the conditions that y = 0 when χ = L and


when x= 3L gives

13 4
Ely = - — [ x - L f - — W [Tx - Z L f + -[x-2Z,] J
" 8 24 6 24Z,

W 97 71
L J
24L 16 48

When χ = 2L, y = —— (i.e. upwards).


U V F
48 EI '

2IY W 21V

2Z. WL
/?1 y /?2 3» 2L %W
F i o . 5.38 FIG. 5.39

Alternatively, since no information is required about the overhanging


ends, the given system may be reduced to the beam shown in Fig. 5.39,
where the overhanging loads have been moved to the supports and the
appropriate couples added.
Taking the origin at the L.H. support,

Integrating twice and inserting the conditions that y = 0 when χ = 0 and


when x= 2L gives
2
„ W 3g , W. . WLx 57 r 2 2
Elyy = — x + —-\xL — Lp
n4
J + — — wWL x
24 24£ ^ 2 48
Z
31 WL
When χ = 2L, y = — — -——, as before.
48 EI
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 107
13. A horizontal beam AB is freely supported at A and B, 8 m apart, and
carries a uniformly distributed load of15 kN/m run (including its own weight).
A clockwise moment of 160 kN m is applied to the beam at a point C, 3 m
from the left-hand support A. Calculate the reactions at A and Β and sketch the
bending moment diagram for the beam, stating principal values.
2
Calculate the slope of the beam at C ifEI = 40 Μ Ν m . (U. Lond.)

160kN m 15kN/m

X
8m
-212-5
FIG. 5 . 4 0 FIG. 5 . 4 1

Taking moments about R2, Fig. 5.40,


15 χ 8 χ 4 = 8RX + 160
Λ = 40 kN
Λ R2 = 120 - 40
= 80 kN*
Taking the origin at the L.H. end and using Macaulay's method,
2
EI^= 2 -iOx + 7·5χ - 160O - 3]° f
ax
dy 2 3
EI -20x + 2-5z - 160[» -$\ + A
dx
20 z 4 2
Λ Ely = — x + 0-625z - 80[x - 3 ] + Ax + Β
3
When χ = 0, y = 0, so that Β = 0.
When χ = 8 m, y = 0, so that A = 356-7.

At C, EI ^ = - 1 8 0 + 67-5 + 356-7
dx
2
= 244-2 kN m
3
. dy _ 244-2 χ 10
e
" dx~ 40 X 1 0
= 0-006 1 rad

* Note that the couple does not affect the sum of the reactions but only the distribu-
tion of the load on them.
ΐ Going from left to right of the point C, there is a sudden change in negative moment
of 160 kNm. I f the origin had been taken at the R . H . end, the moment term would have
been positive; this is clearly shown in the B.M. diagram, Fig. 5 . 4 1 .
108 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

14. A beam of total span L is made up of two beams, each of length L/2
joined end to end, the moment of inertia of one being twice that of the other. The
beam is simply supported and carries three loads, each equal to W and spaced
symmetrically along the beam, at distances Z/4 apart. Obtain a formula for
the central deflection. (U. Lond.)
W W

21
F i o . 5.42

C C

FIG. 5.43

Let the slope of the beam at the centre C, Fig. 5.42, be Θ. Then the beam
may be divided into two cantilevers, built-in at the point C, Figs. 5.43(a)
and (6), each having a slope θ at the built-in end, downwards for the left-
hand half and upwards for the right-hand half.
Then, from the formulae derived in case (a), Art. 5.2, deflection at A
relative to C
r 3 λ 2
/ Α Λ
w(-) Wl
"2 L
3EI 3EI + • 2EI '2
19 WL
Z
L
"2 (1)
384 ~ËT
Similarly, deflection at Β relative to C
3
19 WL
+ Θ. (2)
384£(2Z) 2
The deflections at C relative to A and Β must be equal,
3
19 WL
hence +
384 ~W 3SiE(2I) '2
3
L 19 WL
from which 0.-
153 6 EI
Substituting in equation (1),
3
19 WL 19 WL
3 3
19 WL
central deflection = 1
38i~W 153 6 ~W
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 109
2 4
15. A 550 mm X 175 mm I-beam [A = 0-013 8 m ,1 = 0-000 655 m ) is
simply supported on a span of5m.A mass of 1 tonne drops 50 mm on to the
centre of the beam. Find the maximum deflection, the bending stress induced
2
and the equivalent static load. Ε = 200 GN/m .
2
If the elastic limit of the material is 250 MN/m , find the maximum dis-
tance through which the 1-tonne mass can drop without causing permanent set
in the beam. (U. Lond.)
If W is the equivalent static load and y is the maximum deflection pro-
duced at the point of impact, then, equating the work done by the falling
load to that done by the equivalent static load,
1 000 χ 9-81(0-05 + y) = \Wy
Wl*
But y-
iSEI
3
W χ 5
9
48 χ 200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-000 655
8
= 1-99 X 10~ W m

1 0 00 x 9 8 1 ( 0 0 5 + y) = x x y
•' ' - ! i ¥ 7 T F i
from which y = 0-004 61 m or 4-61 mm
0-004 61 N = 2 3 .1 5 k N
8
1-99 Χ ΙΟ"
_ M _ Wl

3
231-5 χ ΙΟ χ 5 λ Τ / 2
2
= N/m
1
, 0-000 655
4 χ
0-275
2
= 121-7 MN/m
Since the stress is proportional to the deflection, the deflection corres-
2
ponding to a stress of 250 MN/m is given by
0-004 61 χ ——- = 0-009 47 m
121-7
2
0-009 47
1 000 χ 9·81(Λ
v + 0-009 47) = n ' 8.
2 χ 1-99 X 1 0 -
where h is the height dropped
.·. h = 0-233 m
110 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

16. A cantilever of length L carries a load W concentrated a t a distance kL


from the fixed end. Derive a formula for the deflection a t the free end. I f the
cantilever consists of a steel tube 3 m long, 120 m m outside diameter and 6 m m
thick, calculate the load which, acting 1-8 m from the fixed end, will give a
2
deflection of 2-5 m m a t the free end. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
/ WL* \
(Ans.:-^jk*(3-k);M0 Nj

17. A horizontal cantilever of uniform section and of effective length L carries


two concentrated loads, W a t the free end and 2 W a t a distance a from the free
end. Obtain a formula for the maximum deflection due t o this loading.
I f the cantilever is a steel tube of circular section, 100 m m external diameter,
6 m m thick, and L = 1-5 m and a = 0-6 m, determine the value of W t o give a
2
maximum bending stress of 120 M N / m , and calculate the maximum deflection
2
for this loading. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (17. Lond.)
f W 2 3 \
(Ans.: {3L (L - a) + a } ; 1 4 3 k N ; 7-1 m m j

18. A cantilever of uniform section has a length L and carries a uniformly


distributed load of w per unit length on the whole length. Derive, from first
principles, expressions for the slope and deflection a t the free end of the cantilever.
I f the load is removed for the length L / 4 measured from the free end, what will
then be the slope and deflection a t the free end? (U. Lond.)
z
/ . wL\ wL\ 9wL _117
β wL*\

\ ' ^ 8m ï2sFi 2ôïs~Ër)


:m; ; ;

19. A cantilever of effective length L with a concentrated load W a t the free


end is propped a t a distance a from the fixed end to the same level as the fixed end.
Find the load on the prop.
Show t h a t there is always a real point of inflexion and find its distance from the
fixed end. (U. Lond.) (, W/nT a\ x
( ^ . : - ( 3 £ - « ) ; - )

20. A horizontal cantilever of length L supports a load W, uniformly distributed


along its length. The cantilever is propped t o the level of the fixed end a t a distance
\L from t h a t end. Determine the load on the prop. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 0-593 W)

21. A cantilever of effective length I carries a total load wl uniformly distributed


throughout the length. I f the cantilever is propped a t a point Z/4 from the free
end and the level a t the prop adjusted so t h a t there is no deflection a t the free
end, derive a formula for the reaction a t the prop and also for the deflection of
the beam a t the prop.
Sketch, approximately to scale, the shearing force and bending moment dia-
grams for the cantilever. (U. Lond.) ( . 16 , wl* \

22. A horizontal cantilever of uniform section and 6 m long is maintained


horizontal a t one end and supported by a rigid column a t a distance of 4 m from
the fixed end. The beam carries a load of 80 k N midway between the fixed end
and the column and a load of 15 kN a t the free end. Draw t o scale the bending
moment and shearing force diagrams. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: Prop force = 51-25 kN)
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 111
β 4
23. A 2 2 5 m m χ 100 m m steel joist, / m ax = 31-68 χ 1 0 ~ m , is fixed hori-
zontally a t one end and is supported a t 3 m from this fixed end by a vertical tie,
2
2-4 m long, 125 m m sectional area, which exerts an initial upward force of 10 kN.
A load of 5 0 kN is now applied a t 1 -8 m from the fixed end. Calculate the maximum
stresses in the tie and beam.
2 2
F o r t h e joist, Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and for the tie, Ε = 110 G N / m . (17. Lond.)
2 1
(Ans.: 2 3 4 M N / m ; 125 M N / m )

24. A horizontal propped cantilever of length L is securely fixed a t one end


and freely supported a t the other and is subjected t o a bending couple M in the
vertical plane containing the longitudinal axis of the beam. I f the couple is applied
about an axis 0-T5L from the fixed end of the cantilever, determine the end fixing
moment and t h e reaction a t t h e freely supported end.
Sketch the shape of the bending moment diagram. ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1-406 M/L; 0-406 M)

25. Two parallel steel cantilevers, one above the other, project horizontally
from a vertical wall and their free ends are connected By frictionless pin-joints
t o a vertical steel tie-bar of 1-8.m effective length. E a c h cantilever is of I-section,
-
2 2 5 m m χ 1 0 0 m m , second moment of area 31-68 χ 1 0 · m* and 2-4 m long,
and the tie-bar is 2 5 m m diameter.
Assuming t h a t t h e tie-bar is initially unstrained, find the proportion of the load
carried by the tie-bar when a concentrated load of magnitude W is placed on the
lower cantilever a t its mid-point. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0 1 5 4 5 W)

26. A cantilever of uniform section is 3 m long. I t is rigidly fixed a t one end and
is propped t o t h e same level as the fixed end by a rigid prop 1 m from the free end.
The cantilever carries a load which varies uniformly from 6 0 k N / m a t the fixed
end t o zero a t the free end. Calculate the load on the prop and the m a x i m u m
positive and negative bending moments. (U. Land.)
(Ans.: 35-5 k N ; 19 kN m ; 9-3 k N m )

27. A horizontal cantilever, 1-5 m long, tapers in section from 2 0 0 m m deep


by 7 5 m m wide a t the fixed end t o 7 5 m m square a t the extreme end. I t carries
a n end load of 2*7 kN. Calculate t h e m a x i m u m stress due t o bending a n d the
2
deflection a t the loaded end. Ε = 14 G N / m . (U. Lond,)
2
(Ans.: 8-64 M N / m ; 9 1 2 m m )

28. A vertical flagpole, standing 7*5 m above the ground, is of circular cross-
section throughout, but t h e diameter tapers from 1 2 5 m m a t the base t o 7 5 m m
a t the top. W h e n a horizontal pull is applied a t t h e t o p the lateral deflection there
is observed t o be 2 5 0 m m . Calculate t h e m a x i m u m stress due t o bending.
1 1
Ε = 11 G N / m . (U. Land.) (Ans.: 5-69 M N / m )

29. A vertical column 6 m high is fixed a t t h e base and a clockwise moment of


1-4 kN m is applied a t t h e top of t h e column. A horizontal force of Ρ Ν is applied
t o the column a t a height of 3 m above t h e base so as t o give a counter-clockwise
moment.
Determine t h e value o f Ρ so t h a t the horizontal deflections a t t h e t o p of the
column a n d a t the point of application of Ρ shall be equal, (a) when the deflections
are on the same side, (b) when the deflections a r e on opposite sides of the vertical
line through t h e foot of the column. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-4 k N ; 1 0 k N )
30. State clearly, and by reference t o diagrams, the two theorems relating t o
the use of the bending moment diagram for a beam for t h e determination of the
slope and deflection of t h e beam.
112 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

A cantilever of length L carries a point load W at the free end. The second
moment of area of the section of the cantilever is as follows: for the length L/3
from the free end it is 7, for the middle length Lß it is 27 and for the remaining
length T//3 it is 37. Determine the slope and deflection of the cantilever at the
free end in terms of W, L, Ε and 7. (U. Lond.)
/ _25 WL* m_ WL*\
Ans ;
\ ~'108 EI 486 El)
31. Derive a formula for the deflection under the load of a simply supported
beam loaded at the centre.
A tee-bar used as a simply supported beam has a horizontalflangeat the top
100 mm wide and 10 mm thick, the vertical leg is also 10 mm thick and the overall
sizes are 100 mm χ 60 mm. The span is 1 m 2
and the central load causes a maxi-
mum stress in the material of 120 MN/m . Calculate the deflection if Ε => 200
GN/m*. (U.Land.) (Ans.: Ill mm)
32. Derive the formula giving the maximum deflection of a beam of uniform
section, uniformly loaded over its whole length, simply supported at its ends. 2
If such a beam is a symmetrical I-section made of steel, having Ε2 — 200 GN/m
and in which the maximum stress due 2
to bending is 120 MN/m , show that the
deflection may be written Δ = KL /d, where L is the span and d the overall
depth. Detennine the value of the constant Κ when L is expressed in m and Δ and
d are in mm. (U. Lond.) I fywL* \
An8: ; 1 2 5
\ - 3ÛËÏ J
33. A beam of uniform section and total length L + 2/ is simply supported on
a span L with two equal overhanging lengths I. Derive expressions for the de-
flection at mid-span due to a uniformly distributed load covering (i) the length
L between the supports, (it) the two overhanging lengths.
If the beam carries a uniformly distributed load on the whole length, find the
ratio l/L so that the beam at mid-span is just level with the supports. ( U. Lond. )
/ A 5 wL* wLH* \
; 0 4 5 6 4
( ^ 3 S ^ l 6 l 7 ' - )

34. A wooden plank is 240 mm wide and 80 mm deep. It is supported at each


end of a span of 4 m. It carries concentrated loads each of 1 kN at distances of
1-2 m from each end. Assuming fundamental formulae only, calculate the de-
flection of the beam under the loads and at the 2
centre of the span. Neglect the
weight of the beam and assume Ε = 14 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 12-65 mm; 14-75 mm)
35. A uniform section beam of length L is simply supported at its ends and
carries a single concentrated load W at a distance L/3 from one end. Working
from fundamental beam theory, derive formulae for the deflection (a) under the
load, (b) at the centre, (c) at the point of maximum deflection. (U. Lond.)
(Aru,.: 0-164 6 2 ^ ! ; 0 0 1 7 75 0-01794 Ig!)

36. A steel beam of uniform section has a length of 7 m and is simply supported
at points 5 m apart and 1 m from the ends of the beam. The beam carries three
point loads: 20 kN at the left-hand end, 4 0 kN at the right-hand end and 120 kN
at 3 m from the left-hand end. Determine the deflection at each of the points of
loading, stating in each2 case whether the deflection is upwards or downwards.
Take EI = 37-5 MN m . (U. Lond.)
§ . § y f (Ans.: — 3 1 7 mm ; ß^ff mm ; —1-88 mm)
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 113
-3 4
37. A beam, of length 8 m and I = 0-18 χ 1 0 m is simply supported a t its
ends, and carries two concentrated loads of 2 0 k N and 4 0 kN respectively 2 m and
6 m from the left-hand end together with a distributed load of 15 k N / m on the
4 m length o f span between the concentrated loads. Calculate the deflection a t the
2
centre of t h e span. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (I.C.E.) (Ans.: 28-1 m m )
38. A rolled steel joist 2 5 0 m m deep and 5 m long is simply supported a t one
end and a t a point 3 m along the beam, both supports being a t the same level.
A concentrated load of 6 0 k N is carried a t a point 1·2 m from the supported end
and a concentrated load o f 10 k N a t the free end.
F i n d the greatest flange stress and the slope of the beam over each support.
e 4 2
I = 4 7 - 5 χ 1 0 " m ; Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 92-7 M N / m ; 0 0 0 2 5 8 r a d ; 0 0 0 1 1 r a d )
39. A horizontal beam of uniform section is simply supported over a span L
and carries a uniformly distributed load w per unit length over the whole span.
The distributed load is t o be replaced b y three concentrated loads each wL/3,
equally spaced, with t h e end loads each a t a distance I from t h e nearest support.
F i n d the values of I so t h a t , for both types of loading, (a) the m a x i m u m bending
moment is t h e same, (b) the m a x i m u m deflection is the same. (£7. Lond.)
(Ans.:0-125L;0-15L)
40. A freely supported beam o f span I carries a load W distant a (<l/2
from one end). Show t h a t the deflection a t the centre of the span is given
2 2
by _ ? ! ^ ( 3 ί — 4 a ) and hence calculate by superposition of deflections, the de-
flection at the centre of a freely supported beam of span I carrying, uniformly
distributed, a load of w per unit length over the central portion equal t o one half
1
of the span. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: ^
\ " 2 048.0/j
41. A uniform section straight-edge of length L is loaded by its own weight
only and is freely supported a t two points. F i n d the distance between t h e two
supports : (a) so t h a t , with the supports a t the same level, the two ends of the beam
remain horizontal, (b) so t h a t the deviation from the straight is as small as
possible. (U. Land.) (Ans.: 0-577 4 L ; 0 - 5 5 4 L )
42. A 3 3 0 m m χ 130 m m R . S . J , is simply supported on a span of 6 m and
carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 4 k N / m and 3-6 m long extending from
1-8 m from the left-hand support t o 0-6 m from the right-hand support. Determine
the m a x i m u m stress a n d the m a x i m u m deflection due t o bending, stating a t which
4 2
sections they occur. 7 = 120 χ 10"· m ; Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Land.)
2
(A 120 M N / m a t 3-24 m from L . H . e n d ; \
\Ans.. 1 35 > m8 m ta 3 05 7 m from L
H e ^n d

43. A simply supported beam o f span L carries a uniformly distributed load


of intensity w per unit length extending from one end over a length o f L/S.
Obtain t h e coefficient k in the formula, deflection = wL*/kEI for the point o f
m a x i m u m deflection and also for the point of mid-span. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3 0 5 ; 3 1 1 )
44. A beam 4*8 m long is supported a t one end and a t a point 1-2 m from the
other end. It carries a uniformly distributed load o f 4 8 k N / m over the whole
length a n d concentrated loads, each o f 6 0 kN, a t the extreme overhanging end
and at a section midway between t h e supports. The depth of the beam is 3 0 0 m m .
2
Determine t h e section modulus in order t h a t t h e stress shall not exceed 120 M N / m
2
a n d the deflection of t h e overhanging load below the supports. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
s 8
{U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-888 x 1 0 " m ; 1-155 m m )
114 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
β 4
45. A beam of uniform section, 7 = 4 χ 10~~ m , is 1-8 m long and is supported
horizontally a t sections 0-3 m from one end and 0*6 m from the other end. I t
carries a uniformly distributed load of 1·5 k N / m run. Calculate the deflection a t
2
t h e two ends relative t o the supports. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 0-007 5 9 4 m m ; 0-064 5 5 m m )

46. A uniform beam of length 2L is propped a t its middle point. I t carries two
equal point loads, W, symmetrically placed a t a distance χ on each side of the
centre support. F i n d the value of a; in terms of L, so t h a t the reactions on the
three supports a r e equal. Neglect the weight of the beam itself and assume t h a t
all three supports are a t the same level. ( U. Lond. ) (Ans. : 0-774 L)

47. A beam of uniform section and of length 2L is freely supported by rigid


supports a t its ends and by an elastic prop a t the centre. I f the prop deflects by
an amount which is k times the load which it carries, and the beam carries a total
5W
2
distributed load of W, show t h a t t h e load carried by the prop is ^_ QEIk/L )
4
I f L = 3 m, 7 = 6-25 χ 10"· m , W = 4 5 k N and k = 3-96 /*m/N, find the
position and value of the m a x i m u m bending moment in the beam a n d sketch,
approximately t o scale, t h e shearing force and bending moment diagrams.
2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 16-65 k N m a t 2-107 m from one end)

48. A uniform beam, 6 m long, with a rectangular cross-section 5 0 m m wide by


2 5 0 m m deep, is freely supported a t the ends in a horizontal position, and is
also supported a t the middle of its length by a vertical wire t h a t stretches
0 · 4 5 μ π ι / Ν . W h e n the beam is unloaded there is no tension in the wire. Neglecting
the weight of the beam, find the deflection a t t h e central section and the tension
in the wire when a load of 100 k N is uniformly distributed over one half of the
2
length of the beam. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (Ü. Land.) (Ans.: 12-2 m m ; 27-1 k N )
4
49. A beam for which I — 0-002 5 m is freely supported a t two points A and
Β a t the same level, 18 m a p a r t . A third support is provided a t C, midway between
A and B . There is a uniformly distributed load of 8 k N / m run over t h e whole
length. I f a point load of 5 0 0 k N is applied half-way between Β and C, find how
much the level of C should be below t h a t of A a n d Β in order t h a t there shall be
2
no tendency for the beam t o rise from its support a t Α. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
( U. Lond.) (Ans.: 9-66 m m )

50. A horizontal steel beam, simply supported a t the ends, carries a load which
varies uniformly from 2 0 k N / m a t one end t o 5 0 k N / m a t the other end over a
span of 5 m. F i n d the magnitude of the m a x i m u m bending moment. I f the depth
2
of the beam is 0-4 m and the m a x i m u m bending stress is 100 M N / m , find the
central deflection. (Î7. Lond.) (Ans.: 109-6 k N m ; 6-48 m m )
51. A beam of uniform section and length I is simply supported a t its ends and
carries a distributed load which varies uniformly from zero values a t each end t o
a maximum intensity of w per unit length a t a section 1/3 from t h e right-hand end.
Show t h a t the maximum deflection occurs a t a distance of approximately 0-011
from mid-span and find the deflection a t mid-span in terms of w, lt Ε and 7.
(U. Lond.) iAn8m . wl*
\ 123-5 EIt
52. A horizontal beam is simply supported a t the ends and carries a uniformly
)
distributed load of 3 0 k N / m between the supports placed 10 m apart. Counter-
clockwise moments of 120 and 9 6 kN m respectively are applied t o the two ends
of the beam a t the supports.
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS 115
Draw, approximately t o scale, the bending moment diagram for the beam a n d
find : (a) the reactions a t the supports, (b) the position and magnitude of the greatest
bending moment. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 171-6 k N ; 128-4 k N ; 371 k N m a t 5-72 m from 120 k N m couple)
5 3 . A beam of circular section, length 1*5 m, is freely supported a t t h e ends and
carries a vertical load of 10 k N a t the centre. One half of the length o f the beam
has a diameter of 5 0 m m , the other half 7 5 m m . W h a t will be the deflection, due
t o simple bending, a t the centre? Neglect t h e weight of the beam a n d t h e effects
2
due t o sudden change of section a t the centre. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (Ϊ7. Lond.)
(Ans.: 6-87 m m )

54. A simply supported beam of span L has a second moment of area o f 2 7 for
the left-hand half of the span and 7 for the right-hand half. The beam carries a
load of intensity 2w uniformly distributed over the left-hand half of t h e span and
of intensity w uniformly distributed over the right-hand half. Obtain an expression
for t h e deflection a t the centre of the span. I f a prop is now placed a t the centre
of the span t o restore the beam t o its original level a t this point, find the force
in the prop. (U. Land.) (Ans · ^ wL* 11 ,\
; W
V " 768 Έ7 Ï2 )
55. A static concentrated load of 10 kN applied t o a simply supported beam a t
mid-span, produces a deflection of 6 m m a n d a m a x i m u m bending stress of
2
2 5 M N / m . Calculate the m a x i m u m value of the momentary stress produced
when a mass of 500 kg is allowed t o fall through a height of 18 m m on t o t h e beam
2
a t t h e middle of the span. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 59-6 M N / m )
56. A concentrated mass M is allowed t o fall through a height of 12 m m t o
strike a simply supported steel joist a t mid-span. The joist has a span of 3*6 m
and for the cross-section, t h e depth is 2 4 0 m m a n d the second moment o f area,
_e 4
7 XX = 8 0 x I 0 m . Calculate the m a x i m u m value of i f if t h e momentary
2
bending stress in the joist must not exceed 120 M N / m . Neglect t h e loss of energy
2
a t impact. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (Ü. Land.) (Ans.: 1-406 Mg)
C H A P T E R 6

B U I L T - I N AND C O N T I N U O U S B E A M S

6.1 Built-in b e a m s . A built-in, or encastré, beam is one in which the


ends are rigidly fixed in a horizontal position, usually at the same level. The
walls or other constraints at the ends exert moments on the beam to hold
the ends horizontal; in cases where these end fixing moments are not equal,
a resultant moment is applied to the beam, which is opposed by reactions
at the ends. These reactions are in addition to those required for equilibrium
of the load system, so that the total reactions are different from those in
a simply supported beam with similar loading.

(c)
F I G . 6.1

The end fixings are assumed not to prevent a contraction of the length as
the beam bends. If such contraction is prevented, the beam becomes a
laterally-loaded tie-bar and is considerably stiffer than when the ends are
permitted to move.
The shape of the beam will be generally as shown in Fig. 6.1(a), having
points of inflexion at X and Y ; at these points, the B.M. is zero.
The B.M. diagram will consist of (a) the positive B.M. due to the end
fixing moments, varying linearly from ΜΛ at one end to Mh at the other,
116
BUILT-IN AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 117
and (6) the negative B.M. due to. the transverse loads, calculated as if the
beam were simply supported at the ends. These diagrams are shown in
Fig. 6.1(6).
It is usual to reverse the B.M. diagram due to the end fixing moments to
give the resultant B.M. diagram shown in Fig. 6.1(c). The base line is now
sloping but the B.M. at any point remains the vertical height of the diagram
at that point.
The S.F. diagram for the beam is similar to that for a similarly loaded
simply supported beam, except for the alterations in the reactions caused
by the end fixing moments.
6.2 Built-in b e a m with central concentrated load. Fig. 6.2(a)
shows the loaded beam and Figs. 6.2(6) and (c) show the S.F. and B.M.
diagrams respectively.

Β
M

W
(a) 2

(b)

1 Wl

^4
4

(c)
FIG. 6.2

Due to the symmetry of the loading, the reactions are each W/2 and the
end fixing moments are equal.
Taking the origin at the centre,
d*y W/l
EI - 2
dx 2\2 χ) +M
dy W llx _ x*\
EI- + Mx+ A
dx ' 2 \2 ~2)
dy
When χ = 0, -2 = 0, so that A = 0.
dx
118 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

When χ = - , ^ = 0, so that M =
2 dx 8
y
2 ^ 4 6 / 1 6

When χ = \, y = 0, so that Β =
2 19a

The maximum deflection occurs at the centre, where χ = 0,


F 3
* / A( l )l6 1
^ " = Ϊ 9 2 Μ · · · ·

Alternatively, using the area moment method,


0a-0b=O
.·. Ml — - .— .1= 0
2 4

Λ M= —
8
Taking the origin at C* and considering the part BC only,
2
Γ ày_ Ί ' / _ 1 Ml I _ 1 1 Wl I 11
Χ
[ α~χ
y
\ 0 ~ Tl
X
Τ X
ϊ 2'T'2
X X
3-2

i.e. yc =
192^7
6.3 Built-in b e a m with uniformly distributed load. Fig. 6.3(a)
shows the loaded beam and Figs. 6.3(6) and (c) show the S.F. and B.M.
diagrams respectively.
Due to the symmetry of loading, the reactions are each wl/2 and the end
fixing moments are equal.
Taking the origin at the centre,

2
dx 2\2 / 2\2 ) ^

( τ -x*j + M
~2\i

ȣ--Kt-D+*+'
* T h e origin can equally well be taken a t B .
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 119

When χ = 0, ^ = 0, so that A •• 0.
ax

When χ = - , — = 0, so that M = ,
2' dx ' 12

y
2\ 8 12/ 24 ^

, w / u n i t length
ÎA f Ci

f wl y
(c)

FIG. 6.3
4
wZ
When χ = - , ν = 0, so that 5 = — ,
2 * - 384

The maximum deflection occurs at the centre, where χ •


_ wl*
1,e y m a x
(6.2)
" ~ 384^7
Alternatively, using the area moment method,
0a-0b=O
2
*,ι 2 wZ .
Λ Ml — - — J :
3 8

12
Ε
120 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Taking the origin at C and considering the part BC only,


Γ dy Υ/* 1 Ml I
X X
Ëï 3'ΊΓ'2 8'2
4

i.e. ( o - o ) - ( o - , c ) = J - / ^ - ^
EI ( 9 6 128
wl*
i.e. 384£Z
6.4 Built-in b e a m with concentrated load not at centre. Let the
distances of the load W from the ends A and Β be α and b respectively,
Fig. 6.4. Since the end fixing moments will be unequal, the reactions at A
and Β will not be Wb/l and Wa/l respectively, as in a simply supported
beam.

Mad £>Mb

Rb (a)

(b)

F I G . 6.4

Taking the origin at A and using Macaulay's method,

2
ax
Ay
£ 7 ^ = - Ä ~ + ^-[x - αγ +ΜΛχ+Α. (6.3)
dx 2 2
dt/
When χ = 0, = 0, so that .4 = 0, since [x — a] is negative for this
dx
value of χ ,
;.EIy=-R^+™[x-a\* + M^ + B
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 121

When χ = 0, y = 0, so that Β = 0, the term [x — a] again being ignored.

When « = I, = 0,
dz
72 W
(6.4)
2
i.e. 0 = - Ä a - + y[^~a] + MJ.

When χ = i, y = 0,
73 W 72
(6.5)
i.e. 0 = - Α . - + ^{Ι-α]» + 3ί.- . .
From equations (6.4) and (6.5),
2
Wb
3» = - =^ - (+* +22 α ) and M a. =

and by symmetry

... S i s =-E! ( ! + ^ + + . (6.β)

When x=a,EIy= —(. + 2a)- +

: . y = ^ (6.7)
9 3 K
3EI1 '
The maximum deflection will occur between the load point and the centre
of the beam. If α > b, this point will correspond with χ < a, so that, from
equation (6.3),
Wb*.. .x* Wab*
( ί + 2 « ) - + _ χ = 0

from which
1+ 2a
Substituting in equation (6.6),
2 3 2
_ _ ϊ Ρ 6 ( * + 2 α ) / 2αΖ \ Wab*/ 2al \

or y m ax 2 1
3#/(Z + 2α) '

* Note that the ratio -=7- = - .


Wl*
S in a e u a t in o 6 , 1
f When α = b = Z/2, this reduces to ^ i )*
122 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

6.5 S u p p o r t s at different levels. I f one end of the beam, Fig. 6.5, is


at a distance h below the other end, the reactions and end fixing moments
due to this may be calculated separately and superimposed on those due to
the transverse loads.

FIG. 6.5

The beam may be imagined to be cut in half and the two free ends made
to coincide by the application of equal and opposite forces, P, which
produce deflections at the ends of amount A/2.

Thus

\1EIh
from which. P = (6.9)

The end fixing moments due to Ρ are given by

(6.10)

The directions of the reactions and end fixing moments are shown in
Fig. 6.5.
6.6 Continuous beams—three m o m e n t s theorem. A beam is con-
tinuous if it is supported at more than two points. Let AB and BC, Fig.
6.6(a), be any two consecutive spans of a continuous beam and let M' be the
B.M. due to the transverse loads as if each span were simply supported at
the ends. Then the resultant B.M. diagram consists of the 'free' B.M.
diagram due to W (negative) and the diagram representing the effect of
the endfixingmoments (positive). The endfixingmoments are the moments
applied to a span by the adjacent spans; these will not normally be the
same as those applied by the walls to a built-in beam since the continuous
beam is not necessarily horizontal over the supports.
As with the built-in beams, the B.M. diagrams are usually set out to
show the resultant B.M.; typical S.F. and B.M. diagrams are shown in
Figs. 6.6(6) and (c).
Let Ax and A2 be the areas of the free B.M. diagrams for AB and BC
respectively, let x\ and χ2 be the distances of the centroids of these areas
from A and C respectively and the second moments of area of the two spans
be Ιλ and / 2 .
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 123

*1 *2
(a)

X1 2Λ
- ' .1
!

G, /

^2

Then EIt ^ = M a + ^ ( M b - Μ.) + Μί (Jfi being negative)

Multiply by xx and integrate from Ο to l v Then

at xx = lx is the slope of the beam at B, looking from the end A and


άχχ
is denoted by 0 b a; M[xx dxx represents the moment of an element of the
ch
free B.M. diagram about A and hence I dxx represents the total
Jο
first moment of the free B.M. diagram for AB about A, i.e. Axxx.
Thus

from which

Similarly
124 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

But 0 b c = — ö b a since the slope at Β is being viewed from opposite direc-


tions, so that

from which
(6.11)

This is known as Chpeyron's Equation,


If the beam is of uniform section, this equation reduces to
(6.12)

Clapeyron's equation relates the moments at three successive supports


of the beam; it is applied to each pair of consecutive spans in turn and as
many equations will be obtained as there are unknown moments.
If the extreme ends of the beam are simply supported, the end moments
are zero but if one or both the extreme ends are built-in, additional equa-
tions may be obtained by imagining the beam to be reflected about the
wall(s), the moment at the axis of symmetry being the same as that at the
wall, since the beam is horizontal at that point in each case. Thus the beam
shown in Fig. 6.7(a) may be replaced by that in Fig. 6.7(6).

A B C\
(Q) (b)

FIG. 6.7

Clapeyron's equation is first applied to spans AB and BC and then to


spans BC and CB, giving two equations from which Mh and Mc may be
determined, M& being zero.
An alternative procedure is to regard the beam as being continued to X ,
Fig. 6.8, where CX is a virtual or imaginary
span of no length and carrying no load. The ^ £
equation relating Mh, Mc and M x will be iden- T |
tical with that obtained for spans BC and CB * F iq ß
above, Mx being zero.
With the sign convention adopted, Av A2, etc., will be negative and the
end fixing moments will be found to be positive.
After determining the fixing moments, the reactions may be obtained by
taking moments about each of the supports in turn.
1. A beam, of uniform section and 5 m long, is built-in at each end. It
carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 JcN/m extending for 3 m from one
end and a concentrated load of 20 kN, 1 m from the other end. Sketch the
bending moment diagram, inserting the principal numerical values.
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 125

Fio. 6.9

Taking the origin at the L.H. end, Fig. 6.9(a),

EI^=-RAx+20[x-l]+5[x-2r+Mt . . (1)

.·. E I ^ = - R ^ + 10[* - 1]· + % - 2f +M.X + Ä


αχ Δ 3

When χ = 0, $^ = 0, A = 0,
ax

:.EIy=-R^ + ^[x-ir + ^[x-2r + M&^ + B

When x=0,y=0, .·. Β = 0.

When a ; = 5 m , $ = 0 ,
dx
Λ 0 = - 2 - 5 £ a + 4 1 + ilf a (2)
When χ = 5 m, y = 0,

0 = - £ Ä a + 19-77 + M a (3)

Therefore, from equations (2) and (3),


£ a = 2 5 - 5 k N and ΜΛ= 22-7 kNm
The B.M. diagram is shown in Fig. 6.9(6).
The points of contraflexure are obtained from equation (1). Thus, for the
L.H. point — 25·5χ + 22-7 = 0, the terms in square brackets both being
ignored since negative,
.·. χ = 0-891 m
For the R.H. point,
2
-25·5χ + 20[x - 1] + 5[x - 2 ] + 22-7 = 0
from which χ = 3-95 m
126 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

2. A 300 mm X 125 mm I-beam is built-in at the ends of a span o/6 m and


carries a uniformly distributed load of 24 kN/m throughout its length. What
is the greatest bending stress in the beam?
By how much per cent is the maximum bending stress increased if (a) the
right-hand end becomes free in direction but remains supported at the same
level, (6) the right-hand end remains horizontal but sinks 3 mm below the left-
hand end?
e 2
Ixx for the beam section = 86-5 X 10~ m* and Ε = 200 GN/m .
(U. Lond.)
2
wl
From Art. 6.3, the maximum B.M. is — and occurs at the ends,
12
i.e. ^ m a x = ^ ^ = 7 2 k N m
3
M 72 χ ΙΟ χ 0 - 1 5 ^ . 1 0 / l ö M /x r 2
2 2
. . a m AY = — = N/m = 124-8 MN/m
m ax β 1
Ζ 86-5 Χ 1 0 " —
When the R.H. end becomes free in direction, the beam becomes a
propped cantilever, Fig. 6.10. Equating downward and upward deflections
at the free end,
wl* _ PI*
8ËÏ~ 3EI
P = wl
1
id
/. Mm&x= — - %wl.l
2

FIG. 6 . 1 0
8

The maximum Β.M. is therefore increased from an increase of

When the R.H. end remains horizontal but sinks by an amount A, an

additional moment is induced at the L.H. end, from Art. 6.5,

i.e. 9 β
6 χ 200χ ΙΟ χ 86-5 χ 10~ χ 0-003
additional moment = 2 N m = 8-65 kNm
6
8-65
Therefore percentage increase in maximum B.M. = X 100 = 12
72
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 127
3. A buiU-in beam of length I carries a distributed load which varies uni-
formly from zero at one end to a maximum w per unit length at the other. Find
the bending moment and supporting forces at each end and the position and
magnitude of the maximum deflection.

Β \
u
ί

FIG. 6.11

The intensity of loading at any point distance χ from A, Fig. 6.11, is wx


T
_ , 1 wx χ ,
R X XX + a
- ^ +2'T' 3

-R&xa + ^ + ΜΛ (1)

- R a^ + ^ L + M^+A
a (2)
da; 2 24Ζ
ay
When χ = 0, 0, Λ A = 0,
άχ

Λ Ely. (3)

When x=0,y=0,.\B = 0.

W h e n x = i , J=0, .•.0=-5^ + ^ + Ia! W


dx 2 24
3 4 2
Z wZ Z
When x=l,y=0, .·. 0 = -R& - + — + M a - (5)

Therefore, from equations (4) and (5),


3 wl?
jR„a = — wl and M ft = a
20 30

2
-Rh =20 ~ — Jt
20 wl =
M b is obtained from equation (1) by putting χ = Ζ,
wl

2 2 2
3 , . wl . w>Z wl
128 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The maximum deflection occurs when 0. Therefore, from equation

(2),

By Newton's method, or otherwise, χ = 0-525Z


Substituting in equation (5) gives y m a x = 0-001 31

4. A beam of uniform flexural rigidity and length I is encastré at both ends.


At a distance a from one end it carries a point load W and an applied moment
Wl which tends further to depress the centre of the beam. Show that when
a = 1/(1 + \/2), one of the end fixing moments is zero. (U. Lond.)
The arrangement is shown in
Fig. 6.12 and it is evident that /^"A Β|
only M& could be made zero, M^i Mb
since the effect of the applied A
moment will be to increase the
moment at Β due to W. '
le 6 - 12
Taking the origin at Α, *" °
EI^- 2 = -Rax +W[x-a\- Wl[x - af + ΜΛ
dx
Λ EI J = - f i a % + 5 * - af - Wl[x - a] + ΜΛχ + A
ax 2 2
When χ = 0, ^ = 0, .·. A = 0,
ax
X
Λ Ely = -R& - + Z{x - α]» - ψχ
2
- a] + M& 1+ Β
When χ = 0, y = 0, Λ Β = 0.
When χ = I, = 0, Λ 0 = -Rä ζ+—[1-α] - Wl[l-a]+M l
2
& . (1)
dx 2 2
2
73 w 2
Wl Ζ
When χ= l, y = 0, Λ 0 = -Rj-+^[l-aY-^[l-a] +M&- (2)

Eliminating Ä a between equations (1) and (2) gives


W 2 2
M& = 2 ^(l-a)(l -2al-a )
I
For ΜΛ to be zero, either a = I
2 2
or I -2al-a =Q
from which a = l(—l + \ / 2 ) or I
1 +V2
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 129
5. A fixed-ended beam of span 9 m carries a uniformly distributed load of
15 kN/m (including its own weight) and two equal point loads of 200 kN at
the third points of the span. Assuming rigid end-fixing, find the fixing moments
2
and the deflection at the centre. EI = 210 MN m .
If the end-fixings are elastic, so that the slope at the ends in radians (0) is
given by θ = ccM, where M is the fixing moment in Ν m, find the value of α
so that the maximum bending moment on the beam shall be as small as possible.
(U. Lond.)
The load system is shown in Fig. 6.13(a) and Fig. 6.13(6) shows the form
of the B.M. diagram. The reactions are each equal to half the load, i.e.
275 kN and the maximum ordinate of the free B.M. diagram is 785-5 kN m.

200kN 200kN
.A 3m 3m 15kN/m b

ι 1
X

9m
(a)
275kN 275kN

\ \
785-5 k N m /

Λ"
FIG. 6 . 1 3
(b)

Taking the origin at the L.H. end,


2
EI-^= 2 -275x+2W[x-3]+2W[x-6]+7-5x +M
ax
2 2 2 8
.·. EI^= -137-5x +100[a:-3] +100[a;-6] +2-5x +Ma;+^ (1)
dx

When χ = 0, ^ = 0, Λ A = 0.
dx

When x = 4-5 m , ^ = 0 , Λ M = 518-12 kN m


dx

-Η!^χ3+129[χ_3]3+12?[χ_6]3+0·625χ +259·06χ +5
4 2
Λ EIy=
3 3 3
When χ = 0, y = 0, Λ Β = 0.
130 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

When χ = 4-5 m,
137-5 3 100 3 4 2
EIy = χ 4 · 5 + — χ 1 - 5 + 0-625 χ 4-5 +259-06 χ 4-5
3 3
3
= 1 436-5 kN m
3
1 436-5 X l 0
e m = 6-835 mm
210 χ 10
For the maximum B.M. to be as small as possible, the end-fixing moment
M must be half the maximum ordinate of the free B.M. diagram, so that
the resultant B.M. at the centre is equal to the B.M. at the ends,
785-5
M 392-75 kN m

/ . end slope = α X 392-75 χ 10 rad


3

Substituting in equation (1) when χ = 0 gives


e 3
A = 210 x 10 χ 392-75 χ 1 0 α
12
= 82·5χ10 α
/ . when χ = 4-5 m,
2 2 3 12
0 = - 1 3 7 - 5 Χ 4·5 +100 χ 1·5 +2-5 χ 4·5 + 392-75 χ 4-5+82-5 χ 10 α
9
from which α = 6-84 χ IQ-

6. A beam of uniform section is 10 m long and is fixed horizontally at both


ends. It is supported at the centre by a prop level with both ends. It carries a
uniformly distributed load of 60 JcN/m, extending from one fixing to the
centre prop.
Calculate (a) the reaction on the prop, (b) the bending moment at the two
ends, (c) the bending moment over the prop. (U. Lond.)
Method 1 60kN/m
ÎA C
x
b
'> «
ik p
5m 5m
I

FIG. 6 . 1 4

Taking the origin at A, Fig. 6.14,


2
- P[x - 5] + 30|> - 5 ] + M%
»3·
Integrating twice and inserting the conditions that the slope is zero at
each end and the deflection is zero at each end and at the centre gives
Ρ = 150 kN
ΜΛ = —31-25 kN m (i.e. opposite in direction to that shown in Fig. 6.14)
Mh= 156-25 kNm and M c = 62-5 kNm
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 131
Method 2
For a beam carrying a u.d.l. over the whole span, each half of the load
contributes equally to the central deflection. Therefore, if the load covers
only half the beam, the central deflection is
1 wl*
X
from equation (6.2)
2 3847Z7 "
Equating this to the upward deflection due to P,
wl* PI*
768^7 192.07
ρ _ wl _ 60 χ 10
= 150 kN.

For a built-in beam carrying a single concentrated load W at a distance a


2 2
from one end, the end fixing moment at that end is Wa(l — a) /I and at
2 2
the other end it is Wa (l — a)/I (see Art. 6.4).

u
\. 1/2 \
4*— ^
FIG. 6.15

Applying this to the u.d.l., Fig. 6.15, the moment at A due to the load
on an element da at a distance a from that end is
wda . 2
a(l - a) 2

Hence the total moment at A due to the u.d.l.


Γ' w daa l 2 5 2
= —2 ( a) = _ wl
J 1/2
I 192

= - X 6 0 X l 0 * : 156-25 kN m.

Similarly, total moment at Β


1
f wda 2 7/ 11 2
wl
192
= ^X60X10« 343-75 kN m
PI
End fixing moments due to Ρ = (from Art. 6.2)
8
150 χ 10
= 187-5 kNm,
8
in opposite direction to those shown in Fig. 6.15.
132 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Hence resultant moment at A = 156-25 187-5= -31-25 kNm


and resultant moment at Β = 343-75 187-5 = 156-25 kN m.
Taking moments about B, Fig. 6.14,
2
5
60 X 31-25 - 10R& - 150 X 5 = 156-25

Λ P a = —18-75 kN (i.e. downwards)


B.M. at C = 18-75 X 5 31-25= 62-5 kNm

Method 3
The beam may be treated as a continuous beam and the problem solved
by the use of the three-moments theorem (Art. 6.6). Since both ends are
built-in, assume a virtual span at each end, of zero length and carrying no
load. These are represented by AX and B Y in Fig. 6.16.
2
2 wl
For BC, A = Λ
3 8 ι X ι Y
B
z F " IA C "1
wl 5m 5m
~T2 Ρ
Ax wP
"24
3
60 X 5
B.M. diagram
24~~
2
FIO. 6.16
-312-5 kN m
Applying equation (6.12) in turn to spans XA and AC, AC and CB, and
CB and B Y gives
0 + 2M a(0 + 5) + Mc χ 5 + 6(0 + 0) = 0 . (1)
I a x 5 + 2M C(5 + 5) + Mh χ 5 + 6(0 - 312-5) = 0 . (2)
I C X 5 + 2Mh{5 + 0) + 0 + 6(-312-5 + 0) = 0 . (3)
From equations (1), (2) and (3),
Ma = -31-25 kN m, Mh = 156-25 kN m and Mc = 62-5 kN m
Taking moments about C,
-31-25 - 5 £ a = 62-5 Λ R& = -18-75 kN
Taking moments about B ,
2
5
-31-25 + 18-75 χ 10 + 60 χ 5P = 156-25
Ρ = 150 kN
NOTE. Readers familiar with 'moment distribution' will find that this gives
the most direct solution of all.
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 133
7. A continuous beam of uniform section 30 m long, is simply supported at
A,B,C and D, all supports remaining at the same level. AB = BC = CD —8 m.
The beam overhangs 3 m at each end and carries a uniformly distributed load of
30 kN/m over its entire length. Determine the bending moments at the supports,
and sketch the bending moment and shearing force diagrams for the beam.
(U. Lond.)
The beam is shown in Fig. 6.17(a) and Figs. 6.17(6) and (c) show the
bending moment and shearing force diagrams respectively.
The maximum ordinates of the free B.M. diagrams for spans AB, BC and
CD are 240 kN m.

30kN/m
O O f i ÛC

3m 8m 8m 8m 3m (a)

(b)

(c)

11β·£ 120 90
1 2 3
t.
FIG. 6.17

Applying equation (6.12) to spans AB and BC,


f X 240 χ 8 χ 4
ΜΆ χ 8 + 2M b(8 + 8) + I c x 8 - 6 x 2 x
8
2
30 χ 3
But = 135 kN m
and
Hence Mh = 165 kN m
Taking moments about Β of forces to the left of that point,
2
ll
30 χ tL - 8Ä a = 165
/. R& = 206-£kN
.·. Rh = 30 χ 15 - 2 0 6 · ^ = 243-^kN
134 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

8. A uniform continuous beam ABCD is built-in at A and simply sup-


ported at B, C and D, 4,10 and 13 m respectively from A. All the supports
are at the same level. It carries a point load of 40 kN, 3 m from A and a
uniform load of 5 kN/m on BC.
Sketch the bending moment diagram, inserting principal numerical values.
(U. Lond.)

Fig. 6.18(a) shows the arrangement of the beam and Fig. 6.18(6) shows
the B.M. diagram. The maximum ordinates of the free B.M. diagrams for
AB and BC are respectively 30 and 22-5 kN m. Since the end A is built-in,

3m 4 0 kN 5kN/m
Χ ί

Ι *A 4m
Έ
6m 3m
(a)

(b)

22-5 kNm

Γιο. 6.18

assume an imaginary span AX is added, of zero length and carrying no


load.
Applying equation (6.12) in turn to XA and AB, AB and BC, and BC
and CD gives
0 + 2M a(0+4) + M b x 4 + 6 { θ - i x 3 x 3 0 x 2 + * x l x 3 0 x y = Q

M a x 4 + 2M b(4+6) + Mex 6
f £x3x30x2 + £xlx30x3£ _ |χ6χ22·5χ3ΐ =

I 4 « J
M„x 6 + 2M c(6+3) + M d x 3 + 6J-3 X 6 X
^ + oj = 0
5 x 3

* Note that χ must be measured from the outer supports of the pair of spans under
consideration. F o r an unsymmetrical triangular diagram, it is simpler to consider the
Ax for the two parts of the triangle separately than to determine the position of the
centroid of the complete triangle.
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 135
These equations reduce to
2M& + Mh = 37-5
2M a + 10M b + SMC = 240
Mh + 3M C = 45 since Md = 0
from which M a = 8-9 k N m , Mh = 19-7 k N m and Mc = 8-43 k N m.

9. A horizontal I-beam, rigidly built-in a t the ends, and 7-5 m long, carries a
total uniformly distributed load of 100 k N as well as a central concentrated load
2
of 4 0 kN. I f the bending stress is limited t o 7 5 M N / m and the deflection must
2
not exceed 2-5 m m , find the depth of section required. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 5 9 4 m m )
10. A horizontal steel beam of span 6 m and of uniform section is held encastré
a t both ends. I t carries a distributed load of 7-2 k N / m run from the centre t o one
end and a concentrated load of 9 k N a t the centre. The depth is 0*3 m and t h e
2
maximum bending stress is 1 2 0 M N / m . Calculate the central deflection.
2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (Ü. Lond.) ( ^ . : ^ m m )
11. A horizontal beam, built-in each end, has a clear span of 4-5 m, and carries
loads of 5 0 k N a t 1-5 m and 70 k N a t 2-5 m from its left-hand end. Calculate t h e
fixing moments and the position and amount of the m a x i m u m bending moment.
(17. Lond.) (Ans.: 67-5 k N m ; 60-5 k N m ; 67-5 kN m a t L . H . end)
e 4
12. A beam of uniform section, 7 = 185 X 1 0 ~ m , span 6 m, is fixed hori-
zontally a t each end. I t carries a point load of 120 k N a t 3*6 m from one end.
Neglecting the weight of the beam itself, find (a) the fixing moments, proving
a n y formula or rule you use; (6) the reactions; (c) t h e position and magnitude
of the m a x i m u m deflection. Check t h e determination of the fixing moments by
2
a n y method alternative t o t h a t already employed. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 69-12 k N m ; 103-68 k N m ; 42-25 k N ; 77-8 k N ; 3-35 m m a t 0-275 m
from mid-span)
13. A built-in beam of 5 m span carries a uniformly distributed load of 30 k N / m
extending from one support t o the centre of the span. I f the moment of inertia
β 4
of the section is 2 0 0 χ 1 0 ~ m , calculate (a) the end fixing moments, (b) the end
reactions, and (c) the position and magnitude of the m a x i m u m deflection. Sketch
2
the S . F . a n d B.M. diagrams. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 19-53 k N m ; 4 3 k N m ; 1 4 0 6 k N ; 60-94 k N ; 3-15 m m a t 2-8 m from
unloaded end)
_β 4
14. A 2 5 0 m m χ 112-5 m m steel beam, 7 = 47-6 χ 1 0 m , is used as a
horizontal beam with fixed ends and a clear span of 3 m. Calculate from first
principles the load which can be applied a t one-third span if the bending stress is
2
limited t o 120 M N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1 0 3 kN)
15. An encastré beam of uniform flexural rigidity is subjected t o the action of
two vertical point loads acting as shown in Fig. 6.19. F i n d the value of α t h a t will
give the largest bending moment a t the walls. ( U. Land.) (Ans. : 0-211 3 L)

v1
I
; „ L
α
ι
s
/

FIG. 6.19.
136 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
6 4
16. A steel joist, 4 0 0 m m χ 150 mm, 7 m ax = 2 8 3 χ 1 0 ~ m , 3 m long, is fixed
horizontally a t each end and carries loads W and 2 W a t 2 m and 4 m respectively
from one end. Draw the bending moment diagram for the beam, stating the values
a t the principal sections. F i n d the m a x i m u m value of TT if the bending stress
2
must not exceed 120 M N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: E n d fixing moments 1-778 W and 2-222 W; 76-5 kN)
17. A horizontal tubular shaft 1 m long, having outer and inner diameters o f
5 0 m m and 2 5 m m , is rigidly fixed a t its ends and carries a rigid lever a t the centre
of its length a t right angles t o its axis and in the same horizontal plane. I f the
lever is 0*3 m long and a vertical load of 1 kN is applied a t its free end, find the
2 2
vertical deflection a t the load. G = 8 0 G N / m ; Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 0-579 m m [0-489 m m + 0-090 m m ] )
18. A beam of uniform section is position and direction fixed a t both ends of a
span of 7 m. A t a point 4-5 m from the left-hand end a connection made t o t h e
beam exerts a vertically downwards force of 8 0 k N and also a clockwise couple
of 6 0 kN m in t h e vertical plane of bending ; in addition, the beam carries a uni-
formly distributed load of 8 k N / m on the whole span. Determine t h e fixing
moments and reactions a t the supports and make dimensioned sketches of the
bending moment and shearing force diagrams. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 58-78 k N m ; 118-28 kN m; 39-5 k N ; 96-5 kN)
19. An encastré beam of span I carries a load wl uniformly distributed over the
span. The second moment of area of the beam section is not the same throughout;
for a length Z/4 a t each end the value is 21 and for the middle length 1/2 it is / .
Determine the bending moment a t the ends of the beam and sketch the bending
moment diagram, showing on it the values a t the ends and a t mid-span.
2 2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: &wl ; -fowl )
2 0 . A built-in beam of uniform section and of length I carries a load which
increases uniformly from zero a t each end t o w per unit length a t t h e centre.
Determine the end fixing moments and the central deflection.
5 7
( Λ 72
\ ' 96
A n
SmËl)
a:

2 1 . A beam of uniform section and span I is firmly built-in a t the ends and
carries a load which varies uniformly from zero intensity a t the left-hand end t o
w per unit length a t the right-hand end. Determine the fixing moments and
reactions in terms of w and I and also the position and magnitude of the maximum
sagging bending moment.
Make freehand sketches of the shearing force and bending moment diagrams for
the beam, approximately t o scale, showing on t h e diagrams all the calculated
values. (U. Lond.)
Ί
(Ans.: ^ ; ^ ; ξ-^; -^; 0-021 47 wl* a t 0-548 I from R . H . e n d )
\ 30 2 0 20 20 /
β 4
22. A steel beam 0-35 m deep, I = 3 7 6 χ 1 0 ~ m has a span of 7-2 m and is
built-in a t the ends. Calculate the uniformly distributed load it can carry with a
2
maximum bending stress of 120 M N / m if, on loading, the end fixings yield t o
such an extent t h a t the fixing moments a r e 3 0 % less t h a n t h e y would be with
2
rigidly fixed ends. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 74-6 k N m )
β 4
2 3 . A rolled steel joist, 5 6 0 m m χ 180 m m ( / = 700 χ 1 0 ~ m ) is used as a
beam of 7-2 m effective span, t h e ends being partially fixed. The load consists
of a point load of 160 k N a t the centre of the span and a uniformly distributed
load (including the weight of the beam itself) of 6 0 kN. The rigidity o f t h e end
B U I L T - I N AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS 137
_8
connections is such t h a t the slope a t t h e ends is 4 Μ χ 1 0 where M is the end
2
moment in N m . Calculate the value of the end moments. Ε => 2 0 0 G N / m .
( U. Lond. ) (Ans. : 70-43 k N m )

24. A loaded horizontal beam has its ends securely built-in; the clear span is
6 4
6 m a n d I = 8 0 χ 1 0 ~ m . L a t e r it is observed t h a t one end has been displaced
10 m m vertically. Assuming the ends a r e still securely built-in, determine the
2
alteration of the fixing moments and vertical reactions. Ε — 2 0 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 26-67 k N m ; 8-89 kN)

2 5 . A continuous beam carrying a uniformly distributed load of 5 0 k N / m covers


three spans. The end spans a r e each 6 m in length and the central span is 18 m.
Calculate t h e greatest bending moment and shearing force, a n d the position of
the points of contraflexure. ( / . Meat. E.)
(Ans.: 1-145 MNm a t inner supports; 4 5 0 k N a t inner supports;
5-93 m from centre)

2 6 . A continuous horizontal beam, A B C , is fixed horizontally a t C a n d sup-


ported ( t o the same level) a t A and B . A B = 3 m ; B C = 5 m. The loading on
A B consists of a vertical concentrated load of 4 0 k N a t 1 m from B , and on B C ,
of a vertical concentrated load of 100 k N a t 1 m from B .
Give dimensioned sketches of the bending moment and shearing force diagrams
for the beam A B C . ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: Mh = 4 5 - 5 k N m ; Mc = 25-3 k N m ; R& = - 1 - 8 3 k N ; Rb = 125-87
k N ; Rc = 15-96 k N )

27. A continuous beam 15 m long rests on three supports a t the same level.
One span is 6 m a n d carries a concentrated load of 100 k N a t its centre, and the
other is 9 m a n d carries a uniformly distributed load of 120 kN. Calculate t h e
m a x i m u m positive a n d negative bending moments for each span and the re-
actions. Draw the B.M. and S . F . diagrams roughly t o scale. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: + 1 2 6 and - 8 7 k N m ; + 1 2 6 and - 7 9 - 4 k N m ; 2 9 k N ; 1 4 5 k N ; 4 6 k N )

2 8 . A beam AC, 2 2 m long, rests on supports a t A, Β and C a t t h e same level.


A B = 10 m ; B C = 12 m. A uniformly distributed load of 16 k N / m is carried
over t h e entire beam and, in addition, there is a 6 0 k N load placed mid-way
between supports A and B . Calculate (a) the bending moments a t the centre of
each span and a t the support B , and (6) the reactions a t t h e three supports. Sketch
the S.F. a n d B.M. diagrams for the loaded beam. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 200-5 k N m ; 138-5 k N m ; 2 9 9 k N m ; 8 0 1 k N ; g 6 0 k N ; £ + 9 " k N )

2 9 . A continuous beam rests on four supports with the right-hand end rigidly
fixed. The first span a t the left-hand end is 6 m and carries 3 6 k N uniformly
distributed. The second span is 9 m and carries 18 k N a t the centre and the third
span is 12 m carrying 12 k N uniformly distributed. Calculate the bending moments
and reactions and draw the B.M. a n d S . F . diagrams t o scale. ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: Mh = 24-485 k N m ; Mc = 1 5 0 5 k N m ; Md = 10-425 k N m ; R& =
13-92 k N ; R\> = 3 2 1 1 k N ; Rc = 14-28 k N ; Ra = 5-69 k N )

3 0 . An R . S . J , is used for a horizontal beam A B C , which is built-in a t one end A,


and carried on two unyielding supports Β a n d C, the spans A B and B C being
6 and 9 m respectively. A uniformly distributed load of 16 k N / m (inclusive of
weight of joist) is carried along the full length AC. Draw the bending moment
diagram and from it determine a suitable size for the R . S . J . , using an allowable
2
stress of 120 M N / m . ( U. Land.)
3 8
(Ans.: Jtfmax = 124 k N m a t Β ; Ζ = 1 0 3 3 χ 1 0 " m )
CHAPTER 7

STRUTS

7.1 Introduction. A strut usually refers to a compression member which


is long in comparison with its cross-sectional dimensions. Such a member
will fail due to buckling before the direct compressive stress reaches the
yield point.
For a very long strut, where the effect of direct compression is negligible,
the load which will cause buckling is given by Euler's Theory but for
shorter struts, the Rankine Formula, which makes allowance for the effect
of direct compression, is more appropriate.
For both theories, it is assumed that:
(a) the strut is initially straight,
(b) the load is applied axially,
(c) the material is homogeneous.
For such an ideal case, the strut will remain straight as the load is gradu-
ally increased until the critical load is reached when, if disturbed, it will
suddenly buckle. I f the load is further increased, the strut will collapse; if
it is reduced, the strut will straighten again. The amount of buckling under
the critical load is mdeterminate; theoretically an infinite number of
positions are possible, up to that in which the combined effect of buckling
and direct stresses causes failure in the outer fibres of the material.
If any of the above conditions are not fulfilled, bending will take place
as soon as any load is applied; see Arts. 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7.

7.2 Euler's Theory.


Case (a)—strut with both ends pinned, Fig. 7.1.
Taking the origin at the centre,

or — 4- — ν = 0
dx*^ ΕΓ
2
i.e. 1^ + ^ = 0 where μ = ^

The solution is
y = A cos μχ + Β sin μχ

* I f the strut is turned into the horizontal position and the deflection is downwards.
y is positive and M is negative. I f the deflection is upwards, y is negative and M is
positive. With the opposite sign convention, the signs of y and M are reversed in each
case, so that in all circumstances, M is opposite in sign to y, i.e. M = — Py.
138
STRUTS 139

0 *

(d)
FIG. 7.1

IVlien χ = 0, ^ = 0, B== 0.
da?
When χ = - , y = 0, Λ 0 = A cos μ -
Δ L

Therefore either A — 0 or cos μ ^ = 0 but .4 cannot be zero, otherwise

y = 0 for all values of x, i.e. no buckling has occurred,

i.e. cos μ - = 0

l π 3π .
2
π ΕΙ
from which Ρ= , taking the smallest solution . . (7.1)
ι
The shape of the deflected strut is shown in Fig. 7.1(a).
If, however, the strut is prevented from moving at the centre, the next
mode of buckling will be as shown in Fig. 7.1(6)
When χ = 0, y = 0, A= 0

When x=l,y=0, . ' . 0 = 5 sin μ \-


2
ι
sin μ - = 0 since Β cannot also be zero,
Λ μ - = π, 2π, etc.
2
from which Ρ = — — , taking the smallest solution.
140 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Further modes of buckling are possible, as shown in Figs. 7.1(c) and (d)f
these corresponding with μ 2π, etc.

Case (b)—strut with one end fixed and one end free, Fig. 7.2.
Taking the origin at the base,

BI^L = P(a-y)*

i.e.
The solution is
y = A cos μχ + Β sin μχ + a
When χ 0,y=0, Λ A = —a

When χ 0,^=0, ;.B. = 0


ax
:.y=a a cos μχ
When χ = l, y = a,
m\ a= a — a cos μί
Λ cos μ1=0
since a ^ 0 if buckling has occurred FIG. 7 . 2
1 7
7

2
n EI
from which P = 2 (7.2)
4Z
Case (c)—strut with both ends fixed, Fig. 7.3.
Taking the origin at the centre,

2
dx
à*y 2
M
μν
Τι
2
dx '
The solution is

M
y = A cos μχ + Β sin μχ +
" ^5 77Z"
dy Ρ
When χ = 0, -f = 0, 5=0.
dec Fia. 7.3
* The B.M. in this case is opposite in eifeot to that in case (a), i.e. it is positive.
STRUTS 141
l_ dy
When χ = -j-, ^ = 0, .·. 0 = — μΑ sin μ

I
.'. sin μ •

. μ — = 71

from which ki EI
2
(7.3)

Further modes of buckling are possible, as in case (a).


Case (d)—stmt with one end fixed and one end pinned, Fig. 7.4.
In this case, there will be a horizontal reaction F at the pin to keep the
top end of the strut on the vertical axis; the product F χ I balances the
fixing moment M at the base.
Taking the origin at the base,
.ay

i.e.
The solution is
F.
y = A cos μχ - f Β sin μχ + ψ(1 — x)

Fl
When x=0,y=Q,:.A= —
Ρ

When χ = 0, ^ = 0, B = F_
dat μ~Ρ

When χ — l, y = 0,
8
.•.0 = | | - Z c o s ^ + i ^ |

.". tan μϊ = μΐ
The smallest solution is μϊ = 4*5 rad

from which (7.4)


ι 2
μ
142 STRENGTH OF M A T E M ^ t J

7.3 Validity limit for Euler's Theory. For the case of a short strut,
Euler's theory may give a critical load which is greater than that required
to produce failure due to direct compression. The limiting case occurs when
Ρ = aca
where ac is the compressive stress
at the yield point and a is the
cross-sectional area.
2 2 2
π ΕΙ n E(ak )
But Ρ = η

where η is a constant depending on


the end fixing conditions and k is
the least radius of gyration of the
cross-section.
2 2
n Ek
2
FIG. 7.5
I
2
_ Ιηπ Ε
(7.5)

The quantity l/k is called the slenderness ratio and its value at this point
is called the validity limit. For a mild steel pin-ended strut, η = 1, Ε = 208
2 2
GN/m and ac= 325 MN/m , so that l/k 80. It would therefore be
impossible to use Euler's theory for such a strut of slenderness ratio less
than this value and, in fact, this theory would give an excessive value for
the crippling load before this limiting case was reached.
Fig. 7.5 shows how Ρ varies with l/k according to Euler's theory and the
dotted line shows the corresponding values of Ρ as given by Rankine's
theory, where an allowance is made for the effect of direct compression.
7.4 Rankine's Theory. For a very long strut, the crippling load is
given by Ρ = P e , where P e is the load given by Euler's theory. For a very
short strut, the crippling load is given by Ρ = P c , where P c is the load at
failure due to direct compression.
For a strut of intermediate length, Rankine's criterion of failure is
1
Ρ P<
1

P = 2
aca ηπ ΕΙ
aca

= 1 + 2
nn E\k)
2
The quantity aJn E is a constant for a given material and is denoted by c.
STRUTS 143

Hence P = (7-6)
1 +
n\kj
where η has the value 1, J , 4 or 2-05 for the various types of end fixing
considered in Art. 7.2.
2
Although the value of c could be calculated from σ0/π Ε, it is usually
determined directly by experiment and the following are the values of ac
and c normally used :
2
Material a c(MN/m ) c
Mild steel 325 1/7500 (theoretically 1/6200)
Cast iron 550 1/1600 (theoretically 1/2040)
Due to the discrepancy between the usually accepted values of c and the
theoretical values, the Eankine curve shown in Fig. 7.5 will not coincide
with the Euler curve for very long struts, as it should theoretically do.
7.5 Strut with eccentric load. Fig. 7.6 shows a pin-ended strut in
which the load is applied with an eccentricity e at each end. For such a case,
there is no buckling load; the strut will commence to bend immediately
any load is applied and the deflection at any point is directly related to the
load. „
Taking the origin at the centre,

P(y + e)

i.e. 2 +
22 „
μν -fi =e
dx
The solution is
y= A cos μχ + Β sin μχ — e
dy
When x=0, 0, / . B=0.
dx
I
When χ A = e sec μ

Λ y = e^sec μ ^ cos μχ —

2/max = e^sec μ I — 1^, when χ = 0 (7.7)


I
^max = + e) = Pe sec μ (7.8)
Ρ Pe I
and (7.9)
« ± 2 ^ 2
144 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

7.6 Strut with initial curvature. Fig. 7.7 shows a pin-ended strut in
which the load is applied axially at the ends but the strut has initial curva-
ture, the central deflection from the axis through the ends being h. As in
the previous case, bending occurs immediately any load is applied.
Assuming that the initial curvature is relatively small, the exact shape
of the curve has little effect upon the subsequent bending and since the
fundamental shape of a strut which is deflected by an end thrust is a cosine
curve, it is convenient to assume that the initial curvature is also of the
form of a cosine curve.
Thus, taking the origin at the centre,* the equation of the initial curva-
ture is
u = h cos — χ
I
The subsequent movement of the strut due to the force Ρ is y

-Py

i.e.
EIp{ + Py=EI^2
dx* * dx
2
r , rj Tl 71
-Elk —2 cos — χ
I I
2
π' π
i.e. 2
dx
The solution is
6
π π
- cos - χ
y = A cos μχ +Β μχ ν

μ< ~ T2
π

= A cos μχ -\- Β sin μχ -)- ηι cos - ap. (7.10)


ρ . - ρ
where Ρ β is the Euler crippling load for the strut.

When χ = 0, ^ = 0, Λ Β 0.
dx
When χ = ^, y = 0, Λ 0 = A cos μ ^
2
π , whence Ρ • π ΕΙ
If cos μ ^ — 0, then μ - : Ρ,
In this case, however, y would be infinite, from equation (7.10) and so,
assuming that Ρ is less than this value,
* I f the origin is taken at one end, the curve will be a sine wave.
STRUTS 145

I
cos rμ - ^ 0
2

so that .4 = 0
Pe
Λ yy = n „ h cos ~ χ . . . (7.11)
Pe-P I
i.e. due to the action of the load, the deflection at any point is increased in
the ratio Pe/(Pe - P).

y ma x = p ^ p > whenz=0 . . . (7.12)

^max = ψ ~ ~ ρ ( 7 . 1 3 )

h
and °™ = * ± £ ^ P ' z ' ' ' •<"*>
If the load is applied eccentrically at each end, the total deflection at any
point is the sum (or difference) of the deflections due to the eccentricity
and initial curvature.
7.7 Laterally loaded struts.
Case (a)—central concentrated load, Fig. 7 . 8 .
Taking the origin at the centre,
y
// \ ρ l PL ρ
BIpt—Ρ,-Ζ
2
dx * 2
2
ày ,
d x
/ Fia. 7.8
The solution is
y=Aco8μx-\~B sin μχ — — ( χ)
2P\2 /
d W
When χ = o, / == 0, .·. Β = - —
dx 2μΡ
I
When χ 0, . . A = —— tan μ -,
2μΡ ^ 2

·'· y =
5{^( tan μ
\ cos μ χ
~ sin μχ
) ~( . (7.15)

I/max —< - tan μ - — - y when χ = 0


=
. . (7.16)
2Ρ\μ ' 2 2)
W 1 W. ι
M
i rj
= • • (7.17)
max
H6 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Case (b)—uniformly distributed load, Fig. 7.9


Taking the origin at the centre,

ρ \ y w / u n i t length p

»S~*-i(M ^Τθ^^ΠΓ
The solution is
2
y = Λ cos^a; + Β &πιμχ - —1 - — χ + — »

When a; = 0, — = 0, .*. Β = 0.
da;
When a; = l, y = 0, .\ A =
l
sec/* -

2
»P/ l Λ I , x^ .
i l T i o
y = μ MX _ + (
·'· P \ ^ \ 2 ~ ) 8 2j ' *

··· ^max = -Py™* - = - ^ ( sec ^ 1 - ή . (7.20)

7.8 Alternative method for determining bending moment. In the


preceding articles, the deflection of the strut has first been obtained and
the bending moment derived from this. If, however, only the bending
moment is required, it is more direct to proceed with a differential equation
for M.
If M' is the B.M. due to the transverse loads, then
M = -Py + M
or M + Py=M'
Differentiating twice with respect to x,
2 2 2 /
dM | p d y_d M
2 2 2
dx dx dx

But Pp=*BIp = *M
dx
2
EI dx
2 r
M
2 2
dM d M'

•••Tsr+^-a? <»
1
U
STRUTS 147

If there is no transverse load or if it consists of a concentrated load, then

2
dx
The solution for M is then
M = A cos μχ + Β sin μχ
For an eccentrically loaded strut, (Art. 7.5),
dM
0 when x=0, ΛΒ= 0
dx
and M = Pe when χ = -, .'. A = Pe sec μ -
2 ^2
so that M Pe sec μ - cos μχ

and M Pe sec μ
r -
2
For a strut with a
TP TF
— when χ = 0, Β = —-
da; 2 2μ
If I
and M 0 when χ = 0, .". A = — —- tan μ -
2μ 2
W 1

so that M L
——< tan μ - cos μχ + s
2/u 2
WA I
and M -— tan μ -
max 2μ ^2
For a strut with a uniformly distributed load, (Art. 7.7(6)),

=
2
dz
w
Λ M = A cos μχ -\- Β sin μχ -(—^
When χ = 0, — = 0, Λ Β = 0.
dx

When χ = M = 0, .'. A = — ^ sec μ ^

.. M = -^sec μ - cos μχ — 11

B e c
and M m ax = " " ^ /* j[ - ^
148 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

7.9 Eccentrically and transversely loaded t i e - b a r s . If the axial


load is tensile instead of compressive, the term Py becomes positive instead
of negative and the complementary function becomes A cosh μχ + Β
sinh μχ. The subsequent analysis is identical with that for struts and the
results are similar except for the substitution of hyperbolic functions for
trigonometrical functions and occasional changes of sign.
Alternatively, the results for tie-bars may be obtained from those for
struts by replacing Ρ by —P, from which μ changes to %μ.
Thus, in the case of a tie-bar with a uniformly distributed load, equation
(7.20) becomes
w ( . I
1 sec ιμ -

=
^( sech/
4- ) 1

1. A straight bar of alloy 1 m long and 12-5 mm X 5 mm in section is


mounted in a strut testing machine and loaded axially till it buckles. Assuming
the Euler formula for pinned-ends to apply, estimate thje maximum central
2
deflection before the material attains its yield point, at 280 MN/m . Ε = 75
2
GN/m . (U. Lond.)
For a pin-ended strut
71
^ ^2 . . . from equation (7.2)
I
π X 75 χ 10» χ 0-012 5 x 0-0Q5
2 3

2
= 96-4 Ν
l χ 12
2 2
.·. ο* = - = * N/m = 1-56 MN/m
0-012 5 χ 0-005
d 1 1
a
If the central deflection of the strut is δ,
^max = Ρ X à
Pxô
.. o v ζ
_ 96-4 χ δ Χ 6 2 2
2 N/m = 1 850 à MN/m
~ 0-012 5 χ 0-005
1-56 + 1 850 0 = 280
/. δ = 0-15 m
2. From some tests on steel struts with ends fixed in position but free in
direction, two of the results obtained were:
Test No. 1 2
Ratio of slenderness 70 170
2
Average stress at failure (MN/m ) 200 69
STRUTS 149
(a) Assuming these two values are in agreement with the Rankine formula,
find the two constants in the formula.
(b) If a steel bar of rectangular section 60 mm by 20 mm and of length
1*25 m is used as a strut with both ends fixed in position and direction, find
the safe load using the constants derived in (a) and employing a load factor of 4.
(U. Lond.)
aca
m
(a) Ρ = TTVi · · · fr° equation (7.6)

i.e. 200 = 2
1 + c Χ 70

and 69 = ^
2
1 + c χ 170
2
from which ac = 326-4 MN/m and
7 750
(6) For built-in-ends Ρ = aca

4\k
2 2
72 <* 0-02 1 2
2 2
k = —= = m
4
12 12 3 χ 10
ρ _ 1 326-4 χ 10* χ 0-06 χ 0-02
X 2 4
' ~~ 4 j 1-25 χ 3 X 10 ~~
4 χ 7 750
= 38-9 kN
3. A steel tubular strut is pin-jointed at each end and it is subjected to a
load parallel to its axis but eccentric to it. If the tube is 50 mm external dia-
meter, 40 mm bore diameter and 2-5 m long, find the maximum permissible
load if the eccentricity is 5 mm and the maximum allowable stress is 300
2 2
MN/m . Ε = 200 GN/m . (I.Mech.E.)
Ρ , Pe I « / rr r \\
o*max = — + — sec μ - . . . . from equationr (7.9)
a Zi 2
2 2 2
a = ^(0·05 - 0-04 ) = 7-07 χ 10~* m
4

^/:-°-V
=Z
0
5
32\ 0-05
0
4
)
7-24X10-

1
= 0-005 25VP m -
9 4 4
200x 10 x—(0-05 -0-04 )
64
150 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

.·. 3 0 0 X 1 0 . = p!™ + ° -
W
7
5
*
1 08
sec fo-005 2 5 ^ X ^ ) 1
\7-07 7-24 \ 2 //
434 800
which reduces to 2-05 - sec 0-OOjljÉjlVP = 0
By use of Newton's method or by plotting,
P=jWkN
4. A horizontal light alloy tube 60 mm external and 50 mm internal dia-
meter, 2-4 m long, is freely supported at its ends. It carries an axial com-
pressive load of 20 kN, and also two vertical point loads of 1 kN at 0-8 m
from each end. Find approximately the maximum stress in the tube.
The beam may be treated as a slightly curved strut, the initial deflection being
that due to the transverse loads. Neglect the weight of the tube and take Ε as
2
70 GN/m . (U. Lond.)

1kN£'4m,0-4m ,1kN
Β 20kN

800Nm

Για. 7.10
4
/ = ^(0-06 4 β
0-05 ) = 0-328 5 χ 10~ m
4

64
β
0-328 5 χ 1 0 - β 3
and Ζ = 10-95 χ 10~ m
0-03
The strut is shown in Fig. 7.10(a) and Fig. 7.10(6) shows the B.M. dia-
gram due to the transverse loads alone. The initial central deflection is most
easily obtained by the area-moment method; taking the origin at Β and
considering the part BC only,
1 2
Γ dy Ί 1 moment of area of B.M. diagram between C
y = X
L dx~ j0 ËÎ and Β about Β
Q 8 8 Q Q
- * X f x 0-8 + 0-4 x 800 x 1-0
9 β
i.e. (0 — A) — (0 — 0) = — 70 χ ΙΟ χ 0-328 5 χ 10~
/. h = 0021 35 m
STRUTS 151

^max
:
from equation (7.12)
2
π ΕΙ
P. 2 from equation (7.2)
I

π χ 7 0 χ 1 0 χ 0 · 3 2 8 5 χ 1 0 - = 56 200 Ν
2 9 8

•Vu 56 200x0-02135 = 0-033 2 m


56 200 - 20 000
M
J L — - 2 0 000x0-033 2 - 8 0 0 = - 1 464 Ν m
« -'- τ η » γ

20 000 1464 2 2
N/m = 156-6 MN/m
Omax
π (0·06 -0·05 )
2 2 10-95 χ 1 0 -
β
+
5. A thin vertical strut of uniform cross-section and length L is rigidly fixed
at the bottom, and the top end is free. At the top there is a horizontal load H and
a vertical downward had W acting through the centroid of the section. Prove
that the horizontal deflection at the top is

L w
w { — - ) ^ ^ = sJYr
If the strut is 2 m long and the horizontal deflection at the top produced by a
horizontal load of 100 Ν is 112-5 mm, find the deflection where there is, in
addition, a vertical load of 180 N. Find also the maximum bending moment
in the strut. (U. Lond.)
Keferring to Fig. 7.11,

EI^2=W(a-y) + H(l-

μ 2α + { 1 χ )
* 2 + ^ = Τι -
The solution is

y = A cos μχ + Β sin μχ + a + -^(l — x)

Η
When χ = 0, $ f = 0, B =
ax FÎW

When « = 0 ^ = 0, :.Α=-(α + ^ FIG. 7.11

Η η,
cos^x + ^— άημχ + α + —(I — χ)
μη W
152 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

When χ = l, y = a,
H l H
( - \ 1 _L ' 7_1_
. . a = - ^a + - cos //i + — sin μι + a

from which

Due to Η alone,
HP
deflection at top :
3ËÏ
3
100 χ 2
i.e. 0-112 5 =
3£Z
2
EI =2 370 Ν m

V #7 V 2 370 m
-

100/tan 0-276 χ 2 _ \
Î80\ 0-276 /
= 0-130 5 m

6. A thin vertical strut, 1 m long and initially straight, is pinned at each end
and carries an axial load P. A spring of stiffness 4-5 kN/m is attached at the
centre with its axis horizontal and when the strut is straight, the spring is
stretched 30 mm.
Find the central deflection when Ρ is one quarter of the Euler crippling load
2
and EI is 30 Ν m .
The strut is shown in Fig. 7.12. From equation (7.16), the central deflec-
tion under a central load W is given by
W(l. I Γ
Vu μ
2Ρ\μ^ 2 2
Denoting the central deflection by δ
W = 5 ( 0 - 0 3 - δ)
= 4-5 χ 10 (0·03 - δ) Ν
3

4-5 χ 10 (0·03 - δ)
3
W
2 χ π ΕΙ
2

2

4-5 χ 10 (0·03 - δ) Χ 2 χ I
3 2

2
π Χ 30
30-4(0-03 - δ) FIG. 7 . 1 2
STRUTS 153
2
π ΕΙ π
μ

. . - tan μ-
r
s]ΕΙ ν/;
— - = — tan - — - = 0*136
WEI 21

μ 2 2 π 4 2
Λ δ = 30-4(0-03 - δ) Χ 0-136 = 4-13(0-03 ô) m
from which δ = 0-024 15 m or 24-15 mm
7. A uniform tie-rod of length 2α, pin-jointed at its ends, supports a uni-
formly distributed transverse load w per unit length, in addition to an axial
pull P. Derive an expression for the maximum bending moment.
A steel tie-bar of length 1-5 m between pin centres and diameter 25 mm
carries an axial tension of 12-5 kN and, in addition, a lateral load of 450 Ν
uniformly distributed along its length. Calculate the maximum bending
moment in the tie-bar.
If the axial force becomes reversed in direction (i.e. compressive), calculate
2
the percentage change in stress. Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
w / u n i t length

FIG. 7 . 1 3

w 2
2 X)
Referring to Fig. 7.13, M = Py - -(a
2
M w. 2
or Py = - g ( a - x*)
2
dM _
P W
die* d J =

or
Am
- ^ = W , w r i t i n g p g a s | p / g
The solution is M A cosh μχ + Β sinh μχ — —

àM
When χ = 0, 0, .·. B = 0.
dx
When x= a, M = 0, :. A t sech μα

Λ M = -—(sech
2
μα cosh μχ — 1)
μ
w
M m a x = — —(1 2
— sech μα), since sech μα < 1
μ '
154 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
3
2 Ρ 12-5 χ 10 _2
9 4
200 χ ΙΟ χ — χ 0-025
64

-47-6 Ν m
When Ρ is compressive

——-(sec
2
μ - 2 — 1) . . . from equation (7.20)
μ \ /
^sec Vïm χ l^-l^J
1-5 χ 3-26
= -336-5 Ν m
Ρ Μ
°max Τ ~ rj
α Ζ
For tie-bar,
12 500 , 47-6 , 2 „0 η *χ Λ πτ , *2
cr max = + N/m = 56-5 kN/m
2 3
- χ 0-025 — χ 0-025
4 32
For strut,
12 500 336-5 2 / .ί 1 Μ / 2
1 N/m 2= 0245 kN/m2
- Χ 0-025 - Χ 0-025
2 3

4 32
Λ percentage change of stress
245 - 56-5
X 1 0 0 = 333
56-5

8. W h a t are the fundamental assumptions in deriving the Euler formula for


the buckling load of a strut? Calculate this buckling load for a strut of tee-section,
the flange width being 100 mm, overall depth 8 0 mm, and with both flange and
2
stem 10 m m thick. The strut is 3 m long and hinged a t both ends. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 184-2 kN)
9. Derive the Euler formula for a strut hinged a t both ends. State clearly what
you regard as the three most important assumptions made in deriving this formula.
A straight cylindrical bar is 16 m m diameter and 1-2 m long. I t is freely sup-
ported a t its two ends in a horizontal position and loaded a t the centre with a
concentrated load of 9 0 N. The central deflection is found t o be 5 mm.
I f placed vertical and loaded along its axis, what load would cause it t o buckle?
W h a t is the ratio of the maximum stresses in the two cases? (U. Lond.)
(Ans.:4:'U kN; 3-04)
STRUTS 155
10. A steel strip 0-64 m long and of rectangular section, when tested as a strut
with direction-free ends, was found to buckle when the load reached 5 1 5 N. In a
preliminary test the strip was arranged as a simply supported beam on a span of
0-5 m and loaded in the centre when it was found t h a t , with the long edges of the
section horizontal, the deflection per Ν of load was 0-11 mm. Deduce from the
bending test the relevant EI for the strut, and hence calculate the Euler critical
load.
Compare the experimental and calculated values for the critical load and give
possible reasons t o account for a n y disagreement. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 5 7 0 Ν )

11. A flat strip of steel, 75 m m long, 12 m m wide, and 0-25 m m thick is t o be


used as a strut with encastré ends. Working from first principles, find the critical
2
load. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 21-9 Ν )

12. A hollow cast-iron column with fixed ends supports an axial load o f 1 MN.
I f the column is 4-5 m long and has a n external diameter of 2 5 0 m m , find the
thickness of metal required.
Use the Rankine formula, taking a constant of 1 / 6 4 0 0 and assume a working
2
stress of 8 0 M N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2 8 m m )

13. A cast-iron column 2 0 0 m m external diameter is 2 0 m m thick and has a


length of 4-5 m. Assuming it can be treated as rigidly fixed a t each end, calculate
the safe load by Rankine's formula, using the following empirical constants:
2
ac = 5 5 0 M N / m , c (for hinged ends) = 1/1 6 0 0 , factor of safety 4. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 819 kN)

14. Compare the crippling loads given by Euler's and Rankine's formulae for
a tubular steel strut 2-25 m long, having outer and inner diameters of 38 m m and
33 m m respectively, loaded through pin-joints a t both ends. Take the yield stress
2 2
as 3 2 5 M N / m , the Rankine constant = 1 / 7 5 0 0 and Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . F o r what
length of strut of this cross-section does the Euler formula cease t o apply?
(Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 17-24 k N ; 17-20 k N ; 0-98 m )

15. In the experimental determination of the buckling loads for 12-5 m m


diameter mild steel pin-ended struts of various lengths, two of the values obtained
were: (i) length0-5 m, load 9-25 kN, (it) length 0-2 m, load 2 5 kN.
(a) Make the necessary calculations and then state whether either of the values
conforms with the Euler formula for the critical load.
(b) Assuming t h a t both values are in agreement with the Rankine formula,
2
find the two constants for this formula. Take Ε as 2 0 0 G N / m . (Î7. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 301-5 M N / m ; 1 / 8 5 4 0 )

16. Derive a formula for the m a x i m u m stress in an eccentrically loaded column.


A steel tube is initially straight, has an external diameter of 4 0 m m , is 1*6 m m
thick, 1-5 m long and carries a compressive load of 2 0 k N acting parallel t o the
axis of the tube but 2-5 m m from it. Calculate the maximum stress in t h e tube.
2 8
Ε = 200 GN/m . (17. Lond.) (Ans.: 194-4 M N / m )

17. A strut 3 m long is constructed of steel tube 7 5 m m outside diameter and


3 m m thick. The ends are pin-joined, but the end load of 5 0 k N is applied eccentric-
ally through a line parallel t o and 2-5 m m away from the axis of the strut, which
is initially straight. Find the deflection and the maximum stress a t the centre of
2 2
the length. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 3-38 m m ; 98-7 M N / m )

18. A steel tubular strut is pin joined a t each end, and is subjected to a load
parallel t o its axis but eccentric t o it. I f the tube is 6 4 m m external diameter,
156 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

50 mm bore and 2-5 m long, find the maximum permissible eccentricity if the load
2
is 120 kN and the m a x i m u m permissible stress is 3 0 0 M N / m .
2
Any equations used should be proved. Ε = 200 G N / m . (I. Mech. E.)
(Ans.: 6 m m )
19. Derive a formula for the maximum compressive stress induced in an initially
straight, slender, uniform strut when loaded along an axis having an eccentricity
e a t both ends, which are pin-jointed.
A straight steel pin-jointed strut is 5 0 m m diameter and 1-25 m long. Calculate
(a) the (Euler) crippling load when loaded along the central axis; (b) the eccen-
tricity which will cause failure a t 7 5 per cent of this load if the yield-point stress
2 2
of the material is 2 8 0 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 387-5 k N ; 1-166 m m )
2 0 . A hollow circular steel strut with its end position-fixed has a length of 2-4 m,
its external diameter being 100 m m and its internal diameter 87-5 m m . Before
loading, the strut is bent with a maximum deviation of 4-5 m m . Assuming t h a t the
centre-line of the strut is sinusoidal, determine the maximum stress due to a
2
central compressive end load of 10 kN. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 6-55 M N / m )
2 1 . A steel bar 2 5 m m diameter and 1-8 m long is tested as a free-ended strut.
Calculate the crippling load if the bar is initially straight and is centrally loaded.
2
F i n d the load which will produce the yield stress of 300 M N / m in this bar, if it
is centrally loaded, but has initial curvature with an eccentricity of 9 m m a t the
2
centre of its length. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 11-7 k N ; 9-4 kN)
2 2 . A long slender strut, originally straight and securely fixed a t one end and
free a t the other end, is loaded a t the free end with an eccentric load whose line
of action is parallel t o the original axis of the strut. Deduce an expression for the
deviation of the free end from its original position.
Determine this deviation and the greatest compressive stress for a steel strut
complying with the above conditions; length 3 m, circular cross-section 5 0 mm
external diameter and 2 5 m m internal diameter; load 3-6 kN and original
2
eccentricity 7 5 mm. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: ô = e(œcul - 1 ) ; 27-6 m m ; 34-6 M N / m )
23. A slender column is built-in a t one end and an eccentric load is applied at
the free end. Working from first principles find the expression for the maximum
length of column such t h a t the deflection of the free end does not exceed the
2
eccentricity of loading. (7. Mech. E.) (Ans.:Jji EI/9P)
2 4 . A vertical strut of uniform section is fixed rigidly a t the base and carries a
vertical load W a t the t o p acting with an eccentricity e. In addition there is a
horizontal force a t the top, H, acting so as to produce bending in the same plane
as W a n d tending t o increase the deflection. Obtain a formula for the maximum
bending moment.
I f the column is a tube 5 0 m m outside diameter and 4 4 m m inside diameter of
free length 1-5 m and if W = 9 kN acting with an eccentricity of 2 5 m m , find H
2 2
to produce a maximum stress of 2 7 5 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
JJ
We sec μΐ + — t a n μΐ; 4 1 9 Ν )
(Ans.:
μ
2 5 . A strut of length I and flexural rigidity EI is encastred a t its lower end. The
upper end is elastically supported against lateral deflection so t h a t the resisting
force is k times the deflection. Show t h a t the crippling load is given by
t a n al , Ρ , , Ρ . ΤΎ τ ,.
2
= 1 —— where α =—. (U. Lond.)
al kl EI
STRUTS 157
2 6 . A straight circular section strut of length L has an applied axial compressive
load P . I t is loaded a t the centre with a load W acting a t right angles t o its axis.
Prove t h a t the m a x i m u m bending moment is
W mL , 2 2Ρ
— — tan — where m = —
2m 2 EI
and derive a formula for the central deflection.
I f the strut is of steel 2 5 m m diameter and 1-5 m long with an axial load of
16 kN, calculate the value of W which will cause collapse if the yield-point stress
2 2
is 2 8 0 M N / m and Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: See Art. 7 . 7 ( a ) ; 133 N )

27. A slender strut of uniform section and of length L has pin-jointed ends and
it is initially straight and vertical. I t carries an axial load Ρ and also a horizontal
lateral load W applied a t the middle of its length and acting in the plane in which
Ρ would cause bending to occur. Show t h a t the m a x i m u m deflection is
W mL WL , 2 2 Ρ
Δ = - — - t a n —— — —— where m = —·
2mP 2 4P EI
In the case of a given strut the magnitude of Ρ is P c / 4 , where P e is the Euler
critical load for the strut. F i n d the ratio of the m a x i m u m deflection produced by
Ρ and the lateral load W acting together, to t h a t produced by W acting alone.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-328)
2 8 . A locomotive coupling rod, 2-5 m between centres, is of symmetrical I-
section: the outside dimensions a r e : 4 0 m m wide by 120 m m deep, web, 14 m m
thick and flanges each 2 0 m m thick. F i n d the m a x i m u m compressive stress in
the rod due to an end thrust of 150 kN and a uniform transverse load of 5 k N / m .
2 2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (17. Lond.) (Ans.: 111-4 M N / m )

2 9 . A R . S . J . 300 m m by 125 m m and 6 m long is used as a strut with hinged


ends. I t carries an axial load of 3 0 0 kN together with a lateral load of 16 k N / m
uniformly distributed along one flange over t h e entire length. Determine the
e 4 3 2
m a x i m u m stress produced. / = 86 X 1 0 ~ m ; A = 5-89 χ 1 0 " m ; Ε = 2 0 0
2 2
G N / m . (17. Lond.) (Ans.: 185-6 M N / m )
3 0 . Derive an expression for the deflection of a laterally loaded tie-rod.
A steel tube, 5 0 m m outside diameter and 4 0 m m inside diameter, 1-8 m long,
has a tensile load of 5 0 kN. Calculate the m a x i m u m uniform lateral load which can
2 2
be carried if the maximum working stress is 120 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(17. Lond.)

origin a t centre] ; 1-29 k N / m j


CHAPTER 8

THIN CURVED BARS

8.1 S t r a i n energy due to bending. Fig. 8.1 snows an element of a


beam subjected to a bending moment which varies from M at one end to
Μ + dM at the other. The length of the element is dx, the mean radius of
curvature is R and the change of slope between the ends is d<£.
Then work done in bending element
= \ X mean bending moment X angle of bending,
assuming that the moment is gradually applied.
This work is stored in the element as strain energy.
Μ + α dM ,. .
Thus, strain energy : — X d<£, where 0 < α < 1

i.e. dU = \M d<£, to the first order of small quantities


dx ι M
But d<j>- : -— = dX —
R EI
2
M
dU = dx
Wl
l 2
_ C M
.". total strain energy, U dx (8.1)

The appropriate expression for M in terms of χ must be substituted in


the above expression before the strain energy can be evaluated.

FIG. 8.1 FIG. 8.2

8.2 Castigliano's Theorem. Fig. 8.2 shows an elastic body which is


subjected to forces Wl9 W2, Wz> etc. At each load point, the deflection can
be resolved into components in the direction of, and perpendicular to, the
line of action of the force at that point.
158
THIN CURVED BARS 159
Let x1 be the deflection at A in the direction of Wv
Let x2 be the deflection at Β in the direction of W2,
Let xz be the deflection at C in the direction of Wz, etc.
Then work done, U -
or
Differentiating with respect to Wv remembering that the deflection at
each point is a function of all the loads,

(8.2)

Let Wx increase gradually to W± + dWlf the other forces remaining


constant. Due to this change, let xx increase to xx + ôxv x2 to x2 + δχ2, etc.
Then additional work done,

Therefore, in the limit as ôW1 -> 0,

(8.3)

Subtracting (8.3) from (8.2),

(8.4)

i.e. the movement of A in the direction of W1 is equal to the partial deriva-


tive of the total strain energy of the system with respect to Wv

Similarly,

The above theorem applies equally well to couples and to mixtures of


forces and couples. The rotation at any point is the partial derivative of the
total strain energy with respect to the couple at that point.
8.3 Application of Castigliano's Theorem to deflection of curved
bars.

From equation (8.1),

If it is required to find the deflection δ at a point at which there is a load


Ρ in the direction of the required deflection, then

dx, assuming I to be constant

(8.5)
160 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

If there is no force Ρ at the required point and in the required direction,


such a force can be applied and when an expression for the deflection is ob-
tained, this force is then made zero.
For the rotation in the direction of a couple C,
, 1 f. .BM.
Φ = Μ α Χ
(8.6)
Ε ΐ \ 0 ^ •
8.4 Strain energy due to twisting. There will be some strain energy
in most cases due to shear forces and axial forces but this is usually negli-
gible in comparison with that due to bending. In cases of twisting, however,
the strain energy may be comparable with that due to bending. If the
torque at any point is T, strain energy in an element of length dx
= %Tde = \ T
T à x

GJ
rl
total strain energy : dx (8.7)

1. A simply supported beam of span I carries a single concentrated load W


at distances a and b respectively from the two e?ids A and B. Obtain an ex-
pression for the deflection under the load.
Wb
Eeaction at A = — , Fig. 8.3
ι

c
χ \\dx
m

Wb Wg
ι t
FIG. 8.3
Wb
Therefore, at any point between A and C, M = — χ
I 2 2
W b a*
.: u AC 2
2EI §EIl
2 2
W a b*
Similarly, UBC 2
6EI1
2 2 2
Wab
Λ total strain energy (a+b)
6EII
2 2 2
Wab
i.e 6EII
2 2
Wa b
:. δ as from equation (5.22)
ΊϊΕΙΓ'
NOTES. (1) The sign of i f in such an application is of no consequence, since
M is squared subsequently.
THIN CURVED BARS 161
(2) It is unnecessary to use Castigliano's Theorem in cases where there
is only one load and the deflection is required at the load point and in the
direction of the load.
2. A steel spring, ABC, of the dimensions shown in Fig. 8.4 is firmly
clamped at A. If a vertical force of 20 Ν is applied at C, find the vertical
2
deflection of this point. Ε = 200 GN/m .
For BC, taking the origin at C, 100mm
M=20x
1 ro-io
Λ Bi/c=2£/J V0x)*dx
0
= ^ J
3EI
For AB, taking the origin at B ,
M = 20(0-10 + 0-06 sin 0) 20mm
and dx = 0-06 άθ FIG. 8.4

= ^ | { 2 0 ( 0 - 1 0 + 0-06 sin θ)} Χ 0-06 άθ


π 2
UAB
π
12 Γ
2
: — (0-01 + 0-012 sin θ + 0-003 6 sin θ) άθ
Ει J ο
12 Π·7^
— [0·01π + 0-024 + 0-001 8π] =
ΕΙ ΕΙ
0-799 6
.*. total strain energy :
ΕΙ
0-799 6
Λ £ X 20 χ δ :
0-02 χ 0-002
3
9
200 Χ ΙΟ χ
Ϊ2
.·. δ = 0-03 m or 30 mm
3. A spring plate made of steel strip of rectangular section 20 mm X 3mm
is curved to the shape shown in Fig. 8.5. Determine the deflection at the centre
2
when Ρ == 200 Ν. Neglect friction. Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
For AB, taking the origin at A, Fig. 8.6,
p
M = - χ 0-05 sin θ
2

·'· » - m l
υ
("IT ρ sin θ
) χ
°·° - °·
5Λθ 708 χ 1 0 - 8
Τι
For BC, taking the origin at C,
M = — χ 0-05(1 - sin Θ)
2
162 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

FIG. 8.5 FIG. 8.6


ρ 2
ι RN/6 (().Γ)Κ>
u-BC = -±-\ ^^Ρ(1-άηθ)[ X 0-05 d0 = 4-7 Χ 10~
β

2EI) ο I 2 Τι
Λ total strain energy
2
,6 Ρ
5-408 χ ΙΟ- — χ 2
2
10-816Ρ
\Ρδ = 3
0-02 χ 0-003
200 χ 10° χ
Ϊ2
.·. Ô = 0-000 481 m or 0-481 mm
4. A strip of steel of rectangular section 25 mm χ 3 mm is bent to the shape
of a quadrant and loaded by a force W inclined at OL to the vertical, as shown
in Fig. 8.7. Derive formulae for the vertical and horizontal movements at the
free end Β and hence find the value of OL to give no horizontal movement at B.
For the value of OL found, determine the radius R to give a vertical deflection
2
at Β of 0-25 mm when W = 5 Ν. Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
3mm

FIG. 8.7 FIG. 8.8


The given force W may be replaced its vertical and horizontal com-
ponents V and H, Fig. 8.8, where,
V = W Ç0&OL and Η = If sin α

dU
The required condition is that Λ

dH
i.e.
Jo dH
THIN CURVED BARS 163
M = VR sin θ - HR(l - cos θ)
3Μ= _ _ c a n d dx= Rdd
dH

sin θ - HR(1 - cos 0)} X {-R(l - cos 0)} χ Βάθ = 0


n/
Λ [ \vR
Jο
2
i.e. Π (sin 0 - sin 0 cos 0) d0 = # f * ( 1 - 2 cos θ cos θ) d0
Jo Jo
i.e.

Η
. . tan α = — = — = 1403
7 3π - 4

.·. α = 54°

Vertical deflection = ^ = f M ^ dx
37 ΕΙ) ο 3 7

EI J ο
PV
'* s in
6 - #R(1 -
c os
0)} X # sin 0 χ Ä d0
P3 Γ π/2 2
:^- { 7 ein 0 - #(sin 0 - sin 0 cos 0)} d0
Ifr/J ο

Ä < 55 cos 54° 31' χ ^ - 5 sin 54° 31' χ \


i
3

3
i.e. 0-25 X 1 0 - =
0-025 X 0-003
3
9
200 χ ΙΟ X
Ϊ2
from which R *= 0-226 m
5. A steel rod, 10 mm diameter, is bent into the shape shown in Fig. 8.9, one
end being rigßly clamped, the other end being constrained to move in a hori-
zontal slide^ Determine the horizontal deflection of the slider when acted upon
2
by a force of 100 Ν. Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)

100 Ν

FIG. 8.9 FIG. 8 . 1 0


164 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Denoting the applied force by P, Fig. 8.10, there will also be a reaction Q
applied by the guide to constrain the free end to move in a horizontal line.
This reaction has been assumed to be downwards but if this assumption is
incorrect, the value of Q will be found to be negative.
Since there is no vertical movement of the free end,

?? = o
dQ
i.e. j*M dx = 0, an equation which will determine Q.
The horizontal movement will then be given by

δ= = --\ M—dx
BP El) ο BP
Taking the origin at the free end,
M = Pr sin 0 - Qr{l - cos Θ)

^— — r sin 0, = —r(l — cos 0) and dx = r d0


dP dQ '
rSn/2
{Pr sin 0 - Qr(l - cos θ)} X { - r ( l - cos 0)} X r d0
Jο

ί
3π/2 Γ3π/2
i.e. Ρ
2
(sin 0 - sin 0 cos 0) d0 = Q\ (1 - 2 cos 0 + cos 0) d0
ο Jo
i.e.

β-:
2 P
or
9π+ 8
1 Γ3π/2
δ = = P r s ni 6 Ç 1r ( c so θ x rs n i θ x r θά
Έ 1 ) 0 ^ ~ ~~ ^

r3 Γ3π/2
= P s i n
2 6 Ç ( sn i θ s in θ c os ö ) d ö
JË7J 0 * ~ ~~ >

Ρτ3|3π
:
£/\4 9π
3
100 χ 0·2 χ 2-327 5
9 4
200 χ ΙΟ χ — χ 0·01
64
0-019 m or 19 mm
THIN CURVED BARS 165
6. The ring shown in Fig. 8.11 is made of flat steel strip 20 mm X 3 mm
and is shaped in the form of a circle of mean diameter 0-2 m. The ends at Β are
cut square and not joined. A pull Ρ is applied along the diameter CD which is
at right angles to the diameter AB. If the maximum tensile stress due to Ρ is
2 2
125 MN/m , find the increase in the opening at Β due to P. Ε = 200 GN/m .
(U. Lond.)

3mm

FIG. 8 . 1 1 FIG. 8 . 1 2

The increase in opening at Β is twice the movement of Β relative to A in


the half ring shown in Fig. 8.12. Since there is no force at Β in the direction
of the required deflection, a force Q, of zero magnitude, must be applied
there.
The required deflection is given by

0 = 2-
3Q EI J "~ dQ
For BC, taking the origin at B ,

M = ()r(l - cos 0), ^ = r(l cos 0) and âx = r άθ


oQ
For AC, taking the origin at A,
M = Qr(l + cos 0) + Pr cos 0
BM
= r(l + cos 0) and ax = r άθ
dQ
• rn/2
Qr(l cos 0) χ r(l — cos 0) X r άθ
J ο
rn/2 η
+ J {Qr(l + cos 0) + Pr cos 0} χ r(l + cos 0) χ r άθ \

2 p r3 rn/2
cos 0(1 + cos 0) d0 . . . . . since Q = 0
3
Λ' ο π\
3
2Pr /
166 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The maximum stress occurs at A, where M = Prt


2
rj « 6 0-02 χ 0-003
i.e. Pr= σΖ= 125
η Λ
Κ
χ 1ΙΟ
Λ
χ = 03-75
n TL XT
Νm
3-75
= 37-5 Ν
ΟΊΟ
3
2 χ 37-5 χ ΟΊΟ
9 0-02 χ — ( 8ι + -)
200 χ ΙΟ χ 0·003 \ 4/
12
= 0-014 9 m or 14-9 mm
7. A ring of mean radius R is made from a bar of uniform section with the
two ends at 0 connected by a pin-joint. The ring is subjected to three radial
forces arranged in equilibrium as shown in Fig. 8.13. Show that the force in
the pin is
F = ψ.{8 + 2(π - α)}· (U. Lond.)

Γ ι ο . 8.13 FIG. 8.14


For equilibrium, 2 χ 5P cos α = 6P
3 4
A *
cos α = - and sin α = -
Considering the half ring ABC, Fig. 8.14,
du
: 0
dF

i.e. M —- dx = 0
I dF
Taking the origin at C, then, for BC,
M = FR(l - cos Θ)
and for AB, M = FR(l - cos Θ) - 5PR sin (θ - a)
dM
= R(l — cos Θ) and dx = R d0
dF
THIN CURVED BARS 167

FR(l - cos 0) X R(l - cos 0) X R άθ


Jo

- cos 0) - 5PP sin (0 - α)} X P ( l - cos 0) X R άθ = 0


n
+ [ {FR(l
Ja
2
i.e. F Γ ( 1 - cos θ ) άθ = 5Ρ ["sin (θ - α)(1 - cos θ) dö
ο
2
i.e. F Γ ( 1 - 2 cos 0 + cos θ) άθ
Jo

f
= 5Ρ "{ώη (θ - α) - J sin (20 - a) + £ sin α} άθ
a

= P{8 + 2(π - a)}


op
.·. ί · = - { 8 + 2 ( π - α ) }

8. ^ thin proving ring of radius r is subjected to a diametral tensile load W.


Determine (a) the increase in diameter in the direction of W, (b) the decrease
in diameter perpendicular to the direction of W.

(a) (b)
FIG. 8.15

It is sufficient to consider one quarter of the ring AB, Fig. 8.15(6), fixed
at the mid-point of one of the sides and subjected to a force Ρ ( = W/2) at
the free end. Due to the continuity of the ring at A, however, the tangent
there must remain horizontal and hence a moment M0 must be applied for
this purpose, the moment corresponding to the B.M. in the actual ring at
that point.
The increase in the vertical diameter of the ring will be twice the deflec-
tion of A relative to Β in the quadrant and the decrease in horizontal
diameter will be twice the horizontal movement of A relative to B. For this
purpose, it is necessary to add a horizontal force Q, of zero magnitude.
168 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Taking the origin at A,


M = MQ - Pr sin θ - Qr(l - cos Θ)
BM
= 1

BM
= — r sin (
ap
dM = —r(l — cos G)

and dx = r dö
There is no rotation in the direction of ikf0,
eu ι r' aM ,
.*. =— Μ —— dx = 0
9M 0 JB/J ο θ^ο
Λπ/2
i.e. {MQ - Pr sin 0 } X 1 X r do = 0
ο J
2Pr
from which M0 =

= 2 — = —- M — dx
dP ΕΙ) ο dP
2
2 M (2Pr . Ί ... ,Λ
— 1 — Pr
D
sinΛ θ V X
f
{— r sin θ} X r dö
£7

"17 V4 π /
h = 2 — = — M — dx
" dQ ΕΙ) 0~ BQ
ο rn/2 (OPr ^
— ^—π - Pr sin θ I X { - r ( l - cos θ)} X r άθ
EI)
EIJ ο t )
3
2Pr /2 _ 1\
~W\n 2)
Wr*
0-137 -^V
EI

NOTE. Since Q = 0 , the term involving Q may be omitted from all the
integrals but it cannot be omitted from the original expression for M,
otherwise no value for will be obtained.
dQ
THIN CURVED BARS 169
9. Show that the maximum bending moment in the link shown in Fig. 8.16
occurs at the centre of the curved portion and is given by
Wd/2r+d\
~2\7zr+d)
Hence calculate the maximum tensile and compressive stresses when
r = 25 mm, d = 50 mm and W = 10 kN, if the cross-section is a rectangle
50 mm X 12-5 mm, the latter dimension being in the plane of the figure.

FIG. 8.16 FIG. 8.17

It is sufficient to consider one quarter of the link ABC, Fig. 8.17, fixed
at the mid-point of one of the sides and subjected to a force Ρ (= W/2) at
the free end. Due to the continuity of the link at A, however, the tangent
there must remain vertical and hence a moment M0 must be applied for
this purpose, the moment corresponding to the B.M. in the actual link at
that point.
Since there is no rotation in the direction of M0,
dU7 _ _1i rf - dM , _
M —— dx = 0
dM0~Tl}0^ dM0
For AB, taking the origin at A,

M = Mr, — Pr sin 0 and = 1


dM{
ο
For BC, taking the origin at either end,
dM
M= M0-Pr and
BMo
ρπ/2 rd/2
ρπ/2 rd/2
(M0 - Pr sin 0)r do + (M0 - Pr) dx = 0
Jo Jo

i.e. (M0 ? - Py
r + (M 0 -
2r d
T>f + \
Pr)^ = 0
Wr/2r+d\
from which M0 = Prl —^— = —( )
\nr + d) 2 \nr + d )
Wr
2
Wr/[7t ?3ϋ] which is less than Ma
0
2\7cr + dJ'
170 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The B.M. diagram, Fig. 8.18, is drawn to scale for the dimensions given,
the B.M. at any point being measured perpendicular to the centre line of
the link at that point (it is conventional to draw the diagram on the
tension side).

|27-5Nm

Ô7-5Nm
FIG. 8.18

At A, M= Mn
3
10 χ ΙΟ χ 0-025/ 0 - 0 6 + 0-06 \ = ^
\π X 0-025 + 0-05/ m

At B , M: 0
2
3
10 χ ΙΟ χ 0-025
= 97-5 = —27-5 Ν m

Wr
The point of inflexion is given by M0 — — sin θ = 0
from which θ = 51° 16' 2
Μ 9 7 5 6
Α . A . , ' Χ ±74-88 MN/m
2

At Α, σ = +— = + •
32
4 . -ρ W Μ ^ 0-05 χ 100-012 5
χ ΙΟ 27-5 χ 6
At Β, α = — + — 2
2α Ζ 2 χ 0-05 χ 0-012 5 0-05 χ 0-012 5
2
= +29-12 and -13-12 MN/m
2
Hence, maximum tensile and compressive stresses = 74-88 MN/m .

10. A cantilever, lying in a horizontal plane, is in the shape of a quadrant


of a circle of radius R, one end being firmly fixed. If a vertical load W is
applied at the free end, find the vertical deflection under the load. The cantilever
is of circular section, diameter d, and G = 0-42?.
If' 2 I f ' 2
Total strain energy = — - Μ άχ H—-— Τ άχ
2EI) ο 2GJ J ο
THIN CURVED BARS 171

vertical deflection = — f M άχ + f Τ dx
El)0 dW GJ}0 dW
Taking the origin at the load point, Fig. 8.19,

M=WR sin θ and | ^ = R sin 0

Τ = WR(l - cos 0) and = R(l - cos 0)


π /2
1 Γ
.·. δ = — ΨÄ sin θ χ £ sin 0 Χ £ do
EI Jo
+ λ. f VJB(1 - cos θ) X R(l - cos θ) X R άθ
ä/

GJ J ο
But G = 0-iE and J = 21
a π
WR Γ /2 2 2
.·. 5 = — {sin θ + 1-25(1 - 2 cos θ +· cos θ)} άθ
EI J ο

=^{ϊ+-(?-)} f 19
2

- π — 2-5
3

25-1
Ed* FIG. 8.19

11. A simply supported beam of rectangular cross-section carries a concentrated


load Ρ a t the centre of the span. Determine the t o t a l internal energy of the beam
in terms of the m a x i m u m bending stress and the volume of the beam.
Also show t h a t the internal energy of the beam so obtained is only one-ninth
as much as for a similar beam under uniform axial loading. (17. Lond.)
Cf
(Ans. : - — χ volume^

12. A horizontal beam, simply supported a t its ends, carries a t o t a l load wl


uniformly distributed over its length I. Show t h a t the t o t a l work done by the
2
load in deflecting the beam is w l*/240EI where Ε is Young's Modulus for the
material of the beam and I is the second moment of area of the cross-section.
F i n d the t o t a l strain energy in a rolled steel joist, 0-6 m long, carrying a uni-
2 e 4
formly distributed load of 3 5 k N / m run. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and I = 5-66 χ 1 0 ~ m m .
(Ans .-0-351 J )
13. Solve Question No. 5 3 , page ll/ί, by strain energy.
14. A steel tube 5 0 m m internal diameter a n d 3 m m thick stands vertically
up from a rigid base. A t a distance of 0-9 m from the base t h e tube is bent into a
quadrant of a circle of radius 0-6 m and a t the end a vertical load of 2 kN is
a
applied. Calculate the deflection of this load. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans : 28-1 m m )
15. A steel ring of rectangular cross-section 7-5 m m wide by 5 m m thick has a
mean diameter of 3 0 0 m m . A narrow radial saw cut is made and tangential
separating forces of 5 Ν each are applied a t the cut in the plane of the ring.
172 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
Determine the additional separation due t o these forces. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: mm)
16. A steel bar 65 mm diameter is bent t o the shape shown in Fig. 8.20 and t h e
lower end is firmly fixed in the ground in a vertical position. A load of 1 kN is
applied a t the free end. Calculate the vertical deflection of the free end. Ε — 2 0 0
2
G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 12-95 m m )
1
ι 2 /2σ

1kN

2a
2f
1-5m
A

W
FIG. 8.20 FIG. 8.21
17. Obtain an expression for the vertical displacement of point A in the bent
cantilever shown in Fig. 8 . 2 1 , which is of uniform breadth b.
I f a = 5 0 mm, t = 6 mm, 6 = 2 5 mm, and the bar is of steel, find the vertical
2
displacement of A for W = 2 0 Ν. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
3
( . 24-5 ΤΓα Λ Λ Κ Λ Λ \
[Ans.: ——— à —; 00566 mm)
\ Ebt J
18. A spring used in a measuring device is made of a rod of steel of diameter d
bent to the form shown in Fig. 8.22 so t h a t a force Ρ applied t o the ends of the
spring will increase the distance between the ends by an amount δ. Show t h a t the
stiffness of the spring
Ρ 3 2
/(4L + GTIRL* + 24J? L + 3πΒ*)
5 = _
I f θ is to be 1·5 k N / m , d = 6 mm and R = 4 0 mm, find the length
2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 17/4 m m )

tf> \d
t u
τ
FIG. 8.22 FIG. 8.23
19. Fig. 8.23 shows the proportions of a spring made of material of uniform
section. Derive an expression for the vertical movement of the free end due t o the
vertical force P.
A spring of these proportions is t o be made of steel strip 0-6 m m thick and
Ρ is t o have a maximum value of 5 N. F i n d the breadth of the strip and the mean
radius r, given t h a t the maximum bending stress due t o Ρ is not t o exceed
2
150 M N / m and the vertical deflection due t o Ρ is not t o be more t h a n 2-5 m m .
2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 23-92 Pr*/EI; 18-7 m m ; 11-2 m m )
THIN CURVED BARS 173
2 0 . The stiff frame shown in Fig. 8.24 is supported on a smooth surface and
loaded a t the centre of the span. Show t h a t the deflection a t the load due t o bend-
ing is

S { ' + ^ e(5)- 4g)-} <"·'·*>


3
+ +

FIG. 8.24

2 1 . A steel bar of constant section, second moment of area J is bent as shown


in Fig. 8.25 and fixed a t one end. F i n d the horizontal and vertical deflections a t the
2
free end. (U. Lond.) / Pa /, , a\ Pal\
3> « r )
Ans : 1 +
{ -M
75mm

FIG. 8.25 FIG. 8.26

2 2 . A steel spring is shown in Fig. 8.26. I t is formed in a circular a r c subtending


an angle of 2 7 0 ° a t the centre. The lower end is rigidly fixed and a vertical force
of 5 Ν is applied a t the free end.
I f the section of the spring is 12 mm wide and 3 m m thick, calculate the vertical
2
and horizontal displacements of the free end. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3-65 m m ; 0-195 m m )
2 3 . A steel tube having outside and inside diameters of 6 0 m m and 4 5 m m
respectively, is bent into the form of a quadrant of 2 m radius. One end is rigidly
attached t o a horizontal base-plate t o which a tangent t o t h a t end is perpendicular,
and the free end supports a load of 5 0 0 N. Determine the vertical and horizontal
deflections of the free end under this load. The dimensions of the cross-section m a y
2
be considered as small relative t o the radius of curvature. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 36-1 m m ; 23-0 m m )
24. A proving ring is 2 5 0 m m mean diameter, 4 0 m m wide and 6 m m thick.
2
The m a x i m u m stress permitted is 5 5 0 M N / m . F i n d the load t o cause this stress
and the load to give 6 m m deflection of the ring in the direction of the loading.
2
Prove a n y formulae used which are particular t o this problem. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m
(Î7. Lond.) (Ans.: 3-325 k N ; 2-98 kN)
2 5 . A thin circular ring of mean radius Ε and uniform rectangular sections
width 6 and thickness t is pulled by a load W along a diameter. Derive formulae
for the m a x i m u m stress in t h e material a n d for the change in diameter along
which the load is applied and along the diameter a t right angles t o this. ( U. Lond. )
z
. §WRWR*/n _ 2\ WR /2 _ 1\\
^Ans.. ;
nbt* EI U ny EI \n 2/)
174 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

2 6 . Fig. 8 . 2 7 shows a steel rod, 1 0 m m diameter, with one end firmly fixed t o
a horizontal table. The remainder of the rod is bent into the form of three-quarters
of a circle and the free end of the rod is constrained by guides t o move in a vertical
direction. I f the mean radius t o which the rod is bent is 1 5 0 m m , determine the
vertical deflection of the free end when a 1 0 0 Ν load is gradually applied there.
2
Ε • = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 8 m m )

Fie. 8.27 FIG. 8 . 2 8

27. Fig. 8 . 2 8 shows a circular ring of mean radius R, made of material having a
uniform section. The ring is fitted with a rigid bar across the diameter A B and
transmits a pull W along the diameter CD which is a t right angles t o A B . Obtain
the force in the bar in terms of W, and the change in the diameter CD in terms of
W and the flexural rigidity EI of the ring. (U. Lond.)
z
(Ans.: 0 - 9 1 8 W ; 0 - 0 2 3 4 Wr /EI)
2 8 . A chain link made of circular section rod has the dimensions shown in
Fig. 8 . 2 9 . Prove t h a t if d, the diameter of the section, is assumed small compared
with R, the mean radius of the curved ends, then the m a x i m u m bending moment
occurs a t the point of application of the load and is equal t o
PR (I + 2R\
Ί Γ \ Ζ + nR)
I f R = 2 5 mm, d = 6 m m and I = 4 5 m m , calculate the ratio of the maximum
tensile stress a t the section where the load is applied to t h a t a t the section half-way
along the straight portion. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2 - 9 4 )

FIG. 8 . 2 9 FIG. 8 . 3 0

2 9 . Fig. 8 . 3 0 shows a flat ring made of steel 2 5 m m wide by 6 m m thick, loaded


with a central load of 6 0 0 N. Calculate the m a x i m u m bending moment in the ring.
Sketch the B . M . diagram and find the position of the points of inflexion.
2
Taking Ε as 2 0 0 G N / m , find the vertical deflection produced by the load of
6 0 0 N. (U.Lond.)
(Ans.: 3 8 - 7 N m (at load point); 1 2 9 m m from load point; 8 - 9 m m )
THIN CURVED BARS 175
3 0 . A stiff rectangular steel frame is loaded as shown in Fig. 8.31. Show t h a t
the bending moment a t the corners is
2
M _ Q i - Pd'
8(1 + d)
Sketch the bending moment diagram for a long and short side and calculate the
deflection of the longer side when Ρ = 2 0 0 Ν, Ç = 100 Ν, I = 3 0 0 mm, d = 150 m m
and the section is rectangular 2 4 m m χ 6 m m , t h e latter dimension in the plane
2
of the rectangle. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 4-07 m m )

ι ,
I ' 1
d

FIG. 8.31 FIG. 8 . 3 2

3 1 . A 10 m m diameter steel rod is bent t o form a square with sides 2a = 4 0 m m


long. The ends meet a t the mid-point of one side and are separated by equal
opposite forces of 6 0 Ν applied in a direction perpendicular t o the plane of the
square as shown in perspective in the Fig. 8.32. Calculate the amount by which
2 2
they will be out of alignment. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; G = 80 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 9-78 m m )
3 2 . A cantilever forming a circular a r c in plan, and subtending π/3 r a d a t the
centre, has a circular cross-section of 5 0 m m diameter and the radius of the centre
line is 0-75 m. F i n d the m a x i m u m deflection when a load of 4 0 0 Ν is acting a t the
2 2
free end. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2-75 m m )

3 3 . Fig. 8.33 shows the plan of a 2 5 m m diameter steel rod fixed a t A. The rod
is curved t o a radius of 0-5 m and when unloaded lies in a horizontal plane. I f a
vertical load of 4 0 0 Ν is applied a t B , find the m a x i m u m normal and shearing
stresses on the cross-section of the rod a t A, and the vertical deflection of the load.
2 2
T a k e Ε as 2 0 0 G N / m and G as 8 0 G N / m , and neglect the effect of the direct
shearing force. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 157-3 M N / m ; 92-1 M N / m (see equations 12.21 and 1 2 . 2 3 ) ; 16-06 m m )

25mm dia.

FIG. 8.33 FIG. 8.34

3 4 . A circular steel wire 10 m m diameter is bent as shown in Fig. 8 . 3 4 . I t is


rigidly held a t the end A so t h a t the centre line of the wire lies in t h e horizontal
plane. Calculate the vertical deflection a t the free end Β when a vertical load of
2
2 0 Ν is placed there. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 9-42 m m )
CHAPTER 9

SPRINGS

9.1 Close-coiled helical spring with axial load. A close-coiled


helical spring is one in which the obliquity of the wire is small; such a
spring, under axial load, may be assumed to be subjected to torsion only,
the effects of bending and direct shear being negligible.
Fig. 9.1 shows a close-coiled spring under
an axial load W.
Let D = mean coil diameter,
d = wire diameter,
η = number of coils,
I = length of wire — πΌη,
à = axial deflection.
D
The torque on the wire at all sections — W X

Τ
maximum shear stress, τ =—
Ζ
WD
~ΊΓ
n
FIG. 9.1
-d*
16
SWD (9.1)
z
nd
The twist of one end of the wire relative to the other end is given by
Λ Tl WD

Gx-d*
32
lQWDhi
Gd*
D
Axial movement of the free end = θ X —
2
. mDH (9.2)
i.e. Gd*
Alternatively, equating the work done by the load to the strain energy
in the wire,
176
SPRINGS 177
ΤΗ

2
1 (WO\ πΌη 2
iW O n
3

G xïLd* Gd*
32
3
8WD n
ô =
Gd*
2 3
iW O n
The strain energy — — may be written as
2 2 2
_ /8WO\ π Οηά
3 X
~ \πά ) ~ΰ(Γ
2
= —- Χ πΌη Χ - d
iG i
X volume (9.3)
iG
This corresponds with the strain energy in pure torsion derived in Art.
(4.4).

9.2 Close-coiled helical spring with axial couple. Fig. 9.2 shows a
close-coiled helical spring under an axial couple M.
The bending moment on the wire at all sections = M
Λ ι » M
.·. m a x i m u m bending stress, σ = —-
Li

- M

3
~^d a
32
_ 32M
(9.4)
~~ ~π<Ρ '
Due to M, let the radius of curvature of the coils change
from R to R' and the number of coils change from η to n'.

Then M = El(-^ — —Y approximately


\R R)
The length of wire, I = 2nRn = 2nR'ri
1 2πη ι 2πη'
and f
R Τ R
2π,
M = EI Χ ^ ( η ' - η)
178 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

But 2π(η' — η) is the angle of twist of the spring, <£,


ΕΙφ
Λ Μ·
I
Ml_Μ χ πΌη
or φ

64
64Μ2)η
(9.5)
Ed*
Alternatively, since the bending moment is constant at all sections,
MH
U = from equation (8.1)
2EI
Therefore, equating the work done by M to the strain energy in the wire,
MH
2EI

φ
Y
= as before.
EI
MH
The strain energy may be written as
2
32M Dn _ / 3 2 M \ π Όηά
2 2 2

U =
Ed* ~~ \ndj) 32E
π Χ volume (9.6)
X B f l H X i , !
8 f 4 8E
9.3 Open-coiled helical springs. Let the helix angle of the wire be
α and the mean radius of the coils be R. Then the length of wire,
I = 2nRn sec α

! Λ

/I /
M IF-
JWR

M
FIG. 9.3 FIG. 9.4
SPRINGS 179
(a) Axial load. Fig. 9.3 shows part of the spring, subjected to an axial load
W. The moment WR applied to the wire may be resolved into components
perpendicular and parallel to the wire.
Component in plane OX = WR sin a, bending the wire.
Component in plane OY = WR cos a, twisting the wire.
Equating the work done by the load to the strain energy in the wire,
2 2
ι™* (WRsmoL) l , (WR cos a) Z
W Ô =
2EI + 2GJ

(b) Axial couple. Fig. 9.4 shows part of the spring, subjected to an axia
couple M (this is regarded as positive if it increases the curvature of the
wire, i.e. winding up the spring). This moment may be resolved into com-
ponents perpendicular and parallel to the wire.
Component in plane OX = M cos a, bending the wire.
Component in plane ΟΥ = M sin α, twisting the wire.
Equating the work done by the couple to the strain energy in the wire,
2 2
1 M , _ (M cos α) Ζ (M sin q) Z
2 ψ
Wl ^ ~~2GJ

•••*-«{ B
! î
+
!
S }
î
' ' ' <'>98

9.4 Composite action of axial load and couple. When an axial load
is applied to an open-coiled spring, the spring winds up as well as extends
and similarly, when a winding-up couple is applied, the spring extends as
well as twists. These movements and the formulae already derived can be
obtained by the application of Castigliano's Theorem.
If the load W and couple M are applied simultaneously,
total moment in plane OX = — WR sin α + M cos α, bending the wire
and
total moment in plane OY = WR cos α + M sin α, twisting the wire
2 2
.·. U = J ( - WR sin α + M cos α) + i(WR cos α + M sin α) - J -
EI GJ
2 2 2 2 2
_ l(W R sin α - WRM sin 2α + M cos a
~~ 2{ ËÏ
2 2 2 2 2
W R cos a + WRM sin 2a + M sin al
+
GJ~~ J
2 2 2 2 >
, _ dU_ _ l(2WR sin OL—RM sin 2a 2WR cos a + PMsin2a l
+
~dW~ 2\ ËÏ GJ J
180 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

COS' i2afl 1
MRV (9.9)

dU l(-WR sin 2α + 2M cos a


"}•
2
2 {GJ EI
WR sin 2a + 2M sin
2

dM EI + ·
2
2
cos a sin* a + WRl sin 2 α Π _ 1
= Ml (9.10)
EI +
' GJ J 2 |G/ EI
The additional terms obtained in equations (9.9) and (9.10) represent the
extension due to M and the angle of twist due to W respectively.
If α -> 0, these formulae reduce to those obtained for close-coiled springs.
9 . 5 Flat spiral springs. Fig. 9.5 shows a flat spiral spring, made of
rectangular section strip, breadth b and thickness t. The winding torque Τ
is applied at the central arbor 0 and the other end of the spring is pinned
at the point A.
If the spring is tangential at A, the reaction there is purely horizontal.*
If the force is Ρ and the distance OA is h, then
T = Ph
The maximum B . M . occurs at the point B ,
i.e. ^ m a x = Ρ X 2h, assuming that O B = O A
.'. maximum bending stress, σ =
Ζ
2T 12T
(9.11)

B.M. on element dl •• Px
Γ M dl
1 2

:. υ-.
2EI

-ί. 2ËÎ
0
dl

-ί:
2 2
Τχ
dl
ο 2h*EI
du
φ:
BT '' )oh2EI
Τ Γ' 2
x dl

2
h EI\± )
assuming that the spring is equivalent to a disc,
* As the spring is wound up, the strip will become inclined to the line of action of Ρ
and the spring will become progressively stiffer.
SPRINGS 181
m _ im
(9.12)
lût*
The strain energy, U ••
15 ΤΗ
2 Ebt*

J
2 2
/ 1 2 T \ 5 btl 5ο· ι /χ Λ η ο
= ί -ΓΤΓ2 ) — Τ7 = — ^ Χ volume . . (9.13)ν
\ bt 96 Ε 96£ '
9.6 Leaf, laminated or c a r r i a g e s p r i n g s . The leaf spring is designed
so that the maximum stress is the same in all plates at all sections, giving
maximum utilization of material. The arrangement of the spring is shown
in Fig. 9.6, each plate being free to slide relative to the adjacent plates as
the spring deflects. The ends of each plate are tapered to provide a uniform
change in effective breadth between the centre and the ends and if the
plates were cut along their centre lines and placed side by side, they would
form a diamond-shaped plate.
Let b = breadth of plate
t = thickness of each plate
η = number of plates
Then effective width of plate at centre
= nb
At a section distance χ from one end,
M Wx/2

«««»>I5S>
2
t
X
6

2 (9.14)
2nbt
It will be noted that this is indepen-
dent of x, i.e. σ is constant at all sections.
At any section, M is proportional to χ
and / is proportional to x, so that M is FIG. 9.6

proportional to I.
Μ Ε
Therefore, since , R is a constant. Thus, if the spring is to become
/ R
flat when loaded, the plates must initially be bent in the arc of a circle.
The load which will cause the plates to become flat is called the proof
load.
M -Wx/2 3WI
TP
182 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

ά 3WI
Ε 1 = 'x+A
3
dx nbt
ZWl I
Whenx = - , ^ = 0, A =
2' dx"

y
nbt*\2 2 /
When χ = 0, y = 0, Λ Β = 0.
The maximum deflection occurs at the centre, where χ =
a
3Wl
i.e. (9.16)
Vn SEnbt
3

Alternatively, from the geometry of the


circle into which the plates are initially
formed, Fig. 9.7,
ß V
y(2R-y) =

y = il (9.17)
8R'
2
neglecting the term y in comparison with
2%

~ 8'EI Fia. 9.7

3WP
. from equation (9.15)
8Enbt*
2
M
Alternatively dx
J Ο 2EI
2
</ SWl w
— χ dx from equation (9.15)
J 0 2Enbt* 2
3 ΨΨ
Wy =
16 Enbt*
z
3Wl
8Enbt*
3 Wl*
The strain energy 3
may be written as
16 Enbt
2
/3Wl\ nbtl
2
~ \2nbt ) UE
2 2
σ nbtl ο ,
= —= X —— = — X volume (9.18)
6E 2 6E
SPRINGS 183
9.7 Vibration of springs, (α) Linear motion. If a body of mass M,
attached to a spring of stiffness S, is displaced a distance χ from its equi-
librium position, the restoring force is Sx.
When released, the acceleration of the body is given by

or

The periodic time of the resulting vibration is then given by

(9.19)

For a close-coiled helical spring with a axial load,

from equation (9.2)

For a leaf spring, from equation (9.16)

(b) Angular motion. I f a body of moment of inertia / , attached to a


spring of torsional stiffness S, is displaced an angle φ from its equilibrium
position, the restoring torque is 8φ.
When released, the acceleration of the body is given by

or

2
where I = Mk (9.20)

For a close-coiled helical spring with an axial couple,


from equation (9.5)

For a flat spiral spring, from equation (9.12)

1. A close-coiled helical spring is to have a stiffness of 1 JcN/m of com-


pression, a maximum load of 50 Ν and a maximum shearing stress of 120
2
MN/m . The solid length of the spring (i.e. when the coils are touching) is to
be 45 mm.
Find the diameter of the wire, the mean diameter of the coils and the number
2
of coils required. G = 50 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
From equation (9.2),

α
184 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
9
50 χ ΙΟ χ d*
i.e. 1 000 =
8D*n
4 6
i.e. _^ _ = 0-16 χ ΙΟ" . . . (1)

SWD
From equation (9.1), 3
τ =
nd
6 8 χ 50 χ D
i.e. 120 χ 10 =
nd 3
6
.e. ? = 0 · 3 χ 10 π . . . . (2)
z
d
Also nd = 0-045 m . . . . (3)
Therefore, from equations (1), (2) and (3),
d = 0-003 4 m, D = 0-043 6 m and n= 12-54
2. A composite spring has two close-coiled helical steel springs in series;
each spring has a mean coil diameter of 8 times the diameter of its wire. One
spring has 20 coils and wire diameter of 2-5 mm. Find the diameter of the wire
in the other spring if it has 15 coils and the stiffness of the composite spring is
1-25 kN/m.
Find the greatest axial load that can be applied to the spring and the corres-
2
ponding extension for a maximum shearing stress of 300 MN/m . G = 80
2
GN/m . (U. Lond.)
Fig. 9.8 shows the arrangement of the two springs, which are subject to
an axial load W.
dx = 0-002 5 m Dx = 0-02 m
W Gd*
Λ S1 = — = - — . . from equation (9.2)
Οχ SDi^
4
80 χ 10» χ 0-002 5 . AA 1 X T/
3
= 2-44 kN/m
8 χ 0-02 χ 20

Total extension,

w _ s,s
.*. effective stiffness, S ·• 2

w + w s x + s 2

i.e. 1-26 = -****.


2-44 + Si
Λ S2 = 2-57 kN/m
SPRINGS 185
9
3 80 χ ΙΟ χ d\
2-57 χ ΙΟ =

from which

From equation (9.1), τ since D = Sd

The maximum shear stress therefore occurs in spring (2),

i.e.

57-5
3
= 0-046 m
1-25 χ ΙΟ
3. The spring load against which a valve is opened is provided by an inner
helical spring arranged within and concentric with an outer helical spring.
Both springs are of steel, close-coiled, and the free length of the inner spring is
6 mm longer than that of the outer spring. The outer spring has 12 coils of
mean diameter 25 mm, diameter of wire 3 mm and an initial compression of
5 mm when the valve is closed. Find the stiffness of the inner spring if the
greatest force required to open the valve 10 mm is 150 N.
If the radial clearance between the springs is approximately 1-5 mm, find
2
the diameter of the wire of the inner spring if it has 10 coils. G = 80 GN/m .
(U. Lond.)
Fig. 9.9 shows the arrangement of the two springs.
Initial compression of outer spring = 5 mm
.·. initial compression of inner spring = 5 + 6
= 11 mm
When the valve is opened 10 mm,
compression of outer spring = 1 5 mm
and compression of inner spring = 22 mm

Force exerted by outer spring = δ1 X ^ f r o m equation (9.2)


8Z)^ 1
80 1 09 X
= 0-015 χ X ™ *
8 χ 0-025 χ 12
3

= 64-8 Ν
Λ force exerted by inner spring = 150 — 64-8 = 85-2 Ν
85*2
.". stiffness of inner spring = = 3 870 N/m
6 f
* 0-022 —
186 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

D2 = Dx - (dx + d2 + 2 χ 0-001 5)
= 0-025 - (0-003 + d2 + 0-003)
= 0-019 — d9 m
10mm
8D|rc2
9
80 χ ΙΟ χ dt
i.e. 3 870 =
8(0-019 - d2f χ 10
from which d2 = 0-002 08 m
or 2-08 mm
4. A close-coiled helical spring is made
of steel wire 6 mm diameter coiled into 50
coils of mean diameter 50 mm. The modulus
2
of rigidity of the steel is 80 GN/m . The FIG. 9.9
spring is held fixed at the top and a mass of
15 kg is allowed to fall through a height of 50 mm before engaging with a hook
at the lower end of the spring.
Calculate (a) the maximum extension of the spring and (b) the maximum
stress in the wire. (U. Lond.)

If the mass M drops through a height h before engaging with the hook
and causes a maximum instantaneous extension Ô, then
loss of potential energy of load = Mg(h + δ).
This is stored in the spring as strain energy, neglecting loss of energy at
impact. Thus, if the maximum instantaneous stress is r,

Mg(h + δ) = — X volume from equation (9.3)


4Cr

From equations (9.1) and (9.2),


SWD
τ =
3
SWD n
and δ =
Gd*
where W is the maximum instantaneous force in the spring
2
nD n
: J = T X
Gd
2 2
π χ0·05 χ50 9
= τ X 9 = 0-817 χ 1 0 ~ τ m
80 χ 1 0 χ 0-006
SPRINGS 187

i.e.

15x9-81(0-05+ 0-817 χ 10~ τ) =


9
^__ΐ!^χ^χΟ·ω6 ΧπΧθ·05χ50
2

from which
2 16
τ - 1-733 χ 10*τ - 1-06χ ΙΟ = Ο
2
Λ τ = 221-1 MN/m *
9
δ = 221-1 χ 10« χ 0-817 χ ΙΟ"
= 0-180 7 m
5. A close-coiled helical spring is made of wire 2-5 mm diameter. The mean
coil diameter is 25 mm and there are 20 coils. One end of the spring is rigidly
fixed and a uniform disc 100 mm diameter and of mass 1 kg is rigidly attached
to the other end so that the spring and disc are co-axial. Find the periodic time
2
of small angular osculations of the disc. Ε = 200 GN/m .
If the amplitude of the oscillations is 30°, find the maximum bending stress
in the wire.
From equation (9.20),

and from equation (9.5),


M Ed
S - - *
2
64ZM „r

2
64 χ 0-025 χ 20 1 χ 0-05
200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-002 5 X
9 4

= 0-45 s
From equations (9.4) and (9.5),
32M
σ = nd*
. GiMDn
and φ =
Id*
j Ed
σ = φ χ
2πΌη
9
π 200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-002 5 Χ Τ , 2 ÛO A y r XT . 2

= - Χ
2 2
N/m = 83 MN/m
2π Χ 0-025 χ 20
/
6 -—
* The lower (negative) value for τ from the quadratic equation represents the
instantaneous stress in the wire at the highest point of the rebound.
188 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

6. Derive an expression for the axial stiffness (i.e. load per unit extension)
of an open-coiled helical spring made of round wire of diameter d, the mean
radius of the coils R and their inclination a. Calculate the percentage error in
the value obtained for the stiffness if the inclination of the coils is neglected for
a spring in which a = 30°. Take Ε = 2-56r. (U. Lond.)
From equation (9.7),
2
cos
cos oC\
= w m r ^ +
ô '
{EI GJ )
GJ
where I = %nRn sec α
But Ε = 2-5U7 and for round wire, J = 21
3 2
. 2nWR n fsin a , , 1
0 =
-^ s e c a
lT25- + C08
7
w J G
s =
δ 3
2nR n seca /j
_j_ c 2 o \ s a
8 n a

11-26 J
If the inclination of the wire is neglected, this reduces to
s _ GJ
3
2nR n
Thus, if the stiffness of the open-coiled and close-coiled springs are de-
noted by S0 and Sc respectively, the error involved by regarding the spring
as close-coiled
_ S —S0 c _j s c

S0 S0
1
= 1
+ cos 30 l
s i n 2 3 QO 2 o>
sec3Q°/
1-25 ^ I /
= 1 - 0-912 = 0-088 or 8-8 per cent
7. An open-coiled spring carries an axial, vertical load W. Derive ex-
expressions for the vertical displacement and angular twist of the free end.
Find the mean radius of an open-coiled spring (angle of helix, 30°) to give
a vertical displacement of 25 mm and an angular rotation of the loaded end of
1-25° under an axial load of 40 N. The material available is steel rod o/6 mm
2 2
diameter. Ε = 200 GN/m and G = 80 GN/m . (Ü. Lond.)
From equations (9.9) and (9.10),

sin 2α f 1
and φ = WRl
GJ1 EI)
SPRINGS 189
Ε = 2-56? and for round wire J =21
so that EI=1-25GJ

(1)

and

Therefore, from equations (1) and (2), R = = 0-104 4 m


0-252
8. An open-coiled helical spring made of 10 mm diameter rod has six free
coils 100 mm mean diameter. The ends of the spring are fastened to two discs
kept 0-75 m apart, which is the free length of the spring. Calculate the force on
the discs, acting along the axis of the spring, when one disc is rotated through
2 2
10° to coil the spring. Ε = 200 GN/m and G = 80 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
(J- iL)
Pitch of coils = = 0-125 m
6
.·. tan α = = 0-397 9
0·10π
Λ α= 21° 42'
I= 2nRn sec α
= 2π Χ 0-05 χ 6 χ sec 21° 42' = 2-03 m
Ε = 2-5G and J = 21, so that EI = 1-25&7
From equation (9.9),

= 0

from which M = -0-707 bW


From equation (9.10),
φ = ΜΙ
EI
190 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

i.e.
Wl [ _ „ . , { ^ O . » , } O . O X ^ { - l } ; π
O T 5 + ! + 5 1 i

GJ Ϊ8
W X
™ X 0-587 4 = *
4 8 1
80 χ 10· Χ ^ Χ 0-01
32
from which W = —11-5 Ν (i.e. compressive)
9. Aflat spiral spring is made of steel 12 mm broad and 0-5 mm thick. The
end at the greatest radius is attached to a fixed point and the other end to a
spindle. The length of the steel strip is 6 m.
Determine: (a) the maximum turning moment which can be applied to the
2
spindle if the stress in the strip is not to exceed 550 MN/m ; (b) the number
of turns required to be given to the spindle; (c) the energy then stored in the
2
spring. Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
12Γ
(a) From equation (9.11), σ = 2
bt
e 12Γ
i.e. 550 x 10 =
0-012 χ 0-000 5
2

from which Τ = 0-137 5 Ν m


im
(b) From equation (9.12), φ =
Ëbt*
15 χ 0-137 5 x 6
200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-012 χ 0-000 5
9 3

= 41-25 rad = 6-57 rev


(c) Ό = \Τφ
= \ χ 0-137 5 χ 41-25 = 2-84 J
10. A laminated steel spring, simply supported at the ends and centrally
loaded with a span of 0-75 m is required to carry a proof had of 7-5 kN and
the central deflection is not to exceed 50 mm. The bending stress must not be
2
greater than 400 MN/m . Plates are available in multiples of 1 mm for thick-
ness and in multiples of 4 mm for width.
Determine suitable values for the thickness, width and number of plates and
the radius to which the plates should be formed.
2
Assume the width to be twelve times the thickness. Ε = 200 GN/m .
(U. Lond.)
3
3W7
From equation (9.16), y — 8Enbt*
3 χ 7-5 χ ΙΟ χ 0-75
3 3

0-05: 9 z
8 χ 200 χ ΙΟ χ η χ 12* χ t
9
from which nt* = 9-89 X 10 " . . . . (1)
SPRINGS 191

3WI
From equation (9.14), σ = 2
2nbt
3
e 3 χ 7-5 χ ΙΟ χ 0-75
i.e. 400 X 10 = 2
2 χ η χ 12t χ t
β
from which nt* = 1-758 χ 1 0 " . . . . (2)
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2), t = 0-005 62 m.
The nearest suitable thickness above this value is 6 mm
b = \2t = 12 χ 6 = 72 mm
e
π *• /ov 1-758 X l 0 - Q _
1

From equation (2), η= = 8-13


H 3
0-006
i.e. 9 plates are required
Actual deflection under load = 9 3
8 χ 2003 χx ΙΟ
7-5 χχ 9ΙΟχ χ0-072
3
0-75χ 0-006
3

= 0-042 4 m
Hence, from equation (9.17),
0.752
0-042 4 = — ~ Λ R = 1-66 m
SR

11. A quarter-elliptic, i.e. cantilever, leaf spring has a length o/0-5 m and
consists of plates each 50 mm wide and 6 mm thick. Find the least number of
plates which can be used if the deflection under a gradually applied mass of
200 kg is not to exceed 70 mm.
If, instead of being gradually applied, the mass of200 kg falls a distance of
6 mm on to the undetected spring, find the maximum deflection and stress
produced. What is then the frequency of the resulting vibrations? Ε = 200
GN/m*.

The arrangement of the spring is shown in Fig. 9.10. The stress and end
deflection are the same as in an ordinary leaf spring of span 21 and carrying
a central load 2W,
192 STRENGTH 0Έ MATERIALS

a= — 2
. . from equation (9.14:)
2nbt

2 (1)
nbt

and V = 3(2TF)(2Z) equation (9.16)


9 4 V
8Enbt* '
(2)
Enbt*
3
6 X 200 X 9-81 Χ 0-5
Thus, in equation (2), 0-07 = 9 3
200 χ ΙΟ χ η χ 0-05 χ 0-006
.·. η = 9-72
i.e. 10 leaves are required
When the mass is dropped on to the beam, the loss of potential energy
of the mass is equal to the strain energy stored in the beam,
2
a
i.e. Mg(h -\- y) = — χ volume . from equation (9.18)
6E
But, from equations (1) and (2),
Et2
o = yx I
M
2
x
/FJ\2
9(h + y) = h (-J2) * \ X n b x l x t
62?
3
Enbt


3
12Z

i.e. 200 X 9-81(0.006

i.e.
2
v + y)) ! f = y X

7-34*/ - y - 0-006 = 0
2

*
*
2 00 1Q9 X 10

12 χ
X 5X
°'° 3 ™ »
0-5

from which y = 0-142 m

9
λ ι λ ο νν 200 χ ΙΟ χ 0-006

Periodic time of vibration,


α = 0-142 M
: 2ττ I
t = 2π Ι —
χ . 0-5.2 from equation (9.19)
S
2
= 682 MN/m
I

9
where y is the static deflection under the load.
SPRINGS 193
With 10 leaves,
9*72
actual deflection = χ 0-07 = 0-068
10
. : t = * * J ^ =0-522 s
V 9-81
60
.*. frequency, Ν = =115 vib/min
0*522 ———————

12. A close-coiled helical spring is t o have a stiffness of 70 k N / m and t o exert


a force of 2-25 kN. I f the mean diameter of the coils is to be 9 0 m m , and the
2
working stress 2 3 0 M N / m , find the required number of coils and the diameter of
the steel rod from which the spring should be made. Take the modulus of rigidity
2
as 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) {Ana.: 6-58; 13-55 m m )
13. A helical compression spring has a coil diameter of 7 5 m m a n d must carry
a maximum load o f 9 0 0 Ν with a compression of 100 mm. Calculate the diameter
of the wire and the number of free turns required. Allow a m a x i m u m shearing
2 2
stress of 4 0 0 M N / m and G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 7-54 m m ; 8-52)

14. A helical spring has 14 free coils of 16 m m diameter and is made of 2 m m


diameter wire. I t s original length is 60 m m . W h a t compressive load will reduce
2
the length to 4 3 mm? Calculate the stress in the wire a t this load. G = 7 5 G N / m .
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 44-4 Ν ; 2 2 6 M N / m )
15. A close-coiled helical spring is t o have a stiffness of 80 k N / m and to exert
a force of 2-7 kN. I f the mean diameter of the coils is t o be 7 5 m m and the m a x i m u m
2
stress is not t o exceed 2 5 0 M N / m , calculate the required number of coils and the
diameter of the steel rod from which t h e spring should be made. The modulus
2
of rigidity of the material is 8 0 G N / m . (I.C.E. ) (Ans. : 8 ; 12-74 m m )

16. A close-coiled helical spring made of round steel wire is required just t o fit
over a rod 3 0 m m diameter and t o carry an axial load of 120 Ν without causing
the deflection t o exceed 2 0 m m . The m a x i m u m allowable shearing stress is 2 0 0
2 2
M N / m and G for the steel is 8 0 G N / m . F i n d the diameter of the wire, the mean
diameter of the coil and the number of turns. ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3-72 m m ; 33-72 m m ; 8-52)
17. Close-coiled helical springs having η turns are made of round wire such t h a t
the mean diameter of the coils, D ( m ) , is 10 times the diameter of the wire. Show
t h a t the 'stiffness' in N / m for a n y such spring is D/n χ a constant, and determine
2
the constant if the modulus of rigidity of the material is 8 0 G N / m .
Such a spring is required t o support a load o f 9 0 0 Ν with an extension of 100 m m
2
and a m a x i m u m shearing stress of 3 5 0 M N / m . Calculate (i) its mass, (it) the mean
diameter of the coils, and (iii) the number of turns. The material has a density of
3 e
7-8 M g / m . (Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 1 0 ; 0-91 kg; 80-84 m m ; 8-98)
18. A composite spring has two close-coiled helical springs connected in series;
each spring has 12 coils a t a mean diameter of 2 5 m m . F i n d the diameter of the
wire in one of the springs if the diameter of the wire in the other spring is 2-5 m m
and the stiffness of the composite spring is 7 0 0 N / m .
E s t i m a t e the greatest load t h a t can be carried by t h e composite spring and the
2
corresponding extension for a m a x i m u m shearing stress o f 180 M N / m . G — 80
GN/m*. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2-11 m m ; 26-55 N ; 37-9 m m )
194 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

19. Two close-coiled helical springs are arranged, one inside the other, about the
same longitudinal axis. B o t h springs have the same number of effective coils and
the same overall length, but the mean coil diameter of the outer spring, which is
made of steel wire, is twice t h a t of the inner spring, which is made of bronze wire.
The springs a r e designed t o a c t together when a tensile force is applied, so t h a t
both suffer the same change in length and each carries half the force.
Determine the ratio of the wire diameters, and the ratio of the stresses produced
in the wires, if the modulus of rigidity of steel is twice t h a t of bronze. (I.CE.)

\ db <Tb V2/
20. I n a compound helical spring the inner spring is arranged within and
concentric with the outer one but is 10 m m shorter. The outer spring as 10 coils
of mean diameter 2 5 m m and the diameter of the wire is 3 m m . F i n d the stiffness
of the inner spring if a n axial load of 150 Ν causes the outer one t o compress
2 0 m m . I f the radial clearance between the two springs is t o be 1-6 m m , find the
2
diameter of the wire of the inner spring when it has 8 coils. G = 8 0 G N / m for
both springs. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 4-62 k N / m ; 2 Ό 4 m m )

2 1 . An axially loaded close-coiled helical spring whose free length is t o be 5 0 mm


is required t o have a strain energy of 0-45 J when the maximum shearing stress
2
is 140 M N / m and the spring is fully compressed (i.e. coils touching).
Assuming a mean coil diameter of 2 5 m m , find the diameter of the steel wire
2
and the number of coils required. G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3 1 9 m m ; 11-7)
22. Derive a formula for the strain energy stored per unit volume in a circular
section rod subjected to pure torsion.
A closely-coiled helical spring of circular section is required t o absorb 2 7 0 J of
2
energy without the stress exceeding 3 5 0 M N / m . I f the steel has a density of
3
7-8 M g / m , calculate the mass of the spring.
I f the m a x i m u m load is 1-8 k N and the mean diameter of the coils is 100 m m ,
2
calculate the diameter of the rod. Take G = 7 5 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 5-16 kg; 10-94 m m )
2 3 . Prove t h a t the energy stored per unit volume of a compressed helical spring
2
made of round wire is τ / 4 0 , where τ is the m a x i m u m shearing stress in the wire
and G is the modulus of rigidity.
Determine the mass of such a spring which requires a force of 9 kN t o produce
2
a compression of 140 m m , the m a x i m u m shearing stress being 4 5 0 M N / m .
3 2
Density of material = 7-8 M g / m ; G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 7-76 kg)
2 4 . A helical spring of mean diameter 7 5 m m consists of 8 coils of steel wire
6 m m diameter. The spring is mounted with its axis vertical. A mass of 5 kg is
dropped 5 0 m m on t o the top of the spring. E s t i m a t e the m a x i m u m deflection of
the spring and the instantaneous m a x i m u m shearing stress. Treat as a close-coiled
spring, but assume t h a t the coils do not quite close up tight as the result of the
a 2
impact. G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 50-6 m m ; 171-7 M N / m )
2 5 . A close-coiled helical spring consists of 5 m m diameter wire made up into
10 coils of mean diameter 5 0 m m . A m a s s of 3 kg falls from a height of 2 5 m m
before it reaches the top of the spring and compresses it. Calculate the stiffness
of the spring and hence the m a x i m u m deflection and shear stress due t o the falling
2
mass if the modulus of rigidity is 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 5 k N / m ; 2 4 m m ; 122 M N / m )
SPRINGS 195
26. A vertical rod, 3 m long, 2 5 m m in diameter, fixed a t the top end, is provided
with a collar a t the bottom end. A helical spring of mean diameter 2 4 0 m m ,
consisting of 5 coils of 4 0 m m diameter steel, is mounted on the collar. A sliding
mass of 550 kg is dropped down the rod on t o the spring. F i n d the height, measured
from the top of the uncompressed spring, from which the weight should be dropped
2
t o produce an instantaneous stress of 7 0 M N / m in the rod.
F i n d also the m a x i m u m shearing stress in the spring.
2 2
Take Ε for the rod as 70 G N / m and G for the spring as 80 G N / m . Assume the
spring close-coiled, but not quite closed up tight by the action of the falling weight.
2
(Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 2 2 3 m m ; 328-5 M N / m )
27. A close-coiled helical spring is subjected t o an axial load W and an axial
couple M. Derive expressions for the extensions and angle of twist produced.
A close-coiled helical spring is t o be made of wire 5 m m diameter for which
2 2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and G = 8 0 G N / m . I t is required t o extend 28 m m for an axial
load of 100 Ν and t o twist 0-22 radian for a n axial couple of 1 N m . F i n d the
mean diameter of the coils and the number of coils required. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 42-34 m m ; 2 3 )

28. A helical spring of 100 m m mean diameter has 15 turns of 6 m m diameter


wire. The spring is mounted with its axis vertical, fixed a t the top, and a mass of
1-8 kg of which the radius of gyration is 6 5 m m , is a t t a c h e d a t the lower end.
When given a small angular displacement in a horizontal plane, the weight
makes 100 oscillations about the vertical axis in 3 3 s. Calculate the modulus of
elasticity of the spring, treating it as closely coiled.
F i n d also what angular displacement of the weight will produce a m a x i m u m
2 2
bending stress of 165 M N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 204-8 G N / m ; 72-6°)
29. A closely coiled spring is made of 4-8 m m diameter wire a n d has 16 free
coils. I t is of the helical type, but the coil radius increases uniformly from 2 5 m m
a t one end t o 5 0 m m a t the other end. Determine the deflection per newton.
2
G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-41 m m )

30. Obtain an expression for the elongation of an open-coiled helical spring


made of wire of circular section.
Calculate the pitch angle of the coils of a n open-coiled helical spring for which
the elongation is 2 per cent greater t h a n t h a t of a close-coiled spring otherwise
similar in every respect. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 15° 2 1 ' )
31. A helical spring is made of circular section wire 12 m m diameter and wound
for 30 coils a t a pitch of 5 0 m m . The mean diameter of the coils is 7 5 m m . Working
from the fundamental formula used for beams and shafts, calculate the extension
of the spring under a load of 5 0 0 Ν and find the angular rotation of the load in
2 2
degrees. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 28-8 m m ; 0-0338 r a d )
32. An open-coiled helical spring is made of wire 6 m m diameter and wound
t o a mean-coiled diameter of 5 0 m m . The pitch of the coils is 2 5 m m and there are
10 complete turns. I f a pure axial twisting moment of 7 N m is applied t o the
spring, calculate the resulting angle of twist and the extension. W o r k from first
2 2
principles or prove formulae used. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; G = 8 0 G N / m . ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 5 0 - 5 ° ; 0-847 m m )
33. Derive a n expression for the axial extension of a n open-coiled helical spring
produced by an axial twisting couple.
A helical spring has a mean diameter of 6 5 m m , and consists of 12 turns of
6 m m diameter wire. Initially the inclination of the turns is 7°. Calculate the axial
196 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

and angular deformations caused by an axial 'winding-up' couple of 9 Ν m.


2 2
Explain carefully any approximations made. Ε — 2 0 0 G N / m ; G = 8 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-72 m m ; 1-754 rad)
3 4 . An open coiled spring of 125 m m mean diameter has 10 coils of 12 m m
diameter wire, a t a slope of 30° t o the horizontal when the coil axis is vertical.
Find expressions for the longitudinal extensions δ and the rotation Θ for the joint
application of an axial load W and an axial torque T. Hence, find the axial load
and torque necessary to extend the spring 5 m m if rotation is prevented, indicating
2
whether the torque tends t o wind up or unwind the spring. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ;
2
G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 48-9 Ν ; 0-312 Ν m, unwinding)

3 5 . A flat spiral spring is 6 m m wide and 0-25 m m thick, the length being 2-5 m.
2
Assuming the maximum stress of 800 M N / m t o occur a t the point of greatest
bending moment, calculate the torque, the work t h a t can be stored in the spring,
2
and the number of complete turns t o wind up the spring. Take Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(17. Lond.) (Ans.: 0 0 2 5 Ν m; 0-625 J ; 7-96 rev)

3 6 . An instrument control spring is made of phosphor-bronze 1 m m wide and


0-1 m m radial thickness. I t is t o be formed into a flat spiral spring pinned a t the
outer end and a t the inner end attached t o the collet on the instrument arbor.
Calculate the necessary length of spring so t h a t a torque of 4 5 μ Ν m will cause
a rotation of 9 0 ° .
I f the moving parts have a mass of 6 g and the radius of gyration is taken as
14 m m , calculate the periodic time of free vibration.
T h e beam formula as applied t o a spiral spring must be proved, and the assump-
2
tions stated. Ε = 120 G N / m . (17. Lond.) (Ans.: 279-2 m m ; 1-14 s)

37. Obtain from first principles an expression for the energy stored in a flat
spiral spring per unit volume of material in terms of the m a x i m u m bending stress,
which is assumed to occur a t the point of greatest bending moment, and the
elastic modulus.
Hence, find the necessary length of a spring 2 5 m m wide and 0-5 m m thick
2
which will store 7-5 J for a limiting stress of 8 0 0 M N / m . F i n d also the torque
required, and the number of turns of the winding-spindle necessary t o wind up
2
the spring. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 3-6 m ; 0-4167 Ν m; 5-73 rad)

3 8 . A laminated spring, made of 12 steel plates, is 0-9 m long. The m a x i m u m


2
central load is 7-2 kN. I f the maximum allowable stress in the steel is 2 3 0 M N / m
and the m a x i m u m deflection approximately 38 m m , calculate the width and
2
thickness of the plates. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
E i t h e r work from first principles, or prove any formulae used. ( U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 93-8 m m ; 6-13 m m )
3 9 . A leaf spring is required t o satisfy the following specification : L — 0-75 m ;
2
W = 5 k N ; b = 7 5 m m ; m a x i m u m stress, 2 1 0 M N / m ; maximum deflection,
2
2 5 m m ; Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . F i n d the number of leaves and their thickness. I f the
leaves become straight when this load is applied, find the initial radius of curvature.
(Ans.: 1 0 ; 6 m m ; 2-8 m )
4 0 . Deduce an expression for the central deflection of a carriage spring when
simply supported a t the ends and loaded in the centre so t h a t t h e plates become
straight. Such a spring has 12 plates each 6 5 m m wide by 6 m m thick, and the
2
longest plate is 0-8 m long. The greatest bending stress is not to exceed 185 M N / m
and the central deflection when the spring is fully loaded is not t o exceed 2 0 mm.
E s t i m a t e the magnitude of the greatest central load t h a t can be applied t o the
2
spring. Ε = 200 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 3-51 kN)
SPRINGS 197
4 1 . A quarter-elliptic or cantilever leaf spring of length I with η plates each o f
breadth b and thickness t is so shaped t h a t circular bending occurs. Derive ex-
pressions (a) for the m a x i m u m stress due t o bending and (b) for the m a x i m u m
deflection due t o an end load W.
2
I f the maximum allowable bending stress is 4 0 0 M N / m and the spring has
5 plates each 70 m m wide by 10 m m thick with the length of the longest plate
0-4 m, find (c) the m a x i m u m value for the load W and (d) the deflection a t the end.
Assuming t h a t the spring just straightens under these conditions, determine the
2
initial radius of curvature of the plates. F o r steel Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 5-833 k N ; 32 m m ; 2-5 m )
4 2 . Deduce an expression for the resilience of a loaded carriage spring, the
m a x i m u m bending stress being given.
A carriage spring 1-35 m long has leaves of 100 χ 12-5 m m section. The m a x i -
2
mum bending stress is 150 M N / m and the spring must absorb 125 J when
straightened. Calculate the number of leaves and their initial curvature. Ε = 2 0 0
2
G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 8 ; 8-43 m )

4 3 . A carriage spring, centrally loaded and simply supported a t the ends, has
10 steel plates, each 5 0 m m wide by 6 m m thick. I f the longest plate is 0-75 m
long, find the initial radius of curvature of the plates when the greatest bending
2
stress is 150 M N / m and the plates are finally straight. Neglecting the loss of
energy a t impact, determine the greatest height from which a mass of 2 3 kg m a y
be dropped centrally on the spring without exceeding the limiting bending stress
2 2
of 150 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 4 m ; 75-9 m m )
44. A mass of 2 0 kg is dropped from a height of 100 m m on t o the centre of a
carriage spring which is simply supported a t its ends. The spring has 10 steel
plates each 5 0 m m wide and 6 m m thick, the longest plate being 0-75 m. Calculate
the maximum instantaneous stress in the plates and the initial radius of curvature
2
of the spring if the impact just flattens the spring. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 158 MN/m /)
CHAPTER 10

SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS

10.1 S h e a r s t r e s s distribution. When a shearing force is applied to


a beam, the shear stress on the cross-section produces sliding of transverse
elements of the beam and the complementary shear stress (of equal magni-
tude to the transverse shear stress*) produces sliding of longitudinal
elements.f
The mean shear stress on a transverse section is the shearing force
divided by the cross-sectional area but this stress is not uniform across the
section, being zero at the top and bottom of the section. It may also vary
across the width of the section but in the following analysis, the shear stress
is assumed to be uniform on planes parallel with the neutral axis.

-A-
M M±6M

Ci dx

FIG. 10.1

Let AC and BD, Fig. 10.1, be two cross-sections of a beam, distance dx


apart, subjected to bending moments M and M + dM respectively, and
let the shear force on AC be F.
It is required to obtain an expression for the shear stress at the layer E F ,
of breadth B9 at a distance h from Ν A.'
M
Bending stress at distance y from Ν A = —. y
Λ horizontal force on end G of element GH
M

= γ-y X bay
* See Art. 1.3.
f This effect is apparent in wooden beams tested to destruction; shearing occurs
along the grain, parallel t o the neutral axis, the wood being weaker in this direction
than perpendicular t o the grain.
198
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 199

Similarly, horizontal force on end H = ^ . y χ 6 ay

Λ net horizontal force on element = by ay

\ total horizontal force on cross-section between AB and E F

by ay
-i.A /

1 H
/ . shear stress on E F = J
Βάχ
v
F Ç . άΜ
i.e.
v
(10.1)
since = F
άχ
This is the horizontal shear stress, and hence the transverse shear stress,
at a distance h from Ν A.
If the area of the cross-section between AB and E F is a and the distance
of the centroid of this area from Ν A is y , then

by ay = ay

F .
so that τ — —=- ay (10.2)
IB *
For a rectangular cross-section, Fig. 10.2(a),

12

(10.3)
~ bd*\l

'J
h . —

(a)
FIG. 10.2 FIG. 10.3
200 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

This is a parabolic distribution, as shown in Fig. 10.2(6), the maximum


3F 3
ordinate being when h = 0. Thus the maximum shear stress is -
6
2bd 2
times the mean shear stress.
For a circular section, Fig. 10.3(a),
2 2
— - — ί y χ 2 V r — y dy

±F 2 2 3 72
--(r - Λ )
2 2
πή Χ 2 V V - hl 3

2 2
= (4r - Ä ) (10.4)
4
3 τη*
This is again a parabolic distribution, as shown in Fig. 10.3(6), the maxi-
4 F 4
mum ordinate being when h = 0. Thus the maximum shear stress is -
2
3πτ 3
times the mean shear stress.
In the case of an I-beam or a T-beam, it is evident that the shear stress
in the web at the junction with the flange cannot be transmitted to the
flange in such a way as to give a uniform shear stress along the inside sur-
face of the flange. The shear stress in the flange at the junction with the
web will approximate to that in the web at that point and will fall away
rapidly as the horizontal distance from the web increases, being zero at the
outside edges of the flange. The plane of shear, away from the web, has
thus become vertical instead of horizontal.
The shear stress in the flange of a beam is extremely small, however (see
Example 1), and thus this error is of little consequence but in all cases of
suddenly or rapidly changing width of section, the assumption that the
shear stress is constant across any layer parallel to the neutral axis is
unrealistic.
Example 1 shows that most of the shear force is carried by the web of an
I-beam and the maximum shear stress approximates closely to that ob-
tained by dividing the shearing force by the area of the web.

10.2 Built-up girders. Large girders are usually built up by welding


or riveting the flange plates to the web. The weld or rivets must therefore
transfer the horizontal shear force between the web and flange. Thus, if the
shear stress at the top and bottom of the web is τ, the horizontal force in a
welded joint, per unit length of beam, is
τ X tx 1
In the case of a riveted girder, Fig. 10.4, let S be the strength of a rivet
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 201
in double shear. Then, if the pitch of the rivets in the web is p ,
S = τ X tχ ρ
S_
(10.5)
\t
Between the angles and the flange are rivets in single shear on either side
of the web, thus having the same resistance to shear as the single rivets in
double shear between the angles and the web. Thus the same pitch is re-
quired for the flange rivets as for the web rivets.

| υ
i υ
1 w

J
ο

Ρ
-± d

! ι
~ 1> A Φ A ο /
1
1 V
/ "

FIG. 10.4

As an approximation, τ may be taken as


t Xd

10.3 Deflection due to shear. The sliding of successive elements of a


beam due to transverse shear produces a deflection which is additional to
that caused by bending. This deflection is usually negligible in comparison
with that due to bending except for very short stiff beams and may well be
less than the errors inherent in the simple theory of bending.

Case (a)—cantilever of rectangular section with concentrated end load. Fig.


10.5.
From equation (10.3),
W

/. shear strain energy in elementary strip


parallel to the neutral axis
FIG. 10.5
= — X volume
2G
2
bl àh
X 2G
total shear strain energy in beam
WH
5 Gbd
e
Jo fl*i \16 * J
202 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

This is equal to the work done by the load W moving down through the
shear deflection, yS9

i.e. Wy* =
5 Gbd
em
from which y* = (10.6)
5 GM
Since the shearing force is constant at all sections, the slope of the beam
is uniform, as shown in Fig. 10.6.

Thus,

If the shear stress were uniformly distributed over the section, then

ά = - = —
G Gbd
Thus the actual shear deflection is - times that obtained if the shear
5
stress is assumed to be uniform.

3
FIG. 1 0 . 6 FIG. 1 0 . 7

If the load is not at the free end, the form of the deflected beam is as
shown in Fig. 10.7, the beam remaining horizontal between the load and
the free end.

Case (b)—cantilever of rectangular section with uniformly distributed load.


Fig. 10.8.
At a section distance χ from the free end, ^vv/unlt l e n g t h
F = wx
6 wx dx
Λ shear deflection over length dx = dx ^ X
5 Gbd
from equation (10.6) FIG. 1 0 . 8

total shear deflection,


1

J 0
ί
6 wx dx
5 Gbd
2
3 wl
. (10.7)
iGbd
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 203
Case (c)—simply supported beam of rectangular section with central con-
centrated load, Fig. 10.9.
\W

1/2

F i a . 10.9 FIG. 10.10


The central deflection is the same as the end deflection of a cantilever of
I W
length - , carrying an upward end load —, Fig. 10.10,
Δ Δ

6
5 V2
i.e. (10.8)
Gbd 10 Gbd
Case (d)—simply supported beam of rectangular section with uniformly dis-
tributed load, Fig. 10.11.
w/unit length
«4
l
/2 wl
2
FIG. 10.11 FIG. 10.12

The central deflection is the same as the end deflection of a cantilever of


length - , carrying a downward uniformly distributed load w/unit length
2
and an upward end load, —, Fig. 10.12,
2
/wt
2
3 wl
i.e. (10.9)
5 Gbd 5 Gbd WGbd
Case (e)—simply supported beam of rectangular section with concentrated load
not at centre, Fig. 10.13.
The deflection under the load is the same as the end deflection of either
Wb
a cantilever of length a carrying an end load — or of a cantilever of length
ι
Wa W
b carrying an end load

FIG. 1 0 . 1 3
204 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Case (/)—cantilever of circular section with concentrated end load, Fig. 10.14

FIG. 1 0 . 1 4

From equation (10.4),


4 W
2

= -.v
< 2
h)

.'. shear strain energy in elementary strip parallel to the neutral axis

={L>-»}
16 WH2
2
(r - h) 2 2
X Vr
2
- h ah
2

9 n r*G
Λ total shear strain energy in beam

2
32 W l 15 β
i.e. ^
=
¥ ^
Χ
9 6 ^
β

from which y* = 10 wi2 (10.11)


9 π*· £
Other cases of circular beams may be derived from this equation in the
same way as for rectangular beams.
10.4 Total deflection. The total deflection is the sum of the deflections
due to bending and shearing. Thus, for a cantilever of rectangular section
carrying a concentrated end load,
* h = r sin θ ah = r cos θ άθ
Γπ/2
rr rn/2,
2 2 5 /2 2 2 δ /2
(r - A ) dA = ( r cos 0 ) χ r cos 0 άθ
Jo Jo
e
= r
'\ cos θ άθ

J 0
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 205
WP 6 Wl
3EI 5Gbd
3
_iWl { 3E/d\*)
3 +
~ Ebd \ 10G\Î) J
_iWl*( 3/d\* ., Ε 5
3 +
~ËM \ Ϊ\Ί
The shear deflection is therefore only of importance in cases where the
ratio y is relatively large.

1. An I-beam, 350 mm X 200 mm, has a web thickness of 12-5 mm and a


flange thickness of 25 mm. Calculate the ratio of maximum to mean shearing
stress in the section and the percentage of the total shear carried by the web.
0-2 χ 0-35 0-187 5 χ 0-3
3 3
.
12 12
e 4
= 293 X 1 0 - m
From equation (10.2),
F .
τ = IB ay
F(0-2 χ 0-025 χ 0-162 5 + 0-15 X 0-012 5 χ 0-075)
β
293 χ 1 0 - χ 0-012 5
= 2602?

ernenn .
0-35 χ 0-2 0-3 χ 0-187 5
: 72-752?
260
= 3-57
72-75
200mm , 222 F

~J25mm

350mm

12'5mm

if;
25mm
Zi-
ta;
F r o . 10.15
206 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

At the top and bottom of the web,


F χ 0-2 χ 0-025 χ 0-162 5
= 222F
293 X 10-« χ 0-012 5
Therefore force carried by web, represented by the shaded area in
Fig. 10.15(6)
= {222 + f(260 - 222)} χ F χ 0-3 χ 0-012 5
= 0-929.F
percentage of shear force carried by web
= 92-9
NOTE. Assuming that the whole of the shear force is carried by the web
alone,
_ F
^mean " 266i?
0-3 X 0-012 5
which is very close to the maximum shear stress.
2. A T-section beam, symmetrical about a vertical axis, is made with a top
flange 100 mm wide and 14 mm thick to which a vertical web plate, 150 mm
deep and 10 mm wide is welded.
At a certain section, the total shearing force is 40 kN. Calculate the percent-
age shear carried by the vertical web and the shearing force per metre run in
the welded connection. (U. Lond.)
J ι , 100mm

14 mm

150 mm

1
10mm
FIG. 1 0 . 1 6

Taking moments about the top of the section, Fig. 10.16,


100 x 14 χ 7 + 150 x 10 x 89 = (100 X 14 + 150 χ 10)Ä
.'. h = 49-4 mm
3
100 χ 14 2
^ΝΑ — + 100 X 14 X 42-4
12
3
10 χ 150 + 10 χ 150 χ 39-6 2
12+ 4
= 7-708 χ 10« mm
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 207
At a distance x m from the bottom of the web,
3
40 χ 10
τ = 7-708 X 10-« χ 0-01 X 0 - 0 1 ^ 0 - 1 1 4 6 - ^ N / E
2
= 2 593z(0-229 2 - x) MN/m
.·. shear force carried by element = 2 593^(0-229 2 — χ) χ 0-01 άχ
Λ015
2
.·. total shear force carried by web = 25-93 (0-229 2x — χ ) άχ

= 0-037 7 MN = 37-7 kN
.". percentage of shear force carried by web
377
X 100 = 94-2

Shear stress at top of web


10"
= 2 593 X 0-15(0-229 2 — 0-15)
2
= 30-8 MN/m
Λ shear force per metre in welded connection
e
= 30-8 X 10 χ 0-01 χ 1 Ν
= 308 kN

3. Assuming the commonly accepted theory of distribution of shearing stress


in beams and starting from first prin-
ciples, derive a formula for the intensity
of shearing stress at any distance from
tJie neutral axis in a hollow circular
section.
Hence or otherwise show that in a J
]

Τ
very thin hollow rivet, the maximum
shearing stress tends to twice the mean
shearing stress. (U. Lond.)
The cross-section of the beam is
shown in Fig. 10.17.
From equation (10.1),
v
F C F i a . 10.17

0 < h< r
F r 2 2 2 2

τ = / [ 2(VR -y - Vr - y ) y ay
2 2 2 2 9
I χ 2(VR - h - Vr - h )\ih *
2 2
+ |*2λ/α - y y dyj
2 2 3 /2 2 2 3 /2
_ F ((R - Λ ) - (r - Λ )
_ 2 2 2
3 / \ V ä - h - Vr^T
208 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

r < h< R
F R

τ = A
2
2VR*-y*yay = ^(R*-h*)
I χ 2VR
2
- h Jh
2
J 3/
The maximum shear stress occurs when h = 0,
3 3 3
F R —r _ iF R* — r
I.e. Τm a x — 4 4
3 / ' R-r ~37r(Ä -r )' Ä-r
.F
2 2
π(£ - r )
3 3
4 i£ — r 2 2
4 4
X (tf - r )
Tmean 3(Ä - r) £ - r
2 2
_ 4 R + Rr + r
2 2
~~ 3" £ + r
2
r m ax ^ 4 3Ä
As r -> R, r 2
mean 3 2Ä
->2

4. ^4 transverse shear force F and a bending moment Fl are applied to a


uniform beam having the symmetrical cross-section shown in Fig. 10.18. If the
ratio of the transverse shear stress at the neutral axis to the maximum direct
stress due to bending is not to be less than 0-5, determine the maximum per-
missible value of I in terms of a. (U. Lond.)
From equation (10.2),

FIG. 1 0 . 1 8

. I = 9·15α
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 209
5. A beam of square section is placed so that the plane of bending is parallel
to a diagonal; the side of the square is s and the sliear force is F. Fht the shear
stress distribution curve.
Find the mean intensity and the maximum intensity and where it occurs.

FIG. 10.19

Referring to Fig. 10.19,

6/VV2 Λ VV
For the maximum shear stress, τ τ = 0,
ah

i.e. (_£__*) x 2 + ( M + -l)x<-i,=o

from which h =

J ~8s
2

s ' \ sS l
2
~
S
/6 / ' ^ \ /6
NOTE. Using the equimomental system /- r—
(Art. 3.5), the square may be replaced s/3 \ |%/2
by the system shown in Fig. 10.20, —<^ -· ^> *—
whence \ /
Î S i = 4 X
ë b ) =12
X
F i o . 10.20
210 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

6. A beam having a uniform rectangular cross-section of breadth b and


depth d is simply supported at the ends of a span L. It carries a uniformly
distributed load of w per unit length on the whole span and two equal point
loads each W at Z/6 on either side of mid-span.
Determine in terms of the given symbols and the elastic constants, the de-
flection at mid-span due to (a) bending, and (b) shear. (U. Lond.)
L
w w
•w/un'it length ^w/unit length

k 1
FIG. 10.21 FIG. 10.22

The beam is shown in Fig. 10.21; the central deflection is the same as the
end deflection of the cantilever shown in Fig. 10.22.
(a) Bending deflection. From the equations of Art. 5.2,

»-{ WA$A$ w+

3EI 3EI 2EI


X - —
L
3 8EI

2Ebd*\21 16 /
(b) Shear deflection. From the equations of Art. 10.3,

y
* 5 Gbd 5 Gbd 5 Gbd

,{8W + 3wL}
20Gbd
7. A cantilever of length I and with a constant width b is subjected to a
vertical load W at its tip. If the maximum stress due to bending is to be con-
stant along the length of the beam, find the equation relating depth of beam at
any section distance χ from the built-in end to the depth d0 at the built-in end.
Also calculate the deflection at the tip of the cantilever due to shear alone.
(LMech.E.)
Referring to Fig. 10.23, / j W t b ,
M ΓΊ

= Wx Wx
2
~ bd ' ~bdJ
ΊΓ FIG. 10.23
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 211
If σ is to be constant, equal to that at the fixed end,
χ I

Shear deflection over length dx = - ——— = - ————


5 Gbd 5 GbdQ\/x
1
6WVÏÇ °^
total shear deflection at free end = ——— —ρ
5Gbd0 JoVx
_UWl
~~5Gbdn
8. The deflection of an I-section beam due to shear is commonly calculated
by assuming the shearing stress uniformly distributed over a rectangle formed
by the web thickness and the overall depth. Determine the percentage error in
this assumption for a 240 mm X 120 mm I-section beam. The web is 10 mm
thick and the flanges are 20 mm thick.
The usual formula for shear stress distribution can be assumed.
(U. Lond.)

20 mm
oh
Η
oh

240mm

10mm

120mm

Fig. 10.24

Referring to Fig. 10.24,


3 3
0-12 χ 0-24 0-11 χ 0-20 e 4
= 64-81 X 1 0 - m
12 12
212 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The shear stress in the flange at a distance A from Ν A is given by


F
IB
F (0-12 - A) Χ 0-12 χ ΐ(0·12 + A)
1 ÖÖ2
F 0-014 4 - A* 0
2
I 2 N/m
.'. shear strain energy in one flange
0 12 2 2
_ po 12 (F 0-014
Γ 0 . 0 1 4 44 _- hA2 y\ .
0 1 2 xIxdÄ
X 2G
J o-io V 2 y
2
J /
9
= 2-026 χ ΙΟ" — J

The shear stress in the web at a distance A from Ν A is given by


_ F 0-12 χ 0-02 χ 0-11 + (0-10 - A) χ 0-01 χ 1(0-10 + Α)

2
0-062 8 - Α 2
• N/m 9
/ 2
.". shear strain energy in one half of web

t o t a l shear s t r a i n e n e r g y in b e a m

Assuming t h a t t h e shear stress is uniformly distributed over an area


0 - 2 4 m y 0-01 m.

/ F
211-9 - 208-3
y X
ο·ί 26r G

error = \0·0022 i49 i/ X ~1 01 0Λ

= 1*7 per cent


SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 213
9. An R . S . J , is of I-section of overall height 2 0 0 m m and flange width 125 mm.
The web thickness is 7 m m and the flange thicknesses 11 mm. The standard taper
on the flanges m a y be neglected and all corners m a y be assumed sharp. The beam
is subjected t o transverse loads acting parallel t o the web, and a t one section the
shear force is 100 kN. Determine the m a x i m u m vertical shearing stress in the web
a t this section.
W h a t proportion of the total shear force is carried by the web? (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 80-8 M N / m ; 9 4 - 8 % )
10. A cast iron beam with flange and web section is 2 5 0 m m deep overall. The
top flange is 125 m m χ 5 0 m m deep, the bottom flange 2 0 0 m m χ 5 0 m m deep
and the web is 4 0 m m thick. I f the transverse shearing force is 140 kN, calculate
the consequent shear stress in the web a t the t o p and bottom junctions with
flanges and the m a x i m u m shear stress and sketch a diagram showing the variation
of shear stress over the depth of the beam. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 15 M N / m ; 18-5 M N / m ; 17-1 M N / m )
11. State the formula giving the shearing stress a t a n y depth in the section
of a beam subjected t o a shearing force S. Define the symbols used and show them
on a sketch. State clearly the assumptions made in deriving the formula and
criticise these assumptions.
A 3 5 0 m m χ 150 m m I-beam is subjected t o a shearing force S a n d a bending
moment M. Determine (a) the percentage of the shearing force carried by the
web, and (b) the percentage of the bending moment carried by the flanges. The
-β 4
flanges are 17-5 m m thick and the web is 10 m m thick. 7 X X = 173 χ 1 0 m .
Assume all corners square and the flanges t o be rectangles. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 9 4 - 5 % ; 8 3 - 8 % )
12. A cantilever of I-section 2 0 0 m m χ 100 m m has rectangular flanges 10 m m
thick and web 75 m m thick. I t carries a uniformly distributed load. Determine
the length of the cantilever if the m a x i m u m bending stress is three times t h e
m a x i m u m shearing stress. W h a t is the ratio of the stresses half-way along t h e
length of the cantilever? (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1 m ; 1-5)
13. Fig. 10.25 shows the section of a Tee-beam, made of a uniform material,
which is subjected to a shear force of 2 0 0 k N and a bending moment of 2 5 k N m.
Calculate (a) the m a x i m u m bending stress and (b) the m a x i m u m shear stress
giving sketches to show the form of stress distribution in each case. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 137-5 M N / m ; 65-3 M N / m )

300mm

150mm .

r 1τι 25mm 25mm

300mm
150mm

25mm 25mm
FIG. 1 0 . 2 5 FIG. 10.26
14. Plot t o scale the distribution of shear stress over the section shown in
F i g . 10.26, which is subjected t o a shearing force of 3 0 0 kN, giving essential
2
numerical values. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: T m x a= 51-5 M N / m )
214 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

15. A rod o f circular section is subjected t o a shearing force on a plane per-


pendicular t o its axis. Find the m a x i m u m shearing stress îh terms of the shearing
force and the rod diameter.
I f the rod is as a beam with free ends and a central concentrated load, express
the free length in terms of the diameter for which the m a x i m u m shearing stress,
due to shearing force, is half the maximum direct stress. (U. Lond.)
W F L
(Am . . - * \

16. A hollow steel cylinder, 2 0 0 m m external and 100 m m internal diameter,


acting as a beam, is subjected t o a shearing force F newtons perpendicular t o the
axis.
Determine the mean shearing stress across the section, and, making the usual
assumptions, the average shearing stress a t the neutral axis and a t sections 2 5 , 5 0
and 7 5 m m from the neutral axis as fractions of the mean value.
Draw a diagram t o show the variation of average shearing stress across the
section of the cylinder. (U. Land.) Uns.: _JL_ N * m. j.ßg, 0- 8 0 , 0-467^
/

\ 0·03 π J
17. Derive a formula for the intensity of shearing stress a t a n y point in the
cross-section of a uniform beam, due t o the shearing force. Criticise the assump-
tions made and point out when these would lead t o serious errors.
Assuming your method can be applied t o circular sections, find the maximum
intensity of shearing stress in a hollow circular section 100 m m external diameter
and 75 m m internal diameter when subjected t o a total shearing force of 160 kN.
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 91-7 M N / m )

18. A steel bar rolled t o the section shown in Fig. 10.27 is subjected t o a shear-
ing force of 2 0 0 kN applied in the direction Y Y . Making the usual assumptions,
determine the average shearing stress a t the sections A, B , C and D, and find the
ratio of the m a x i m u m t o the mean shearing stress in the section.
Draw, t o scale, a diagram t o show the variation of the average shearing stress
2
across the section. (17. Lond.) (Ans.: 0, 10-35, 4 4 - 5 , 71-1 M N / m ; 3-875)

25mm
B-f-
25mm,
25mm
150mm

19. State the formula which is generally used t o give the intensity of the shear-
ing stress a t a n y depth in the section of a beam due t o the shearing force. Make a
critical statement pointing out the weakness of the method used t o derive the
formula.
SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS 215
A beam has a symmetrical triangular section of breadth Β and depth D and
is subjected a t a certain section t o a vertical shearing force 8 acting in the direction
of the axis of symmetry. Deduce in terms of B9 D and 8 the mean shearing stress τ
a t a n y depth d from the vertex of the triangular section. Plot a graph showing how
τ varies over the depth of the section a n d find the ratio of the average shearing
stress over the section t o the m a x i m u m shearing stress. (77. Lond.)
I l2Sd(D - d) 2 \
{Ana.: >

2 0 . A bar of hexagonal cross-section a n d of side length 2 5 m m is used as a


cantilever, one diagonal being horizontal. A load hung from the bar subjects it
t o a shearing force of 2 0 kN. Plot t h e shear stress distribution diagram. (U. Lond.)
2 3
/ 2 0 , 3 0 0 — 65Ä + h 2 α , \
l Ans.: τ = 0 Ό 3 1 5 ^ ^ _ ^ N / m m , where Λ is in m m J

2 1 . A tube of hollow square section, 5 0 m m square outside and 6 m m uniform


thickness, is subjected t o a shearing force of 5 0 k N acting in the direction of a
diagonal. F i n d the m a x i m u m shearing stress produced.
Make a sketch showing the approximate distribution of shearing stress over the
cross-section. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: τ = 0-0715 (617 - h ) N / m m , where h is in m m ; 106 N / m m )
2 2 . Derive a n expression for the deflection due t o shear in a cantilever of rect-
angular section, loaded with a concentrated load a t the free end. The usual para-
bolic distribution of shearing stress over the cross-section m a y be assumed.
A cantilever of length L , rectangular in section, of depth d and breadth 6,
carries two point loads, each W9 one a t t h e free end and the other half-way
along its length. I f E/G is 2-5, find the ratio of d t o L for which the deflection a t
the end due t o shear will be 1 / 1 0 0 of t h a t due t o bending. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 0-108)
23. F o r a given cantilever of rectangular cross-section, length I, depth d and
carrviner a concentrated load a t t h e free end. show t h a t
deflection due t o shearing strain
constant >
bending denection
and find the value of the constant for a steel cantilever. Hence find the least
value of l/d if the deflection due t o shearing strain is not t o exceed 1 per cent of the
2 2
total deflection. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; G = 76-5 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 0 - 7 8 3 ; 8-79)
2 4 . A simply supported rectangular beam of depth d, breadth 6 and span L is
loaded a t the centre with a concentrated load W. Show t h a t the deflection due
t o shear is 3WL/10Gbd.
Hence, making reasonable assumptions, deduce the ratio o f deflection
due t o shear t o the deflection due t o bending in the case of an I-section beam,
4 0 0 m m χ 150 m m , simply supported on a span of 2-4 m and carrying a central
load.
e 4
J x x = 2 8 3 χ 1 0 ~ m ; mean flange thickness 21-2 m m ; web thickness 13-8 mm.
Ε/G = 2-7. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 3·87, basing shear deflection on web area only)
2 5 . A beam of span I and of constant rectangular section rests upon two
supports and has a uniformly distributed load of w per unit length. Η the ratio of
E/O is 2 J for the material of the beam, show t h a t the ratio of t h e shear t o t h e
2
bending deflection is given by c(k/l) where k is the relevant radius of gyration of
the section, and find the value of c. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 28-8)
u
216 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

26. A simply supported beam of rectangular cross-section and length I is sub-


jected t o a uniform distributed load of 150 N / m . F i n d from first principles t h e
length of the beam in terms of its depth, such t h a t the central deflection due t o
bending is ten times t h a t due t o shear. I t m a y be assumed t h a t the m a x i m u m
2
shear stress is 1 ·5 χ the mean shear stress acting on a given section. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m
2
and G = 8 0 G N / m . ( / . Mech. E.) (Ans.:l = 4:-9 d)
27. A circular shaft carries a transverse shearing force. Making normal assump-
tions, which must be stated, prove : (a) the m a x i m u m intensity of shearing stress
is 4 / 3 times the mean shearing stress; (6) the t o t a l shear strain energy per unit
length is 1 0 / 9 times t h a t calculated by taking the mean intensity of shearing
stress as uniform throughout.
A circular shaft 100 m m diameter carries an over-hung load of 100 kN. I f this
load is considered concentrated a t a section 125 m m from a rigid bearing, calculate
2
the deflection due t o the effects of bending and shear. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and
2
G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: yb = 0-066 2 5 m m ; y8 = 0-005 5 2 m m )
28. An I-section cantilever 120 m m deep and 100 m m wide having flanges and
web 10 m m thick, is 1-2 m long and carries an end load of 30 kN. F i n d the total
shearing resilience of the cantilever and hence determine its deflection due t o shear.
e 4 2
/ for the section = 6-9 χ 1 0 ~ m . Take G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 5-74 J ; 0-382 5 m m )
2 9 . A cast iron cantilever, 0-6 m long, consists of an I-section 120 m m deep and
80 m m wide, having flanges 2 0 m m deep and a web thickness of 10 m m . I f a load
of 2 0 k N is supported a t the free end, find, by graphical integration or otherwise,
2
the deflection due to shear. Neglect the effect of fillets, and take G = 4 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-248 m m )

30. A 2 5 0 m m χ 150 m m R . S . J . with web 10 m m and flanges 18 m m thick has


one end built firmly into a wall so t h a t it can a c t as a horizontal cantilever 3-6 m
long. I t carries a load of 2 0 kN placed 1*8 m from the end. Assuming t h a t the shear-
ing force is carried by the web only, the shearing stress being uniformly distri-
buted over the web, calculate the deflection produced a t the end of the cantilever.
2 2
Take Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and G = 8 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: y s = 0-21 mm; yb = 6 mm)
CHAPTER 11

UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING

11.1 Principal a x e s and principal m o m e n t s of inertia. In the


simple theory of bending (Art. 3.1), it is assumed that the section is sym-
metrical about the plane of bending.

FIG. 11.1

If a bending moment is applied in the plane Y Y , Fig. 11.1, and no


bending is to take place about that axis, then

where a is the stress on the element da due to bending about X X .

But

The quantity xy da is called the product of inertia of the area about the

axes ΛΑ and ϊ ϊ and tne condition tor pure bending is therefore tnat the
product of inertia about the axes through the centroid in, and perpendicular
to, the plane of bending shall be zero. Such axes are called the principal
axes of the section and the moments of inertia (strictly second moments of
area) about the principal axes are the principal moments of inertia, being
respectively the greatest and least moments of inertia about any axis
passing through G.
If a figure has an axis of symmetry, that axis is a principal axis.
217
218 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

11.2 Determination of principal axes and principal moments


of inertia. Fig. 11.2 snows a figure of area A in which the principal
axes through the centroid G are UU and W : X X and Y Y are another
pair of perpendicular axes passing
through G, making an angle α with
the principal axes. The element da
in the positive quadrant has co-or-
dinates u and ν relative to W and
UU and χ and y relative to Y Y and
X X respectively.
Given the moments and product
of inertia about X X and Y Y , it is
required to find the principal
moments of inertia and the direc-
tion of the principal axes.
u = χ cos α + y sin α
ν = y cos α — χ sin α
2 d a 2 c 2 2 2
AJU = j ^ = I (y ° s α — 2xy sin α cos α + χ sin α) da
2 2 (11.1)
= ΙΧχ cos a — Ι χ γ sin 2a + Z Y Y sin a
2 2 2 2 2
Zw = j " ^ da = J(z cos a + 2xy sin a cos a + y sin a) da
2 2 (11.2)
= I x x sin a + Z X Y sin 2a + Z Y Y cos a
2 2 2 2
AJV = da = J{a^(cos α — sin a) + (y — x ) sin a cos a} da
ζ ο ι /τ τ \ sin 2a
= Ιχγ cos 2a + (Ixx - Z Y Y) —— = 0Λ
2/ XY
tan 2a = 1
(11.3)
£
xx
YY
Equation (11.3) gives two values of 2a differing by π, i.e. two values of
α differing by π/2.
Given the principal moments of inertia, it is required to find the moments
of inertia about X X and Y Y .
x = u cos α — ν sin α
y = ν cos α + u sin α
χ = JV 2 2
da j*(v cos a + uv sin 2a + u sin a) da
2 2
2 2

Z U XJ cos a + Z v v sin a (since Z u v = 0) (11.4)


da = 2 2 2 2
j" (w cos ai — uv sin 2a + v sin a) da
2 2
Zw cos a + IJJU sin a . . . . (11.5)
χ χ + ΙΥΥ = Ivv + Iyy(=J) (11.6)
£
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING
219
11.3 Momental ellipse.
Set off Ga = — a n d Gb = , Fig. 11.3, and draw an ellipse with Ga
and Gb as the major and minor semi-axes.

Then Gc = 1 and Gd = -=-.


1
Proof: From the equation of the ellipse,

( l / t u o) » (1/kyvY
But w = Gc cos α and ν = Gc sin α
2 2 2 2 2s m2
/ . Gc Auu cos α + Gc &w α= 1
Λ

2 2 2s m2
Λ .4 ä U XJ COS α + ^ &vv α = -ρς-ζ

i.e. ZXJU cos α +


2
7v
V
s m
-

= τ η
=
^xx from equation (11.4)
For any figure having more than two axes of symmetry, such as a circle,
square, equilateral triangle or other regular polygon, the momental ellipse
becomes a circle and hence the moment of inertia about any axis through
G is the same as about the principal axes.

11.4 T h e o r e m of perpendicular a x e s for product of inertia. In


Fig. 11.4, X X and Y Y are perpendicular axes through the centroid G and
it is required to find the product of inertia about the parallel axes 00
and QQ.
220 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Product of inertia of element about 0 0 and QQ


= (x + h)(y + k) da
= (xy + xk + yh-\- hk) da
Therefore, for the whole area,

7 0q = ^xy da + k j*x da + h^y da + hk j" da

= 7 Χγ + Ahk . (11.7)

since j*a? da and jy


' da are both zero.
.V |Y

Fio. 11.4

11.5 B e a m with unsymmetrical bending moment. Fig. 11.5 shows


the cross-section of a beam in which the applied bending moment acts in
the plane Y Y , inclined at an angle α to the principal axis VV.
If the applied bending moment is M,
component in plane W = M cos α
and component in plane UU = M sin α
Therefore stress on element da, of co-ordinates u and ν relative to the
principal axes,
M cos α , M sin α
= — Χv+ — X u

-./ν cos α , wsina\


i.e. σ=Μ(- + _ ) (11.8)
\ ^υυ *νν /
Equation (11.8) applies to all points in the cross-section provided that
the appropriate signs are ascribed to the co-ordinates u and v.
For points on the neutral axis, a = 0
ν cos α u sin α
i.e.

i.e. -^25tanX u . . . (11.9)


UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 221

This is a straight line of slope — tan a. I f is the inclination of this


Zvv
axis to UU, then
β = - t a n • ι β ϊ Ξ tan a ) (11.10)
Vvv /
The most highly stressed point is that which is farthest from the neutral
axis. The stress at this point is then obtained by substituting the appropri-
ate values of u and ν in equation (11.8).
Deflection. I f the load applied in plane Y Y is W, Fig. 11.6,
component in plane W = W cos α
and component in plane UU = W sin α
3
(TP cos oc)Z
/ . deflection along W , Syy =
kEIvv
3
(Wem α)Ζ
and deflection along UU, ό υ π =
hEL w
where h is a constant depending on the position
of the load and the end-fixing conditions. F i o . 11.6

2 2
resultant deflection, δ = Vdyy + <5uu

The inclination of the resultant deflection to W

= tan-* (^j = tan-i ^ tan . (11.12)


From equation (11.10), this is the angle β, thus confirming that the
deflection is in a direction perpendicular to the neutral axis.

11.6 Short column with unsymmetrical load. Fig. 11.7 shows a


short column with a load W which is eccentric to both principal axes of the
section. Let the co-ordinates of the load point relative to W and UU be a
and b respectively.
Then the given load is equivalent to a load W at G, together with a
moment Wa causing bending about W and a moment Wb causing bending
about UU. Thus the stress on an element da, of co-ordinates u and ν relative
to the principal axes
W , Wa Wb
222 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

i.e. (11.13)

Fig. 11.7

The element da has been taken in the same quadrant as the load point
and equation (11.13) then applies to all points in the cross-section provided
that the appropriate signs are ascribed to the co-ordinates u and v.
The equation of the neutral axis is given by
1 aw bv
Λ 1^ Τ 1^
0
1
vv AJU
from which
—(ϊ&)-τ· χ (1I14)

1. (a) Find the product of inertia of the quadrant of a circle shown in Fig.
11.8 about the axes OX and OY.
(b) Find the principal moments of inertia and the directions of the prin-
cipal axes of the angle section shown in Fig. 11.9.

10mm
|Y

\
\
j 1
6 0 m m1
X X

d e /
0^
1
\
Y 'V i
0! 40mm 10mm

FIG. 11.8 FIG. 11.9


UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 223

(a) Product of inertia of element about OX and OY


= r d0 dr χ χ χ y
= r άθ dr X r sin θ X r cos 0
Therefore, for the whole area,
rn/2 rR
= 3
r sin 0 cos 0 do dr
Ιχγ |
Jo Jo
4 2
£ 4f *rn/.
/ s i n 2 0 , Λ R*
do =
4 JJ o0 2 _8_
(b) Taking moments about the left-hand side and base,
_ 70 , . 130
χ = — mm and y = — mm
6 * 6
s

:
10 x 6 0
'XX
12
11-07 e 4
X 10 mm
~36~
3 2 s a
6 0 X 1 0 , ...
/ Y Y =_ _ + 6 0 x l 0 x /^4-0j \ Ίη , 10x30
+ _ _ 1 ,0 x 3 _0 x ^/ 8-0 J\
+

e 4
^XlO mm
36

_ . + I . X M
6
X ( « )
4
X ( - - ) + . + 1 0X»,x(-^)x(«)'
-0-lOxlO mm

.'. tan 2α = ^ * ^ ? ^1 . from equation


H (11.3)
v
3-87 _ 11-07 '
"36" 36
= 1
.'. α = 2 2 £

:. luv = — έ° + °· + £° cos2
2 s0i
1450
n 8in
22

00 00
from equation (11.1)
4
= 349 000 mm
2 2
and I y Y = sin 22|° - 0-10 sin 45° + — cos 22|°
36 36
from equation (11.2)
4
= 65 800 mm
* Note that the product of inertia of each of the rectangles about its own a x e s is zero.
224 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

2. A 80 mm X 80 mm angle as shown in Fig. 11.10 is used as a freely sup-


ported beam with one leg vertical. 7 X X = Ιγγ = 0-873 6 X 10~ m . When a
6 4

bending moment is applied in the vertical plane YY, the mid-section of the
beam deflects in the direction A A at 30° 15' to the vertical. Calculate the second
moments of area of the section about its principal axes.
Find also the bending stress at the corner Β if the bending moment is 2 kN m.
(U. Lond.)

ι v
10mm /β
<^30 15'
/
80 mm 23-4mm

10 mm

80mm
FIG. 11.10 FIG. 11.11

Since the angle has an axis of symmetry, that axis (UU in Fig. 11.11) is
a principal axis and α = 45°.
From equations (11.6) and (11.12),
e 4
7 U U +/ V V = 7 X X + 7 Y Y = 2x0-873 6x10"« = 1-747 2 x 10~ m (1)
and tanß = ^ t a n a = ^ , since tan α = 1
7yy Ιγγ
tan (45° + 30° 15') = 3-79 (2)
7 VV
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2),
6 4 β 4
7 U XJ = 1-382 χ 1 0 - m and 7yy = 0-365 χ 10~ m
By drawing or calculation, u = 23-5 mm and ν = 56-56 mm.
_ .(v cos α . u sin a\ . .
Λ ο = Ml + J . . from equation (11.8)
1 QX

\ ^uu ^vv /
Λ , Λο/0Ό56 56 cos 45° , 0-023 5 sin 45°\ X T, 9
3 2
= 2 χ 10 [ Η I N/m
e β 7
V 1-382 χ 10" 0-365 χ 10~ /
2
= 149 MN/m
3. Fig. 11.12 shows an unequal angle section, for which 7 X X = 0-8 X
1 0 m and Ιγγ = 0-382 X 1 0 m . Find the moments of inertia about
-6 4 _β 4

tlie principal axes UU and VV, given that the angle between the axes UU and
XX is 28£°.
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 225
If the angle, with the 80 mm leg vertical, is used as a beam, freely supported
on a span of 2 m carrying a vertical had of 2 kN at the centre, find: (a) the
maximum bending stress at the point A ; (b) the direction and magnitude of the
maximum deflection.
2
Neglect the weight of the beam and take Ε = 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.)
16-4mm

80mm

FIG. 11.12 FIG. 11.13

From equation (11.6),

β β 4
= (0-8+0-382) χ 1 0 - = 1-132 χ 1 0 - m (1)
From equations (11.4) and (11.5),
c o s2 2 s m2 2
Ιχχ—Ιγγ = /uu( a—sin a ) + / V v ( a—cos a)
= (AJU—*VV) COS 2a
e
J x x - ί γ γ _ (0-8-0-382) x l O - = 0-767 5 x l 0 " e m 4 ( 2 )
vv cos 2a cos 57°
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2),
e 4 6 4
Ivv = 0-974 8 X 1 0 - m and IyY = 0-207 2 X 10~ m
Alternatively J X Y can be determined from equation (11.3) and substi-
tuted in equations (11.1) and (11.2).
3
, X -myr χ* Wl1UT 2 Χ ΙΟ X 2 , ^
(a) Maximum B.M. = — = . = 1 000 Ν m
4 4
By drawing or calculation, u = 20 mm and ν = 50 mm, Fig. 11.13,
ΆΛ(ν cos α , wsina\ « . χ ΙΛ „
Λ or = Ml — \- — J . . from equation (11.8)
\ -*uu *vv /
05 cos 28£° 0-02 χ sin 28£ 8
= 1 000, 1 N/m
V0-9
1-974 8 χ 1 0 -
2
e +
0-207 2 X 10 9
= 91-2 MN/m
226 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

(b) From equation (11.11),


2

2 χ ΙΟ X 2
3 3
_ // cos28|° y / sin 28|° y
48 X 200 χ 1 0 V \0-974 8 χ 1 0 " / \0-207 2 χ 1 0 " /
9 6 6
~
= 0-004 125 m or 4-125 mm
From equation (11.12),

/ . angle to vertical
= 68° 48' - 28° 30' = 40° 18'
4. A cantilever consists of a 60 mm X 60 mm X 10 mm angle with the top
face AB horizontal, Fig. 11.14. It carries a load o/800 Ν at a distance 0 / 1 m
from the fixed end, the line of action of the load passing through the centroid of
the section and inclined at 30° to the vertical.

18-4mm
FIG. 11.14

Determine the stress at the corners A, Β and C at the fixed end and also the
position of the neutral axis.
7 X X = IYY = 0-348 8 X
e 4
10- m ;
6 4
I v v = 0-147 22 χ 10- m ;
J v v = 0-550 6 χ 6 4
ΙΟ" m . (U. Lond.)
B.M. at wall 800 X 1 = 800 Ν m

/ v cos 15° , u sin 15°


OKßJi if h
U — Ν/]
VO-147 2 χ 1 0 - 0-550 6 χ 10~·
6

2
5 260v + 376u MN/m
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 227
At the neutral axis, a = 0, so that
3 76
ν= _ u = -0-071 7w
5 250
1
Thus β = tan- (-0-071 7) = - 4 ° 6'
i.e. the neutral axis is inclined at 4° 6' clockwise from UU.
At Α, ν = + 26 mm and u = 0
.·. cr = 5 250 X 0-026
2
= 136-5 MN/m (tensile)
At Β, ν = —16-4 mm and u = + 4 2 mm
.·. a = - 5 250 χ 0-016 4 + 376 χ 0-042
2
= —70-4 MN/m (compressive)
At C, ν = —16-4 mm and u = —42 mm
Λ a = - 5 250 χ 0-016 4 - 376 χ- 0-042
2
= —102-0 MN/m (compressive)

5. A 150 mm X 60 mm I-beam is used as a column to carry a load acting


in a direction parallel with the longitudinal axis of the column but not passing
through either of the principal axes of the section. The magnitude and line of
action of the had are such that the stresses at the corners A, Β and C are as
shown in Fig. 11.15. Determine the magnitude and location of the load, the
stress at D and the position of the neutral axis and make a diagram of the
section showing these values and the reference letters.
For a 150 mm X 60 mm I-beam, I x x = 4-919 Χ 1 0 " m ;
6 4

Ζ γ γ = 0·198 7 X 1 0 " m ;
e 4

6 2
A = 1 324 χ 1 0 - m .
(U. Lond.)

FIG. 1 1 . 1 5 FIG. 11.16


228 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

If the load point has co-ordinates a and 6 relative to X X and Y Y , Fig.


11.16, then, from equation (11.13),

[A IYY ΙΧχ)
where χ and y are the distances of an element from Y Y and X X respectively.
Taking compression as positive,
stress at A = 75-2
2
Wl = -I MN/m (1)
6 6 6 1 }
Vl 324 χ ΙΟ" 0-198 7 χ 10~ 4-919 χ ΙΟ" /
stress at Β = 46-3
2
= Wl Η ) MN/m 2)
6 -6 1 6
\ 1 324 χ ΙΟ" 0-198 7 χ Ι Ο 4-919 χ ΙΟ" /
and
stress at C = —11-8
2
== Wl 4- — ) MN/m (3)
6 β β 1
\ 1 324 χ 10~ ^ 0-1987 χ 1 0 " 4-919 χ 1 0 ~ /
Therefore, from equations (1), (2) and (3),
W = 42 kN, a= -2-278 mm and b = 45-4 mm
Stress at D
3 0-03x0-002 278 _ 0-075x0-045 4\ 2
= 42χ10 [ 6 + 6 — e ) N/m
\
IxlO"
1 Λ ft
^ 324 X ' ~
' 0-198
°
f 77 x
v1ΛlrO
' —
i "
fi 4-919xl0" /
i ί Μ Π ν , 1 rv _fi I '
2
= 17-02 MN/m (compressive)
At the neutral axis, σ = 0,
0-045 4*/ _ 0-002 278a; 1
e β
4-919 χ 10-« 0-198 7 X 10~ 1 324 χ 10~
from which y = l-24x — 0-081 8 m

6. A 300 mm χ 150 mm I-beam is used as a stanchion to carry two loads,


W and 2W, which act in directions parallel with the axis of the stanchion. The
load W acts on the Y Y axis and 200 mm from the XX axis.
(a) Find the boundary within which 2W must act if there is to be no tension.
(b) If2W acts on the XX axis, find the magnitude of W and the position
2
of the line of action of 2W if the greatest and least stresses are 105 MN/m
2
and 7-5 MN/m , both compressive.
e 4 β 4 3 2
7 X X = 1 4 6 - 8 x l 0 - m ; IYY = 11-05χ 10" m ; A = 9-932χ 10~ m .
Make a diagram of the section showing the load positions and the boundary
required. (U. Lond.)
229

200mm

300mm

2 4 8 mm

(a) The load W is equivalent to a load W at G, Fig. 11.17, together with a


moment 0-2W causing bending about X X .
The load 2W is equivalent .to a load 2W at G, together with a moment
2Wb causing bending about X X and a moment 2Wa causing bending
about Y Y .
Thus, on an element whose co-ordinates are χ and y relative to Y Y and
X X respectively,
3W , (0-2 + 2b)W , 2aW
*= -j-+—r—— y + 7—
x x x

Α ίχχ Ιγγ
= 43Q2+--°: . .X
734 X 1 0 -
1+ 6
e

y J
« 1
X X V
For no stress at A, ^ 5-525 χ 10-« J
302 + J ± ± ± _ 6X 0 4 5 + χ 0-075 = 0
734 χ 1 0 - 5-525 X 10"«
from which b = — 6·64α — 0-248 m
For no stress at D,
Q 1 + 5 a
302-„ ; . X6 0 - 1 5 + e
χ 0-075 = 0
734 χ 1 0 - 5-525 X 1 0 ~
from which b = 6·64α + 0-047 7 m
These equations are represented by ef and fg respectively in Fig. 11.17
and gh and he represent the corresponding relations between a and b for no
stress at C and Β respectively.
230 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

(b) If the load 2 IF is on the X X axis and is to the right of Y Y , then the
greatest compressive stress occurs at A and the least compressive stress
occurs at C,

i.e. 1 0 5 x l 0 6 = F ( 3 0 2 + ^ ^ e x 0 4 5 + 5 - ^ ^ x O -β 0Χ0·07δ\
75) (1)
Χ ιο- /

and 7-5x10* = w(m - - ^ ^ X 0-075^ (2)

Therefore, from equations (1) and (2),


W = 186-3 kN and a = 4-225 mm

7. A short length of bar having the section shown in Fig. 11.18 is subjected
to a non-axial force at right angles to the plane of the section. Determine the
boundary within which the force must act if there is to be no reversal of stress
on the section.
Make a sketch of the section showing the boundary and its dimensions.
(U. Lond.)

30mm

20mm

FIG. 11.18

Area of section = 80 X 20 + % X 80 X 30 = 2 800 mm .


2

By taking moments about the base, y = 18-56 mm.


By use of the equimomental system (Art. 3.5), or otherwise,
I x x = 0-388 3 X 10 mm and 7 y Y = 1-173 X 10 mm
6 4 e 4

If the load W has co-ordinates a and 6 relative to Y Y and X X respec-


tively, Fig. 11.19,
ax by_\ from equation (11.13)
+ Ί— + Ixx)
Ιγγ
ax by \
+
\2 800 1-173 χ 10« + 0-388 3 χ 6
ΙΟ /
JF/l , a.T. 2
-^L) N/mm
100\28 11 730 + 3 883/
/
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 231
1 α χ 40 b X 18-56
For no stress at A, = 0
28 11 730 3 883
from which b = -0·713α + 7-48 mm
1 a X 40 b X 1-44
For no stress at B ,
28" 11 720 3 883
from which b = 9·2α — 96-3 mm
1 aχ 0 b X 31-44 _
For no stress at C,
28 11 730 3 883 "
from which b = —4-4 mm

The boundary represented by these equations and the corresponding


equations for no stress at D and Ε are shown in Fig. 1 1 . 1 9 .

8. A steel beam 5 0 m m χ 2 5 m m in cross-section is supported over a span of


1 m with one 6 0 m m face inclined a t 3 0 ° to the vertical. A load of 6 0 0 Ν a c t s
vertically a t the centre of the span. Neglecting the weight of the beam, and
assuming t h a t the ordinary beam theory applies, find (a) the m a x i m u m stress in
the beam due t o bending; (b) the magnitude and direction of the m a x i m u m
2
deflection. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 26-9 M N / m ; 0-523 m m a t 3 6 ° 3 5 ' t o vertical)

9 . A steel bar of rectangular section 100 m m χ 4 0 m m is supported in bearings


and carries a load of 10 k N a t mid-span. I f as indicated in Fig. 11.20 the beam is
rotated slowly, find the inclination Θ when the bending stress in the bar reaches
its greatest value. Determine the value of the greatest bending stress and the
vertical deflection a t mid-span when this stress occurs. Assume the bar is direction-
2
free a t the supports. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 2 1 ° 4 8 ' ; 121 M N / m ; 3-12 m m )
232 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

100mm

I 0-6m 0-6m 40mm

FIG. 11.20

10. An 8 0 m m χ 8 0 m m χ 1 0 m m angle is used as a beam simply supported a t


each end over a span of 2 m with one leg of the section horizontal and the other
vertically upwards. I t is loaded a t the centre of the span with a vertical load which
may be assumed t o pass through the centroid of the section. The principal second
_ E 4 _ Β 4
moments of area for the section are 1 - 3 8 χ 1 0 m and 0 - 3 6 χ 1 0 m . The
distance of the centroid from the outside edge is 2 3 * 5 m m and toe has a radius
of 5 - 6 m m .
F i n d the position of the neutral axis and calculate the safe load if the maximum
2
stress is not to exceed 1 2 0 M N / m . Graphical constructions m a y be used.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 3 - 0 2 k N )

11. An 8 0 m m χ 8 0 mm χ 1 0 m m steel angle is used as a cantilever of length


0 - 8 m and carries an end load. One leg of the angle is horizontal and the load a t
the end is vertical with its line of action passing through the centroid of the section.
Determine the m a x i m u m allowable load if the bending stress is not t o exceed
2
1 2 0 M N / m and find also the vertical deflection a t t h e end due t o this load.
2
Assume all corners of the angle to be left square. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1 - 8 2 kN; 2 - 6 6 m m )

f£ !Y

9mm rad
25-5mm

N.

50-5mm

|100mm 15-6mm

Ύ
FIG. 11.21
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING 233
12. A beam of the angle section shown in Fig. 11.21 is freely supported on a
span of 2 m with the 150 m m leg vertical. A vertical load of 2 0 k N is applied a t the
centre of the span. F i n d (a) the m a x i m u m bending stress; (b) the direction and
magnitude of the deflection a t the centre. Neglect the weight of the beam itself,
and neglect twisting effects and deflection due t o shear.
e 4 _ e 4
The properties of the section are : 7 X X = 8-12 χ 1 0 - m , 7 Y Y = 2-88 X 1 0 m
e 4 2
7 P P = 1-675 χ 1 0 - m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 153 M N / m ; 67° 3 3 ' t o P P ; 4-29 m m )

13. A rectangular bar of 80 m m x 4 0 m m cross-section has a pull of I f Ν


applied parallel t o the axis of the bar, the point of application being 15 m m from
one of the longer edges and 30 m m from one of the shorter edges of the section. I f
2
the tensile stress in the material is t o be limited t o 150 M N / m , determine the
value of W and the stresses a t the four corners of the section.
Find the area within which W must be situated if there is t o be no compressive
stress in the material. Show your results on a diagram of the cross-section and
indicate the position of the neutral axis. ( U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 192 k N ; - 3 0 , + 6 0 , + 1 5 0 , + 6 0 M N / m ; y = ±-±—;

14. A short column has a solid cross-section in the form of an equilateral


triangle. Determine the shape and dimensions of the area within which the result-
a n t compressive load must be applied if there is t o be no tension on the cross-
section of the column. The line of action of the load is parallel t o the axis of the
column. Calculate the stress a t each of the three corners of an equilateral triangular
column of 5 0 m m side when a compressive load of 80 kN a c t s a t the position Ρ
shown in Fig. 11.22. (U. Lond,)
2
(Ans.: Equilateral triangle of side s / 4 ; 140-5, 51-9, 23-6 M N / m )

15. A length of 120 m m Χ 120 m m χ 10 m m angle of the section shown in


Fig. 11.23 transmits a longitudinal pull which passes through the point P . Deter-
mine (a) the position of the line of zero stress, (b) the m a x i m u m value of the pull
2
if the stress on the section is not t o exceed 100 M N / m . Assume all corners
β 4
square. 7 χ χ = 7 γ γ = 3-184 χ 1 0 " m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: y = - 0 - 5 6 7 5x - 48-5 (mm units)); 8 5 k N
234 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

16. A tie-bar of rectangular section, originally 75 m m wide by 2 5 m m thick, has


these dimensions reduced by 1/wth of the original values by the removal of
material from two adjacent faces. I f an axial tensile load of 100 kN is applied t o
the bar through the centre of the original section, find the value of l/n for a
2
maximum tensile stress of 120 M N / m . Determine also the magnitude of the least
2
tensile stress. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-114; 15-49 M N / m )
17, Fig. 11.24 shows the cross-section of a short column, made from a
160 m m χ 120 m m I-section, with a 2 0 0 m m χ 10 m m plate welded t o one
flange. A vertical load of 2 5 kN acts a t P , the line of thrust passing 4 0 mm from
the X X axis and 2 0 m m from the Y Y axis of the I-section. Calculate the m a x i -
mum stress developed in the section. F o r the 160 m m χ 120 m m I-section,
3 2 6 4 β 4
area = 4-12 χ 1 0 ~ m , I x x = 18-42 χ 1 0 " m and 7 y Y = 4-61 χ 1 0 " m .
2
(I.C.E.) {Ans.: 11-56 M N / m )

2 0 0 m m χ 10mm
plate
40mm
X
XX axis of
160mm 20mm 60 m m
χ 120mm 80mm
Γ section

IY IY

FIG. 1 1 . 2 4 FIG. 11.25

18. A compound compression member consists of two 3 2 5 m m χ 100 m m


channels and two plates each 4 0 0 m m χ 2 0 mm, as shown in Fig. 11.25. The line
of action of the load is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member and passes
through the X X axis a t 6 0 m m from the centre 0. Determine the least distance
between the backs of the channels if there is t o be no tension in t h e section.
I f for the section found, the load can be applied a t a n y point, show on a sketch
the area within which it can a c t without causing tension anywhere in the section.
3 2
F o r one channel, cross-sectional area = 6-1 χ 1 0 ~ m , the centroid is 2 6 m m
from the back of the channel and the principal second moments of area of the
e 4 6 4
section are 96-5 χ 1 0 ~ m and 4-98 χ 1 0 " m . (V. Lond.)
{Ans.: 142-2 m m ; y = ± 2 · 1 6 5 χ ± 130 (mm units))
C H A P T E R 12

COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN


12.1 Stresses on an oblique section. Fig. 12.1(a) shows a piece of
material subjected to a tensile force P. If the cross-sectional area is a, the
tensile stress on the cross-section, σ = P/a.

FIG. 12.1

The part CDEF, Fig. 12.1(6), is in equilibrium under the forces acting
upon it, so that the resultant force on CD is equal and opposite to the
applied force P. This can be resolved into normal and tangential com-
ponents, Ν and T, producing direct and shear stresses σ θ and τθ respectively.
The area of the oblique section CD is a sec 0, so that
Ν Ρ cos θ 2
σ cos 0 (12.1)
a sec 0 a sec 0
Τ Psin0
a sin 0 cos 0
α sec 0 α sec 0
σ
= - sin 20 (12.2)

45° 90°
F i a . 12.3

The resultant stress, aI9 Fig. 12.2, is given by σ Γ = Vol + Tq, since each
1
of the stresses acts on the same area, and α = tan- (τ θ /σ β ) (in the simple
case considered, α = 0).
235
236 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The variations in σθ and τθ are shown in Fig. 12.3. σθ has a maximum


value or when θ = 0 and τθ has a maximum value σ/2 when θ = 45°. Thus
any material whose ultimate shear stress is less than half the ultimate
stress in tension (or compression), will fail due to shear when subjected to
a tensile (or compressive) load.
It is usual to work in terms of the applied and induced stresses rather
than forces and to assume the material to be of unit thickness.
12.2 Material subjected to two perpendicular s t r e s s e s . Fig. 12.4
shows an element of a material of unit thickness which is subjected to
perpendicular tensile stresses crx and a y . The wedge ABC is in equilibrium
under the forces acting upon it, so that, resolving forces normal to AC,
aQ X AC = σ χ χ AB cos 0 + ay X BC sin 0
2 2
.". σθ= tfx cos 0 + αγ sin 0
g g y g
= ' + + ' - % 0 B 2 f l . . . (12.3)
λ Δ
The maximum value is σχ or ay, whichever is greater and the minimum
value is σχ or ay, whichever is smaller.
Kesolving forces parallel to AC,
Te X AC = σ χ X AB sin 0 σγ χ BC cos θ
/. τθ = (σ χ — σγ) sin θ cos θ
-sin 2Θ (12.4)

The maximum value is I when θ = 45°

If σχ = <7y, τ / = 0 for all values of θ.

Οχ

Vite

\ c

F i a . 12.5

12.3 Material subjected to shear s t r e s s . I f a material is subjected to


pure shear on one plane, an equal shear stress is induced on the perpendicu-
lar plane to prevent rotation of the element (Art. 1.3) ; such a state is shown
in Fig. 12.5.
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 237
Besolving forces normal to AC,
0 - 0 X AC = τ X AB sin 0 + r X BC cos 0

.·. αθ = τ cos 0 sin 0 + r sin θ cos θ


= r sin 20 (12.5)
The maximum value is τ when 0 = 45°.
Resolving forces parallel to AC,
T ô X AC = — r X AB cos 0 + τ X BC sin 0
2 2
Λ τ β = —r cos 0 + τ sin 0
= —τ cos 20 . (12.6)
The maximum value is τ when 0 = 0 or 90°.
Shear stress induces numerically equal tensile and compressive stresses
on planes at 45° to the planes of the shear stress, as shown in Fig. 12.6.

Ο χ

\c
FIG. 1 2 . 7

12.4 Material subjected to direct a n d shear s t r e s s e s . Fig. 12.7


shows the most general case of stresses in two dimensions, since any system
of stresses in two dimensions can be reduced to this form.
From the combination of previous formulae,

Ü cos 20 + τ sin 20 (12.7)


<TÖ =

+•
and J sin 20 - τ cos 20 (12.8)

άσ0
For ad to be a maximum or minimum, 0
άθ
i.e. - ( ( T x - o y ) sin 20 + 2TCOS 20 = 0
2r
tan 20 = . (12.9)
cr x — σ ν

Hence, from Fig. 12.8, sin 20 = 2 2


(12.10)
V(ax - σγ) + 4 τ
°~χ — °>
and cos 20 = 2 2
(12.11)
V(ax - σγ) + 4 τ
238 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

.'. maximum and minimum values of σ β


_ <^x + <*y _|_ σ χ — ay σχ — ay 2τ
2
+ τ / 2 2
2 ' 2 y/(0x _ ffy)ü + 4 τ \ ( σ χ - try) + 4 r
2
+ σ,) ± V(ff x - ayr + 4τ } . . . . (12.12)

Λ2 1

θ
\
ν
σι V-Λ**

FIG. 1 2 . 8 FIG. 1 2 . 9

The planes upon which these stresses act are given by


-1 2τ -1 2T
Q = \ tan and £ ( t a n -f 180°)

2r
i.e. \ tan + 90°
-

σ χ — σν
Thus the planes of maximum and minimum stress are mutually per-
pendicular; one of these stresses acts on one plane and the other stress acts
on the perpendicular plane. The association between the stresses and
planes is usually evident by considering the equilibrium of the wedge ABC
but when in doubt, a unique solution for θ can be obtained from either of
equations (12.14) and (12.15), Art. 12.5.
Substituting the values of sin 2Θ and cos 2Θ from equations (12.10) and
(12.11) into the expression for τ θ , equation (12.8) gives r e = 0 on these
planes. Such planes are referred to as the principal planes and the direct
stresses acting on them are the principal stresses.
Thus, at any point ia a stressed material, there are always mutually
perpendicular planes upon which the stresses are wholly tensile or com-
pressive and these are respectively the greatest and least direct stresses at
that point.
Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 12.9, where σ1 and a2 are the
principal stresses and θ is the angle given by equation (12.9).
Since this system of stress is identical with that shown in Fig. 12.4, it
follows from equation (12.4) that the maximum shear stress in the body is
given by

^max
α* — σ*, acting on planes at 45° to the principal planes
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 239
2 2
Thus r m ax = Μ { ( σ χ + ay) + V(ax - σ ν ) + 4 τ }
2 2
-«(θχ+tfy) - V ( a x- a y) + 4r }]
2 2
= *V(* X - o- y) + 4 τ (12.13)

12.5 Alternative derivation of principal s t r e s s e s and planes. Since


there is no shear stress on a principal plane, then if AC is such a plane,
Fig. 12.10, the only stress acting on it is the principal stress, σ.

Hence, resolving forces horizontally,


σ X AC cos θ = <rx X AB + τ X BC
a = σ χ + τ tan θ
or a — σχ = τ tan θ . (12.14)

Resolving forces vertically,

a X AC sin θ = σγ χ BC + r X AB
= σΥ + r cot θ

or a — σΎ = χ cot θ (12.15)
FIG. 12.10
2
Thus (σ — σχ)(σ — σΥ) = τ tan θ χ τ cot θ = τ
2 2
from which σ = J{(orx + σ 7 ) ± V(ax - <ry) + 4 τ } (12.16)
σ χ — cry = r(cot θ — tan θ)
= 2τ cot 2Θ

tan 2Θ (12.17)
ον
In the case of one direct stress only,
2
ο = \{σχ ± Val + 4τ ) (12.18)

tan 20 = — (12.19)

2
and r m ax = \Vo\ + 4 τ . (12.20)

12.6 Mohr's S t r e s s Circle. The results derived in Art. 12.2 can be


represented graphically as follows:
From a point 0 , Fig. 12.11, set off OA = σχ and OB = oy Draw a circle
with AB as diameter and set off QC at an angle 2Θ to QA.
+ y x a
Then OQ = ° and QA = - ~ *
240 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

x + ( J
so that OD = ° y + ^ ^ c o s 2 0 = σθ
2 2
a a
and CD = * ~ y in
s 20 = r&
2
The resultant stress is represented by OC and the angle QOC is the angle
which the resultant makes with the normal to the plane.
Fig. 12.11 has been based on the assumption that σχ and σ7 are both
tensile (or compressive). If, however, σ χ is tensile and σΎ is compressive (or
vice versa), the point Ο lies inside the circle, as shown in Fig. 12.12.

FIG. 12.11 FIG. 12.12

In the more general case dealt with in Art. 12.4, set off OA = σ χ , OB = ory
and AM = BN = r, Fig. 12.13. Draw a circle with MN as diameter and
set off QC at an angle 2Θ to QM.

FIG. 12.13
COMPLEX S T R E S S AND STRAIN 241

2 2 y 2
Radius of circle, R = QM = V Q A + AM = ^ / ( * Λ ) + τ

Hence
2
OE = OQ + R = ^ + ^ / ( ^ ) + ^

and OF = OQ - S = - J(^^J^>
J + / S

Thus, by comparison with equations (12.12), OE and OF are the prin-


cipal stresses, στ and cr2.
O D = O Q + Q D = O Q + R cos (2Θ - β)
= O Q + Rcos20 COS/3 + Äsin20 smß

= °-Ξ±^Ι + ^ i Z L ^ c o s 20 + r sin 20 = σβ
2 2
C D = R sin (20 - β) = R sin 20 cos β - R cos 20 sin/S
ο\ — ΟΛ
sin 20 — τ cos 20 = τ β
2
12.7 Combined bending a n d twisting. A common application of
combined stresses is that of a shaft subjected to bending and twisting and
it is often convenient to express the resulting direct and shear stresses
directly in terms of the applied moment and torque.
If the bending moment is M and the torque is T, Fig. 12.14(a), then the

FIG. 12.14

stresses acting on an element on the upper surface are as shown in the


plan view, Fig. 12.14(6) (those on the lower surface are the same, except
that crx is compressive).
From equations (3.4) and (4.2),
Μ Τ
στ = and τ = , assuming a solid shaft.*
32 16
* F o r a hollow shaft of outer a n d inner diameters D a n d d respectively, equations
(12.21) a n d (12.23) become
dA
* * - σι x =i {1 M
1
+ VMÏTTÏ}
1 1 J
and £ ^ Z . * = VM^T^
32 D ~ ""16 D
E q u a t i o n s (12.22) a n d (12.24) are unaffected.
242 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Thus the maximum principal stress, σν is given by


2
*i = Μο-χ + Va* + 4 τ

π d*a = \ { M + V M 2 + T 2 } (12.21)
i.e. x
32
The quantity — d*ax is evidently the equivalent bending moment, i.e.
32
that bending moment which, acting alone, would produce the same maxi-
mum direct stress as M and Τ acting together,
2
i.e. M E= \{M + V M + T} . . (12.22)
2
T W = \Vo\ + 4 τ . . from equation (12.20)

2 2

i.e. ^-d^x = VM + T (12.23)


16

The quantity — π dzi isx evidently the equivalent torque, i.e. that
16
torque which, acting alone, would produce the same maximum shear stress
as M and Τ acting together,
2 2
i.e. TE = V M + T . . . (12.24)
12.8 Principal strains. The principal strains are the strains in the
direction of the principal stresses. If the
principal stresses on an element are σ χ and ay> |
Fig. 12.15,
Οχ

then strain in direction of ax due to o\ = —


x
Ε

and strain in direction of σ χ due to σγ = —ν ~


FIG. 12.15

.'. resultant strain in χ direction, εχ · (12.25)

Similarly, resultant strain in y direction, ey • (12.26)


Ε Ε
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 243
If these strains are measured and it is required to find the corresponding
stresses, then, multiplying equation (12.26) by ν and adding to equation
(12.25),

.:σζ=-^-^εχ+νεγ) 2 . . (12.27)
1— ν
Ε
Similarly, ay = (5e y + v e j . . (12.28)
12.9 Strains on an oblique section. Fig. 12.16 shows an element
ABCD which is subjected to pure strains εχ and £ y , the distorted shape
relative to the point F being shown dotted. The line FG, inclined at 0 to
AB moves to the position FG', the displacements of G in the χ and y
directions being dx and dy respectively.

l'y
FIG. 1 2 . 1 6

Since the movement of G is very small, the distance GG' may be re-
garded as the change in the length of FG, so that the strain on FG,
dr
r
2 2 2
r =x + y
2r dr =
2x dx 2y dy+
dr _
r *W
2
y
2
w
i.e. εχ cos θ + €y sin θ
ε e ε £
— χ ~f" y χ y
cos 20 . (12.29)
2 2
244 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Similarly, it can be shown that the strain on F E is


~f"
g g
x y €
* cos 20
2

tan 0 = -

2 _ χ dy — y dx
.·. sec 0 d0

dy y dx y
y sc x x
(εγ — εχ) tan 0
d0 = (ey — εχ) sin 0 cos 0

^ s i n 20

The negative sign indicates that when ε χ > sy, as assumed in Fig. 12.16,
the angle 0 decreases.
A similar analysis on the triangle AFE shows that F E also rotates
through the same angle as FG, so that the total change in the right angle
EFG is 2 d0. This is the shear strain in directions inclined at angle 0 to the
faces of ABCD,
i.e. φθ = (εχ - ey) sin 20 . . . (12.30)
Equations (12.29) and (12.30) are similar to equations (12.3) and (12.4)
and they can therefore be represented by a similar graphical construction.
Fig. 12.17 shows Mohr's strain circle, in which OA represents ε χ , OB
represents εγ and the angle AQC is 20. Then OD and CD represent re-
spectively ε θ and φβ/2.

Fio. 12.17

12.10 Electric resistance strain g a u g e s . The strain on the surface of


a stressed body is usually determined by an electric resistance strain gauge,
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 245
which consists of a piece of fine wire, bent as shown in Fig. 12.18 and
firmly fixed to a paper backing. The gauge is cemented to the surface to
be investigated and distortion of the body in the direction of the axis of
the gauge then produces corresponding distortion in the length and cross-
section of the wire, which affects its electrical resistance.
This change is registered by a Wheatstone Bridge arrangement, Fig.
12.19; a 'dummy' gauge, identical with the 'active' gauge, is attached to a
piece of the same material and kept in close proximity with the body under
test so that the effect of changes of resistance due to temperature variation
are eliminated.
The active and dummy gauges are represented by resistances R2 and R3
respectively, Rx is a variable resistance and Ä 4 is a fixed resistance. When
the active gauge is unstrained and no current is passing through the
galvanometer, R1 is equal to 224.
When the active gauge is strained, the galvanometer is balanced by
means of the variable resistance and then
R2 R,
R» R,
R9 R3 Ri — Ä 4
or (12.31)
R» «4

i.e. fractional change in gauge resistance = fractional change in RA

Active Dummy
gauge gauge

Battery
Fio. 12.18 Fio. 12.19

fractional chance in gauge resistance .


The ratio is called the qauqe factor.
fractional change in length of wire
If R is the resistance of the wire, I is its length, d is its diameter and ρ
is the specific resistance of the material, then
246 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

log R = log - + log ρ log I — 2 log d


71

. (LR
Ë!_ 2 —
" Ä~ Ρ Τ d
deZ dl
But ν
1 - Ί
dR
"~R ρ
Therefore the gauge factor,
AR /dl
*/ 1 =
{ 1+ 2 V )+
dp dl
ρ ι I
If ρ is a constant, the gauge factor is (1 + 2v) but by experimental
(12.32)

calibration, it is usually about 30 per cent greater, implying that ρ changes.


12.11 Determination of principal strains. From equations (12.29),
£v — ε* cos 2Θ
ε =
+
= m + η cos 20 where m = and

Thus, to determine the magnitude and direction of the principal strains


(i.e. ε χ , εγ and 0), it is necessary to have three values of ε, measured in
different directions. This is achieved in practice by using three strain
gauges stuck on to the surface to be investigated and Figs. 12.20(a) and (b)
show two common arrangements, referred to as strain rosettes.

F i a . 12.20

Fig. 12.20(a) is a 45° rosette. I f one of the principal planes is inclined


at 0 to the axis of gauge 1, then
8 l = m + η cos 20 (12.33)
ε2 = m + η cos 2(0 + 45°) = m — η sin 20 . (12.34)
and ε 3 = m + η cos 2(0 + 90°) = m - η cos 20 . (12.35)
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 247
Fig. 12.20(6) is a 120° rosette. If one of the principal planes is inclined
at 0 to the axis of gauge 1, then
ex = m + η cos 20 (12.36)

ε2 = m + η cos 2(0 + 120°) £ cos 20 + ^ sin 20 (12.37)

V3n .
and ε 3 = m + η cos 2(0 + 240°) = m — - cos 20 — sin 20 (12.38)
2 2
In each case, the equations obtained are sufficient to determine m, η and
0 ; then ε χ = m + η and e y = m — η.
1. ^4 cylindrical vessel, 300 mm external diameter, wall thickness 3 mm, is
subjected to an axial tensile force of 100 kN and an internal pressure of
2
3-5 MN/m . Determine the normal and shear stresses on a plane making an
angle of 30° with the axis of the cylinder. (U. Lond.)

100 kN A 100kN σ-χ Οχ

60°

U Oy

FIG. 12.21

From equations (1.7) and (1.9),


t)d Tod
oc = — and σι= —, where d is the internal diameter
2i 4*
The longitudinal stress due to the axial load is given by
ρ
a = , where D is the mean diameter
nDt
Thus, in Fig. 12.21,
3
3-5 χ ΙΟ χ 0-294
6
100 χ 10 2 2
N/m = 121-5 MN/m
σ· χ =
4 X 0-003 + π X 0-297 χ 0-003
3-5 Χ ΙΟ X 0-294 N/m 2 = 171-5 MN/m 2
6

2 X 0-003
a n d
°*
Therefore, from equations (12.3) and (12.4),
121-5 + 171-5 , 121-5 - 171-5 cos 120° = 159 MN/m 2

l 2
and — — sin 120° = - 2 1 - 7 MN/m
248 STRENGTH OF MATERTALS

2. At a point in the cross-section of a loaded beam, the major principal stress


2 2
is 140 Ν/mm tension and the maximum shear stress is 80 Ν/mm . Using
cither graphical or analytical methods, determine for this point, (a) the magni-
tude of the minor principal stress, (b) the magnitude of the direct stress on the
plane of maximum shear stress, (c) the state of stress on a plane making an
angle of 30° with the plane of the major principal tensile stress. (I. O.E.)
(Τχ — <7y
. from equation (12.4)

140 - σν 2

i.e. 80 = -20 N/mm (i.e. compressive)

For maximum shear, θ = 45°, Fig. 12.22.

\ < 4 5 °

3 0 ° \ \ \ >/°450 Οχ
v^max
\*30°\

FIG. 12.22 FIG. 12.23

orx + σγ
--^cos 20 from equation (12.3)
σ4 ο
5 =
+
140 - 20 2
= 60 N/mm

When 30°,
140 20 . 140 + 20 2

σ 3 0° = cos 60° = 100 N/mm


2
140 + 20 2
Γ
30°
:
sin 60° = 69-3 N/mm

Graphical Solution
2
Set off OA = 140 N/mm , Fig. 12.23.

The maximum shear stress, is the radius of the circle,


2

i.e. QA = 80 N/mm
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 249
Then minor principal stress, ay = OB
2
= 20 N/mm (—vc)
Set off QCi = 2 χ 45° = 90°
and QC2 = 2 X 30° = 60°
2
Then 5 =
<7 4 o OQ = 6 0 N/mm
2
a3 o0 = OD = 100 N/mm
2
and τ3 ο0 = C 2D = 69-3 N/mm

3. At a point in a stressed material, the normal (tensile) and shear stresses


2 2
on a certain plane XX are 95 N/mm and 65 N/mm respectively. The tensile
2
stress on the plane of maximum shear is 55 N/mm .
Find (a) the principal stresses, (b) the maximum shear stress, (c) the direction
of the plane XX relative to the plane on which the major principal stress acts.
Illustrate your answer to (c) by a sketch. (U. Lond.)
From equation (12.3),
0χ + °V ι Οχ — ^σcν o s 20
σ
ο = —τ,— -r -
and from equation (12.4)
r
το- . sin 20
σ
χ ~h Oy
Let m —
y and η =
2
Then 95 = m + η cos 20 . (1)
65 = η sin 20 . . (2)
and 55 = m + η cos 2x45°
= m . . (3) 45°
.". η cos 20 = 40 55
2 2
.'. η = V 6 5 + 40 = 76-3
m+ η
2
= 131-3 N/mm
and ay = m — η
= - 2 1 - 3 N/mm
2
X

6 5
tan 20 = = 1-625
40 FIG. 1 2 . 2 4
Λ 20 = 58° 24' .·. 0 = 29° 12'
The position of X X in relation to σχ is shown in Fig. 12.24.
NOTE. If η is taken as the negative root, σχ = —21-3 and ay = 131-3
2
N/mm . Sin 20 and cos 20 are then both negative, so that 20 lies in the
third quadrant. Thus 0 = 119° 12' and Fig. 12.24 merely becomes turned
anticlockwise through 90°.
250 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

4. A thin cylindrical tube, 75 mm internal diameter and wall thickness


2
5 mm, is closed at the ends and subjected to an internal pressure of 6-6 MN/m .
A torque o/l-6 kNm is also applied to the tube. Determine the maximum and
minimum principal stresses and also the maximum shearing stress in the
wall of the tube. (U. Lond.

-1

(a)

FIG. 1 2 . 2 5

Referring to Fig. 12.25,


pd _ 5-5 Χ ΙΟ X 0-075
6
2 2
0% = N/m = 20-6 MN/m
4 χ 0-005
pd 2
ay = '— = 41-2 MN/m
2l
Since the tube is thin,
torque
mean shear stress :
mean radius X cross-sectional area
3
1-6 Χ 10 2
i.e τ = = 31-8 MN/m
0-04 χ π X 0-08 χ 0-005
Therefore, from Art. 12.4

<r = K(<Vf *y)± ν ( σ - σ ) + 4 τ }


χ γ
2 2
2 2
= Μ(20·6+41·2)±\/(20·6-41·2) +4χ31·8 }
2
= 64-3 and - 2 - 5 MN/m
1 2r 1 2 x 3 1 8
2Θ = tan- = tan- ' = 180°-72° 4' and 360°-72° 4'
ay 20-6-41-2
θ = 53° 58' and 143° 58'
! - σ 2 _ 64-3-(-2-5)
^max
2 2
2
= 33-4 MN/m acting on planes at 45° to the principal planes.
The relation of the derived stresses to the applied stresses is shown in
Fig. 12.25(6).
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 251
5. A right-angled triangle ABC with the right-angle at C represents planes
2
in an elastic material. There are shearing stresses of 45 N/mm acting along
the planes AC and CB towards C, and normal tensile stresses on AC and CB
2 2
of 75 N/mm and 60 N/mm respectively. There is no stress on the plane
perpendicular to planes AC and CB.
Determine the positions of the plane AB when the resultant stress on AB has
(a) the greatest magnitude, (b) the least magnitude, (c) the greatest component
normal to AB, (d) the greatest tangential component along AB, (e) the least
inclination to AB.
Analytical or graphical methods may be used; in the case of a graphical
solution, indicate how the diagrams are constructed. State for each plane found,
its angular position relative to AC and the magnitude of the stress referred to.
(U. Lond.)
Ν C

FIG. 1 2 . 2 6
2 2
From Art. 12.6, OA = 75 N/mm , OB = 60 N/mm , AM = BN = 45
2
N/mm , Fig. 12.26. The circle is then drawn with MN as diameter.
(a) Maximum resultant stress = maximum principal stress,
2
OE = 113-2 N/mm
Angle MQE = 80° 30'
.·. 0 = 40° 15'
(b) Minimum resultant stress : : minimum principal stress,
2
O F : : 21-9 N/mm
: 260° 30'
Angle MQF = : 130° 15'
maximum principal stress
(c) Greatest component stress on AB = 113-2 N/mm 2
2
QC = 45-6 N/mm
(d) Maximum shear stress =
170° 30'
Angle MQC = 85° 15'
.". 0 =
252 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

(e) For the least inclination to AB, α is a maximum ; this occurs when the
resultant stress is tangential to the circle.
2
Resultant stress = OC = 8 1 4 N/mm .
Angle MQC = 213° Λ θ = 106° 30'.

6. At a point on the surface of a solid circular shaft of 150 mm diameter


subjected to combined bending and torsion, the principal stresses are 120
2 2
MN/m tension and 40 MN/m compression. Find the bending moment and
torque.
2
If the maximum shearing stress in the material is limited to 100 MN/m ,
find by how much the torque can be increased, the bending moment remaining
constant. (U. Lond.)
π 3 2 2
From equation (12.21), — d a = \{M ± VM + T }
32
3 6 2 2
i.e. — χ 0-15 X 120 χ 10 = \{M + VM + T}

- — Χ 0·15 X 40 χ 10 = \{M - VM + T }
3 e 2 2
and
32
.·. M = 26-5 kN m and Τ = 46 kN m
2 2
From equation (12.23), — dh = VM + T
16
— χ 0·15 χ 100 χ ΙΟ = V(26-5 χ ΙΟ ) + Τ Ν m
3 6 3 2 2
i.e.
16
from which Τ = 60-8 kN m
.'. increase in torque = 60-8 — 46 = 14-8 kN m

7. A propeller shaft of a ship is 0-45 m diameter and it supports a propeller


of mass 151. The propeller can be considered as a load concentrated at the end
of a cantilever of length 2 m. The propeller is driven at 100 rev/min when the
speed of the ship is 32 km/h. If the engine develops 15 MW, calculate the
principal stresses in the shaft and the maximum shear stress. It may be assumed
that the propulsive efficiency of the propeller is 85 per cent. (I.Mech.E.)
At the bearing, Fig. 12.27(a),
= 294-3 kN m

1-433 MN m

Engine power where Ρ is the propulsive force

= 1-435 MN
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 253

Οχ

(b)

FIG. 12.27
Direct stress due to bending

32
I
3
_ 294-3 χ ΙΟ χ 32 2 2
1 N/m 32-9 MN/m
π Χ 0-45
Direct stress due to end thrust

6
_ 1-435 χ ΙΟ χ 4 2 2
2
N/m = 9-02 MN/m
π Χ 0-45
Λ total direct stress,*
2

σ χ = 32-9 + 9-02 - 41-92 MN/m


Shear stress due to torque,

I 16
6
1-433 x 1Q x 16 2 2
3 N/m = 80 MN/m
π Χ 0-45
The stresses on an element on the upper surface of the shaft at the
bearing are therefore as shown in Fig. 12.27(6), these being the greatest
applied stresses in the shaft.
From equation (12.18),
2
σ = *{σ χ ± Val + 4 τ }
2 2
= £{41-92 ± V41-92 + 4 χ 80 }
2
= 103-7 and - 6 1 - 8 MN/m
103-7 - (-61-8)
^max —
2 2
2
= 82-75 MN/m
* Note that these stresses act in the same direction and do not represent σ χ and σ 7.
254 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

8. At a point in a piece of stressed material, the normal stress on a certain


2 2
plane is 90 N/mm tension and the shearing stress on this plane is 30 N/mm .
On a plane inclined at 60° to the first-named plane, there is a tensile stress of
2
60 N/mm .
Calculate (a) the principal stresses at the point, (b) the intensity of shearing
2
stress on the plane having the 60 N/mm normal stress, (c) the position of the
principal planes revive to the given planes, and show the relative positions in
a clear diagram. (U. Lond.)

As in Example 3,
ov m + η cos 20
and η sin 20
te-

where σχ + σ ν
rn — and

90 = m + η cos 20 (1)
30 = η sin 20 (2)
and
60 = m + η cos 2(0 + 60°)

= m V 3 sin 20^
η(- cos 20 + —

120 = 2m - η cos 20 — Van sin 20. (3)


From equations (1), (2) and (3),
2
m = 87-32 N/mm

60^
2
η = 30-12 N/mm
and 0 = 42° 27'
from which CTeo 0

σχ= 117-44 N/mm


2
• 90 Οχ

and \\30
2
oy = 57-14 N/mm
2
On the plane of the 60 N/mm
normal stress,
r = 30-12 sin 2(42° 27' + 60°)
= -12-68 N/mm
2

FIG. 122.8
The positions of the various planes are shown in Fig. 12.28. The negative
sign for τ indicates that this stress is in the opposite direction to that
shown in the diagram.
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 255

9. At a point in a material under two-dimensional stress, the normal


stresses, all tensile, on three planes are as follows:
2
Plane Inclination to plane A Stress (N/mm )
A 0° 97
Β 45° 133
C 90° 27
Find (a) the shearing stresses on planes A, Β and C, (b) the principal
stresses and the inclination to plane A of the planes on which they act, (c) the
maximum shearing stress, (d) the inclination to plane A of the plane on which
the normal stress is zero.
Show by a sketch the relative positions of the various planes. (U. Lond.)
As in Example 3, σθ = m + η cos 20
0* 4- 0 * vy -ι G?x — OV
where m = xx and n—
x y

2 2
Λ 97 = m + η cos 20 (1)
133 = m + η cos 2(0 + 45°) = m — η sin 20 . (2)
and 27 = m + n cos 2(0 + 90°) = m - η cos 20 . (3)
Adding (1) and (3), 2m = 124
or m = 62
Λ η sin 20 = - 7 1
and η cos 20 = 35
2 2
.'. η = V 7 1 + 35 = 79-2, assuming the positive root*
2
Λ <rx = 62 + 79-2 = 141-2 N/mm
2
and CTy = 62 - 79-2 = - 1 7 - 2 N/mm

tan 20 = —71
35 = -2-028
Since η has been assumed positive, sin 20 is negative and cos 20 is posi-
tive, hence 20 lies in the 4th quadrant.
/ . 20 = 360 - 63° 46' = 296° 14'
or 0 = 148° V
χ = η sin 20
2
When 0 = 148° Τ τ = 79-2 sin 296° 14' = - 7 1 N/mm
2
When 0 = 193° Τ χ = 79-2 sin 386° 14' = 35 N/mm
2
When 0 = 238° 7', r = 79-2 sin 476° 14' = 71 N/mm
* I f η is assumed negative, σ χ and σ7 are interchanged. Sin 2Θ becomes positive and
cos 2Θ negative, so that 20 lies in the 2nd quadrant, giving θ = 58° 7'. Thus the stresses
on any given plane are unaffected and the notation merely becomes altered, σ χ being
associated with θ and σγ with θ ± 90° in either case.
256 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
Tmax = 79-2 N/mm
When σθ = 0, 62 + 79-2 cos 20 = 0
from which 0 = 90° ± 19° W
The relative positions of the various planes are as shown in Fig. 12.29.

Principal
planes

Planes of z e r o
direct s t r e s s
FIG. 1 2 . 2 9

10. In order to determine the principal stresses at a point is a structural


member, two strain gauges are fixed, their directions being at 30° to the known
directions of the principal stresses. The measured strains in these two directions
are + 4 5 5 X 10~ and —32 χ 10~ respectively. If Ε = 200 GN/m and
6 6 2

ν — 0-3, find the magnitudes of the principal stresses. (U. Lond.)


From equation (12.29),

2 ^ 2
m + η cos 20
εχ + ε
where and η =
η
Λ +455 Χ 1 0 - = m + η cos 60°
β
ι
= m Α—
2
η
—32 χ 10~ = m + η cos 240° = m — -
β
and
2
6 β
= 211-5 χ ΙΟ" and η = 487 χ 10~
= 698-5 χ 10-« and εγ = -275-5 χ 10~
β
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 257
Ε
(εχ + νεγ) . . from equation (12.27)
9
200 χ 10
0-3 χ 275-5) X 10~ N/m
6 2
2 (698-5 -
1 - 0-3
2
135-5 MN/m
Ε
;(c y + νεχ)
9
200 ν 10
(-275-5+0-3Χ 698-5) χ 10-« N/m
a
=
1 — yJ'à
2
= —14-45 MN/m (i.e. compressive).
The positions of the gauges relative to the principal planes are shown in
Fig. 12.30.

3,

FIG. 1 2 . 3 0 FIG. 1 2 . 3 1

11. In a strain rosette experiment, the three strain gauge measurements


β 6
taken over a small area were: εΌ° = 400 X 10~ , ε 3 ο0 = 150 χ 10~ ,
β
ε 7 5, = - 4 0 χ 1 0 " .
What reading would have been recorded had a strain gauge been placed at
45° to the 0° line?
The positions of the gauges are shown in Fig. 12.31
As in Example 10, εθ = m + η cos 2Θ
where m = and
2 2
6
\ 400 Χ ΙΟ- : m + η cos 20 (1)
β
150 χ 1 0 - : m + η cos 2(0 + 30°)
= m + ^(cos 20 - \ / 3 sin 20) . (2)
6
-40 χ ΙΟ" = m + η cos 2(0 + 75°)
= — !!(V3 cos 20 +
m sin 20) . (3)
258 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Multiplying equation (3) by λ/3 and subtracting from equation (2),


6
219-25 Χ ΙΟ" = -0-732m + 2n cos 20 . . (4)
Subtracting equation (4) from equation (1) multiplied by 2,
6 -6
580-75 Χ 1 0 - = 2-732m Λ m = 213 Χ Ι Ο
Therefore equations (2) and (3) reduce to
6
n(cos 20 - V 3 sin 20) = - 1 2 5 X 10~
and n(Vs cos 2Θ + sin 20) = 505 Χ 1 0 "
6

Squaring both sides and adding,


2 12 β
η X 4 = 270,625 χ ΙΟ" Λ η = 260 χ 10~
Therefore equation (1) becomes
6 6 β
400 χ ΙΟ" = 213 x 1 0 - + 260 χ 1 0 " cos 20
from which 20 = 44°
6 β
Λ ε 4 5ο = 213 χ ΙΟ" + 260 χ 10~ cos (44° + 90°)
= 32 χ ΙΟ-*
12· A closed-ended steel pressure vessel of 2-5 m diameter and a plate thick-
ness of 20 mm has electric resistance strain gauges on the outer surface in the
circumferential and axial directions. These gauges have a resistance of 200
2
ohms and a gauge factor of 2-09. When the pressure is raised to 10 MN/m ,
the change of resistance is 1-065 ohms for the circumferential gauge and 0-265
ohms for the axial gauge.
Working from first principles, calculate the value of Young's modulus and
Poisson's ratio. (I.Mech.E.)
From Art. 12.10, gauge factor = — / —
R / I
. (Lff 1
/ . stram
x
= — χ
R gauge factor
1-065
.·. circumferential stram, ec — = 0-002 55
200 χ 2-09
and longitudinal strain, et — o r v? ^ _ = 0-000 633
2 0 0 X 2*09
10 1 0
From Art. 1.6, c
g ^ >< * * ™ N / m z = 6 25 M N / s
m 1
2i 2 χ O02 '
σ 3 1 2 2
and ι = ΊΓ= ' 5 MN/m
2
e 6
ac — νσι 625 X 10 — ν χ 312-5 χ ΙΟ
:.ec = — F - = . . (1)
e 6
, σι- νσ0 312-5 χ 10 - ν χ 625 χ ΙΟ
a n d £ l
= = 2
~ ^ Ë — Ε * * ()
2
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2), Ε = 210 GN/m and ν = 0-287
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 259
13. A cylindrical boiler shell 1*5 m diameter is made of plates 10 m m thick.
F i n d the normal, shear and resultant stresses on a plane inclined a t 6 0 ° t o a line
2
on the surface parallel with the boiler axis, when the internal pressure is 1 ·5 M N / m .
Derive any formulae used. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 70-31 M N / m ; 24-35 M N / m ; 74-4 M N / m )
2
14. The principal stresses a t a point in a material are 3 0 N / m m tension and
2
5 0 N / m m tension. Working from first principles, determine, for a plane inclined
a t 4 0 ° t o the plane on which the latter stress a c t s : (a) the magnitude and angle
of obliquity of the resultant stress; (b) t h e normal and tangential component
stresses. (U. Lond.) ι
2 2 2
(Ans.: 42-8 N / m m a t 13° 1 8 ' t o normal stress; 41-73 N / m m ; ^ 8 5 N / m m )

15. The principal stresses a t a point in a bar under two-dimensional stress are
2 2
8 0 M N / m tension and 5 0 M N / m compression. Calculate from first principles
the resultant stress on a plane inclined a t 30° t o the line of action of the tensile
stress and show its direction by means of a sketch. ( U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 5 9 M N / m a t 72° 4 5 ' t o normal)

16. Draw and describe Mohr's Circle of Stress and prove t h a t it m a y be used
t o represent the state of stress a t a point within a stressed material. Illustrate
your answer by sketches.
If, a t a point within a material, the minimum and m a x i m u m principal stresses
2 2
are 2 0 N / m m and 6 0 N / m m respectively (both tension), determine the shearing
stress and normal stress on a plane passing through the point and making a n
-1
angle of t a n 0-25 with the plane on which the m a x i m u m principal stress acts.
2 2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 9-4 N / m m ; 57-7 N / m m )
2 2
17. Direct stresses of 8 0 M N / m tension and 6 0 M N / m compression are applied
t o an elastic material a t a certain point, on planes a t right angles t o one another.
2
The greater principal stress in the material is limited t o 100 M N / m tension. T o
what shearing stress m a y the material be subjected on the given planes and what
will then be the m a x i m u m shearing stress a t the point? W o r k from first principles.
2 2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 56-56 M N / m ; 9 0 M N / m )

18. I n a piece of stressed material there are two planes perpendicular t o one
2
another on which the direct stresses are respectively 8 0 N / m m tension and
2 2
4 5 N / m m compression. I n addition there is a shearing stress of 5 0 N / m m on
these planes. Working entirely from first principles, calculate the principal stresses
a n d draw a clear diagram t o show t h e principal planes relative t o the given planes.
W h a t is t h e m a x i m u m shearing stress and where does it act? (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans. + 9 7 - 5 N / m m ; - 6 2 - 5 N / m m ; 19° 1 8 ' and 109° 18' t o plane of 4 5 N / m m
2
stress; 8 0 N / m m a t 4 5 ° t o principal stresses)

19. I n a piece of material a tensile stress ax and a shearing stress τ a c t on a given


plane. Show t h a t the principal stresses are always of opposite sign.
I f an additional tensile stress σ 2 acts on a plane perpendicular t o t h a t on which
ax a c t s and all the stresses are co-planar, find the condition t h a t both principal
2
stresses m a y be of the same sign. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: σχσ2 > τ )

2 0 . On a plane P Q passing through a point in a piece of steel subjected t o plane


2 a
stress there is a tensile stress of 6 0 M N / m and a shearing stress of 4 0 M N / m .
2
On a plane a t 4 5 ° t o P Q there is a tensile stress of 120 M N / m and an undetermined
shearing stress.
Working from first principles or proving a n y formula used, find: (a) the values
of the principal stresses a t the point; (b) the value of the m a x i m u m shearing
260 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

stress; (c) the position of the principal planes relative t o P Q (illustrating with a
2
diagram); (d) the values of the principal strains, ν = 0-3 and Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m .
(U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 267-6 M N / m ; 52-4 M N / m ; 107-6 M N / m ; 79° 6' and 10° 5 4 ' ;
3 3
1-26 χ 1 0 - ; 0-14 χ 1 0 ~ )
2 1 . On a certain plane in a piece of stressed material there is a tensile stress o f
2 2
100 N / m m and a shearing stress of 5 5 N / m m . On a plane making 30° (measured
2
anti-clockwise) to this plane there is a tensile stress of 2 0 N / m m , and an un-
determined shearing stress. F i n d the position of the principal planes and the
magnitude of the principal stresses. (U. Lond.)
2 3
(Ans.: 69° 5 4 ' and 159° 5 4 ' ; + 1 2 0 - 3 N / m m ; - 4 9 - 7 N / m m )
2 2 . A thin cylindrical tube with closed ends has an internal diameter of 5 0 m m
and a wall thickness of 2-5 mm. The tube is axially loaded in tension with a load
of 10 kN and is subjected to an axial torque of 5 0 0 N m while under an internal
2
pressure of 6 M N / m . Determine the m a x i m u m and minimum principal stresses
on the outer surface of the tube and the maximum shear stress. Indicate on a
diagram of the tube the directions in which these stresses a c t . (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 103-3 M N / m ; 10-98 M N / m ; 57-13 M N / m ; 4 3 ° 14' to axis)

2 3 . I f a shaft having a diameter of 100 m m is subjected t o a bending moment


of 6-5 kN m in addition t o the torque which it transmits, find the m a x i m u m torque
2
allowable if the direct stress in the shaft is not to exceed 75 M N / m and the shear-
2
ing stress is not t o exceed 5 0 M N / m . State clearly which of the two limiting
stresses is reached and determine the maximum value of the other stress.
2
(U. Land.) (Ans.: 5-0^2 kN m ( m a x . direct stress); 41-9 M N / m )
24. A hollow shaft of 2 0 0 mm outside diameter and 125 m m bore is subjected
simultaneously to a bending moment of 4 3 k N m and a torque of 6 5 kN m.
Calculate the m a x i m u m bending stress and the m a x i m u m torsional shearing
stress. Hence find directly, without determining the principal stresses, the maxi-
mum shearing stress in the shaft. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2
(Ans.: 64-6 M N / m ; 48-8 M N / m ; 58-6 M N / m )
2 5 . A flywheel of mass 5 0 0 kg is mounted on a shaft 8 0 m m in diameter and
midway between bearings 0-6 m apart, in which the shaft m a y be assumed to be
directionally free. I f the shaft is transmitting 30 k W a t 360 rev/min, calculate the
principal stresses and the maximum shearing stresses in the shaft a t the ends of
a vertical and a horizontal diameter in a plane close t o t h a t of the flywheel.
(U. Lond).
2 2 2 2
(Ans.: 18-1 M N / m ; 10-78 M N / m ; 7-9 M N / m ; 7-9 M N / m (not allowing for
2
direct shear stress, which amounts t o 0-65 M N / m ) )
2 6 . F i n d the dimensions of a hollow steel shaft, internal diameter = 0-6 χ ex-
ternal diameter, to transmit 150 k W a t a speed of 2 5 0 r e v / m i n if the shearing
2
stress is not t o exceed 70 M N / m .
I f a bending moment of 2-7 k N m is now applied to the shaft, find the speed a t
which it must be driven t o transmit the same power for the same value of the
maximum shearing stress. ( U. Lond.) (Ans. : 78-2 m m ; 46-9 m m ; 2 8 3 r e v / m i n )
27. In a circular shaft subjected to an axial twisting moment Τ and a bending
moment M, show t h a t when Μ = 1-2 Τ, the ratio of the maximum shearing stress
t o the greater principal stress is approximately 0-566. (U. Lond.)
2 8 . A shaft of solid circular cross-section is subjected simultaneously t o a torque
Τ and a pure bending moment M. A t a point on the circumference of the shaft the
m a x i m u m principal stress is numerically 4 times the minimum principal stress.
COMPLEX STRESS AND STRAIN 261
Determine the ratio Μ : Τ and the angle between the plane of the maximum
principal stress and the plane of the bending stress. (I.O.E.)
(Ans.: I; 26° 20')

29. A hollow steel shaft 100 m m external diameter and 5 0 m m internal diameter
transmits 6 0 0 k W a t 5 0 0 r e v / m i n and is subjected t o an end thrust of 5 0 kN.
F i n d what bending moment m a y be safely applied to the shaft if the greater
2
principal stress is not to exceed 100 M N / m .
W h a t will then be the value of the smaller principal stress? ( U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 4-85 kN m; 38-85 M N / m tension)

30. A hollow steel shaft 9 0 m m external diameter and 2 0 m m thick transmits


2 0 0 k W a t 2 5 0 r e v / m i n and is subjected t o an axial thrust of 5 0 k N in addition
t o a bending moment M. Determine the value of M if the greater principal stress
2
is limited t o 100 M N / m . W h a t is then the value of the smaller principal stress?
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 3-48 k N m ; 34-8 M N / m tension)

31. A solid shaft 120 m m diameter transmits 6 0 0 k W a t 3 0 0 r e v / m i n . I t is also


subjected t o a bending moment of 10 k N m and t o an end thrust. I f the m a x i m u m
2
principal stress is limited t o 8 0 M N / m , determine the permissible end thrust.
Determine the position of the plane in which the principal stress a c t s and draw
a diagram showing the position of the plane relative t o the torque and the plane
of the bending moment applied t o the shaft. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 107 k N ; 60° 3 8 ' t o axis)

32. A shaft of 2 0 0 m m diameter transmits 2 M W a t 2 5 0 r e v / m i n and is sub-


jected t o a bending moment of 5 0 k N m. Calculate the m a x i m u m permissible
2
end thrust on the shaft if the m a x i m u m shearing stress must not exceed 80 M N / m .
(U.Lond.) (Ans.:2MN)

33. Determine the principal stresses for a piece of material, subjected t o a pure
shearing stress plus a simple direct stress.
A hollow circular shaft 2 0 0 m m external diameter and 100 m m internal diameter
is subjected to a direct compression load of 7 5 0 kN, a bending moment of 4 5 k N m
and a twisting moment of 6 5 kN m. Calculate the m a x i m u m principal stress and
the m a x i m u m shearing stress. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 110-7 M N / m ; 64-2 M N / m )

34. A metal cylinder 4 5 0 m m long, 2 3 0 m m outside diameter and 2 1 5 m m inside


diameter, is subjected to internal pressure and a t the same time t o an axial torque
of 4 0 k N m. F i n d the greatest internal pressure which can be applied if the maxi-
2
mum shearing stress is not t o exceed 9 0 M N / m . Treat as a thin cylinder.
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 16-3 M N / m )

35. A thin tube 5 0 m m diameter and 1-5 m m thick has an axial pull of 2 0 kN
and an axial torque of 2 5 0 Ν m applied t o it. Working from first principles, find
the magnitude and direction of the principal stresses a t a n y point in the external
surface. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: + 1 0 2 - 4 M N / m ; - 1 7 - 5 4 M N / m ; 2 2 ° 3 0 ' and 112° 3 0 ' t o axis)

36. A timber beam, 3 0 0 m m deep by 150 m m wide, is simply supported on a


span of 4 m and carries a point load of 10 k N a t the centre of the span. A t a point
7 5 m m above the underside of the beam and a t a distance of 1 m from the left-hand
support the grain of the timber has a slope of 1 vertical t o 3 horizontal, upwards
t o the right. Determine the shearing stress acting along the grain. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 0-433 M N / m )
262 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

37. A beam of rectangular section 5 0 m m wide and 150 m m deep is subjected


a t a certain section, t o a bending moment which produces a m a x i m u m bending
2
stress of 120 M N / m , and a shearing force which produces a maximum shearing
2
stress of 4 8 M N / m . The bending moment produces compressive stress above the
neutral axis. Find the value of the tensile principal stress a t the neutral axis and
at distances of 2 5 m m , 5 0 m m and 7 5 m m above and below the neutral axis.
Plot on square paper a graph showing how the tensile principal stress varies
2
across the section. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0 , 8-1, 27-2, 4 8 , 67-2, 88-L, 120 M N / m )
38. Prove t h a t , if ε χ and ey are the strains in the directions of the principal
stresses, the strain in a direction a t an angle θ with t h a t of ε χ is

2
The principal stresses a t a point in a material are 160 and 4 0 M N / m , both
2
tensile. I f Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and ν = 0-28, find the strain in a direction inclined
at 30° t o t h a t of the greater principal stress.
Also find in what direction the strain is zero. (U. Lond.)
3
(Ans.: 0-552 χ Ι Ο " : 79° 5 0 ' to ε*)
39. Prove t h a t , in a two-dimensional stress system, if ε χ and ey are the strains
in two perpendicular directions, the normal stresses in these directions are given
by:

±5y means οί strain gauges the strams m two perpendicular directions a t 30 t o


e e
the directions of the principal stresses are found t o be 4 2 5 X 1 0 ~ and 82 X 1 0 ~
respectively, both tensile. F i n d the normal stresses in the direction of the measured
2
strams, and also the principal stresses. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; ν = 0-3. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 98-8 and 4 6 M N / m ; 125-2 and 19-6 M N / m )
40. In a two-dimensional strain system the following readings were taken in a
- 3 - 3 - 3
rectangular strain rosette : εο° = 0-4 χ Ι Ο ; €45° = 0-4 χ Ι Ο ; εοο° = 0-1 χ Ι Ο .
Determine the magnitudes and the directions of the principal strains.
2
I f Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and ν = 0-3, find the principal stresses. (U. Lond.)
3 3
(Ans.: 0-462 l x l O " , 0-037 9 x l 0 " ; 67° 3 0 ' and 157° 3 0 ' t o ε 0; 104 and
2
38-85 M N / m )
41. A rosette of three strain gauges on the surface of a metal plate under stress
gave the following strain readings: No. 1 a t 0 ° , + 0 - 0 0 0 5 9 2 ; No. 2 a t 4 5 ° ,
+ 0 - 0 0 0 3 0 8 ; No. 3 a t 9 0 ° , - 0 - 0 0 0 4 3 2 , the angles being measured anti-clockwise
from gauge No. 1. Determine the magnitude of the principal strains and their
directions relative t o the axis of gauge No. 1.
2
I f Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and ν = J , find the principal stresses.
Prove any formula used. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: + 0 - 0 0 0 6 4 , - 0 - 0 0 0 4 8 ; 168°, 7 8 ° ; + 1 0 9 M N / m , - 6 3 - 3 M N / m )
42. A rosette of strain gauges is fixed t o a structural member. When the
member is loaded in a certain way readings are obtained as follows :
Gauge No. Direction relative t o Gauge No. 1 Strain
e
1 0° +425 χ 10-
e
2 45° +542 χ 10-
e
3 90° + 82 χ 1 0 -
2
I f Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and ν = 0-3, find the magnitude of the principal stresses
and their directions relative t o the axis of gauge No. 1. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 124 M N / m , 20-8 M N / m ; 150° 2 3 ' , 60° 2 3 ' )
C H A P T E R 13

ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

13.1 Relation between E, G and v. Fig. 13.1(a) snows a square element


of a material which is subjected to pure shear stress τ and Fig. 13.1(6)
shows the distorted shape which the element will assume.

D CC

F m . 13.1

As shown in Art. 12.3, the applied shear stress induces equal tensile and
compressive stresses on planes at 45° to the planes of shear, so that

strain on diagonal AC = - + ν I = 1(1 + v)


E E E ' K

Εσ
Also strain on diagonal AC =
AC
CC 1 CC
V2 V2BC 2CD
X

CC'
But
CD
= Φ=1
G

(1 + ν) = τ
Ε 2G
from which Ε= 20(1 + ν) (13.1)
13.2 Three-dimensional strain. Fig. 13.2 shows an element of a
material which is subjected to three principal stresses, ax, ay and orz.

Strain on side x. ε = E— — νΕ~


χ
Ε
= β{°χ - ν(σ + σ )} γ ζ . (13.2)
263
264 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Similarly, (13.3)

1,
and {σζ - ν(σχ + σγ)} (13.4)
Ε
13.3 Volumetric strain. The volumetric
strain is the ratio
change in volume
original volume '
ôv
i.e. εν = (13.5)

Referring to Fig. 13.2,


new length of side χ = x(l + εχ)
new length of side y = y (I + εγ)
Fig. 13.2
and new length of side ζ = z(l + εζ)
Λ new volume = xyz(l + £ x)(l + εγ)(1 + εζ)
= xyz(l + εχ + εγ + £z)>
neglecting products of strains,
xyz(l + € x + g y + gz) - xyz
xyz
= εχ + εγ + εζ . . . . (13.6)
i.e. volumetric strain = sum of perpendicular linear strains
Alternatively, ν = xyz
Λ log ν = log χ + log y + log 2
dv dx , dy , dz
.·.—= — + — + -
ν x y ζ
i.e. £ v = £ x -f- £y ~f~
13.4 Bulk modulus. If a material is subjected to a stress σ in all
directions (e.g. hydrostatic pressure), then
stress
bulk modulus :
volumetric strain

i.e. (13.7)

13.5 Relation between Ε. Κ and v. If, in Fig. 13.2, : -, Oy = σζ = σ,


then strain in each direction

Therefore, from equation (13.6), ε ν

(13.8)
ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 265
13.6 Relation between E, G and K.
From equation (13.1) E=2G(l + v) ν= ——1
2G
_l_E_
From equation (13.8), Ε = 3K(l 2v) V
~2 6K
Equating the expressions for v,

T
\G 3KJ
%GK
from which E = (13.9)
G+3K
13.7 Volumetric strain due to unequal stresses. In the general case
of unequal stresses, the strain in each of the co-ordinate directions can be
determined from equations (13.2), (13.3) and (13.4) and the volumetric
strain is then obtained from equation (13.6). In the case of a solid body,
however, the volumetric strain can be conveniently expressed directly in
terms of the applied stresses. Thus
By = €X ~\- 6y -\- Ez

= ^FAX - ν(σ7 + σζ)} + I{<7Y - ν(σζ + σ χ)} + ^ { ( T A - ν(σχ + σ7)}

1 — 2ν
= fax + Oj + σζ) χ —j—
_ g y + 0ΓΖ
G* +
(13.10)
3K
This expression is not applicable to the change in cubic content of a
hollow vessel (see Examples 7, 8 and 9).
1. A piece of C.I., 150 mm long and 25 mm square, is compressed by an
axial load of 90 kN. Find the alteration in length if all the fateral strain is
prevented by the application of uniform lateral pressure on the four sides. Find
2
also the modified modulus of elasticity. Ε = 115 GN/m and ν = \.
Let the axial stress be a and the lateral pressure be p ,
Fig. 13.3.
3
on ν 10
Then a = 0Ό25 2 N/m 2 = 144 MN/m 2
ρ ρ a
Lateral strain = — — v — — v— = 0
Ε Ε Ε
i.e. p(l i ) = i X 144
2
ρ = 48 MN/m

Λ longitudinal strain
Ε Ε Γιο. 13.3
266 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

_ 144 χ 10 - \ x 48 x 10
6 e

9
115 χ 10
= 0-001 044
decrease in length = 150 X 0-001 044
= 0-156 6 mm
axial stress
Modified modulus of elasticity =
axial strain
when strains in directions perpendicular to the axis are prevented
6
144 χ 1 0 . 2 2
N/m = 138 GN/m
0-001 044
2. A steel bar 100 mm long and 20 mm diameter is subjected to an axial
2
compressive stress of 60 MN/m and a sleeve, fitted over the bar, reduces the
lateral expansion to one half the unrestricted value.
Determine (a) the change in diameter of the bar, (b) the change in length of
2
the bar, (c) the change in volume of the bar. Ε = 200 GN/m and ν = \.
Let the axial stress be a and the lateral pressure be p , Fig. 13.4.
Eegarding compressive strain as positive,

free lateral strain = — ν


Ε

,*. actual lateral strain = — - —


2E
also actual lateral strain : t a
Ε E Ε
p(l — v) — va • va
2~
va
2(1 - ν) FIG. 1 3 . 4
e
60 x 10 2
N/m
4 χ 2χ f
2
: 10 MN/m
6

(a) Lateral strain = — -


σ 60 χ ΙΟ
9
2Ε 4 χ 2 χ 200 χ ΙΟ
6
= - 3 7 - 5 χ ΙΟ- (tensile)
-6
increase in diameter = 20 χ 37-5 χ Ι Ο
3
= 0-75 χ ΙΟ" mm
2 χ 10 Χ ΙΟ
6

(b) Axial strain = — — 2ν — = ^ * 9


Ε Ε β 200 χ ΙΟ
9
4 χ 200 χ ΙΟ
275 χ 10 ~ (compressive)
ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 267
Λ decrease in length = 100 χ 275 X 10~
6

3
= 27-5 X 1 0 - mm
Volumetric strain = ea+ 2εά = 275 χ 10~ — 2 X 37-5 X 10~
6 e
(c)
6
= 200 χ 1 0 -

/ . decrease in volume == - X 20 X 100 X 200 X 10~


2 6

4
3
= 6-284 mm

Alternatively, Κ = ^— = 400
=
J 1
3(1 - 2v) 3 ( l - 2 x i ) 3
. ^ = a+ p+ P from (13.10)
e q u a t ni o

3K
6 6
_ 60 χ 10 + 2 X 10 χ 10
4 00
3 χχ 10^
3
e
= 200 x 10" , as before
3. A mild steel rod ABC of circular section transmits an axial pull. The
total length is 1-45 m, AB being 0-8 m long and 25 mm diameter, and BC
0-65 m long and 20 mm diameter. If the total change in length is 0-75 mm,
determine for the separate parts AB and BC, the changes in (a) length, (b) dia-
meter, and (c) volume. Take ν = 0-3. (U. Lond.)

0-8m ι 0-65m

25mm dia
—1 u

(1) Β IS c-y""20 mm dia


FIG. 13.5

Let x1 and x2 be the extensions of parts AB and BC respectively, Fig. 13.5.


Then x1 + x2 = 0-75 mm (1)

and — = -^r- = -y> where Ρ is the axial load

a2E
2 02 8 0

2
X ° - = 0-787 . . . (2)
25 χ 0-65
Hence, from equations (1) and (2),
xx = 0-33 mm and x2 = 0-42 mm
268 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

0-000 33
= 0-000 412 5
0-80
0-000 42
and ?2 =
= 0-000 646
0-65
/ . reduction in diameter of AB = 0-025 X 0-3 X 0-000 412 5 m
= 3-1 μπι
and reduction in diameter of BC = 0-02 χ 0-3 X 0-000 646 m
= 3-88 μπι
Volumetric strain on AB = 0-000 412 5(1 - 2 χ 0-3)
= 0-000 165

/ . increase in volume of AB = - χ 0-025 X 0-80 X 0-000 165 m


2 3

4
3
= 64-8 mm
Volumetric strain on BC = 0-000 646(1 — 2 χ 0-3)
= 0-000 259

Λ increase in volume of BC = ^ χ 0-02 X 0-65 X 0-000 259 m


2 3

4
3
= 53-0 mm
4. A 50 mm diameter steel bar is completely prevented from increasing in
length and its temperature is raised by t deg C. Show that the lateral expansion
of the bar depends on the values of Poisson's ratio ν, and the coefficient of linear
expansion a, but is independent of the modulus of elasticity E.
The bar is found to increase in diameter by 0-043 mm under the above con-
ditions when it is heated through 60 deg C. The force required to prevent length
increase is found to be 270 kN. When the bar is free to expand, it is found to
increase in length by 0-132 mm over a 0-2 m gauge length. Determine the values
of Ε, ν, α and G, the modulus of rigidity. (U. Lond.)
The axial force preventing increase in length causes an axial strain equal
to the natural extension per unit length due to the increase in temperature,
i.e. axial strain = — cut (compressive)
Λ lateral strain due to axial force = vent (tensile)
Λ total lateral expansion 0-05(orf + vat) m
0-Q5qg(l + v),
which is independent of Ε
3
0·05α*(1 + ν) 0-043 Χ ΙΟ"
3
0-043 χ ΙΟ- 3
α(1 + ν) = 0-014 33χ ΙΟ- (1)
0-05 χ 60
ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 269
ο Ρ
Axial strain, cut — = —, where Ρ is the axial force
Ε aE
/. Ρ = OLtaE

α Χ 60 χ π~ χ 0-05 χ Ε
3 2

i.e. 270 Χ 10
4
— παΕ (2)
80
Free extension : • ht
i.e.
3
0-132 X 1 0 - : : 0-2 Χ α Χ 60
Λ α: ; 0-000 011/deg C
Substituting in equation (1), ν • 0-3
2
Substituting in equation (2), Ε : 208 GN/m
Ε
: 2G(l + ν) . from equation (13.1)
G- 2 0 8 2

2 χ 1-3 = 80 GN/m
5. A close-coiled spring made of circular wire has a mean coil diameter of
80 mm. When subjected to an axial had, the stiffness is found to be 3 kN/m
and when a pure couple is applied about the axis of the spring, the torsional
1
Jness is 6-25 Nm/rad. Determine Poisson s ratio for the material of the
spring. (I.Mech.E.)
3
SWD n
From equation (9.2), 6 =
Gd*
W Gd*
Λ axial stiffness = — =
δ 8Z> n
3

D 3 χ 10 :

Gd*
3 Gd*
8 X 0-08 ra
12-3 Ν m
3

η
MMDn
From equation (9.5), Φ =
Ed*
M Ed*
torsional stiffness = —- =
Φ 64Z>rc
i.e. Ed*
6-25 =
64 χ 0·08η
Ed* 2
32 Ν m
η
Ε 32
from equation (13.1)
12^3 2(1 + ? ) .
:
G
from which V • 0-3
270 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

6. A solid cylindrical test piece, 75 mm long and 50 mm diameter, is enclosed


3 3
within a hollow pressure vessel. With the test piece in the vessel, 20 X 10 mm
of oil are required just to fill the pressure vessel. Measurement shows that a
3
further 50 mm of oil have to be pumped into tlie vessel to raise the oil pressure
2
to 7 MN/m .
The experiment is repeated using the same pressure vessel and oil, but with-
out the test piece inside the vessel. This time, after initially filling the pressure
3 2
vessel, a further 364 mm of oil are needed to raise the pressure to 7 MN/m .
The test piece is made of aluminium, for which Young's modulus and
2
Poisson's ratio are 70 GN/m and 0-30 respectively. Find the bulk modulus of
the oil. (U. Lond.)
2 3 3
Volume of test piece = - χ 5 0 X 75 = 147-4 χ 10 mm
4
3 3 3
Λ volume of vessel = (147-4 + 20) Χ 10 = 167-4 χ 10 mm
Ε
For aluminium, Κ = . . from equation (13.8)
4 V
3(1 -2v) '
7 0 2
58-3 GN/m
3(1 - 2 χ 0-3)
2
Let the expansion of the pressure vessel be δν. Then, at 7 MN/m with
the test piece inside the vessel, the additional volume pumped in is absorbed
in expanding the vessel, compressing the oil and compressing the test piece,

i.e.
2
At 7 MN/m without the test piece inside the vessel,

364 = δν +
Κ oil
9 9
. ο*. *λ 7 χ 147-4 χ ΙΟ 7 χ 147-4 χ ΙΟ
. . 364 - 50 = +
A Ä
oil al

i.e. 0-304 Χ ΙΟ" = ( i ~ - κ * , Λ9


9

\K0Û 58-3 χ ΙΟ /
2
from which Koil= 3-11 GN/m

7. A closed cylindrical vessel with plane ends is made of steel plate 3 mm


thick, the internal dimensions being length 0-6 m and diameter 0-25 m. Deter-
mine first the longitudinal and hoop stresses in the cylindrical shell due to an
2
internal pressure o/2-8 MN/m , ignoring any stiffening effects due to the ends,
and then calculate the increases in (a) length, (b) diameter and (c) volume of
the vessel.
ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 271
2
For steel, take Ε = 200 GN/m and Poisson's ratio = 0-286.
(U. Lond.)
From Art. 1.4,
pd
longitudinal stress, σχ •
6
2-8 χ ΙΟ χ 0-25
= 58-3 MN/m 2
4 χ 0-003
and
2
circumferential stress, a c = Ίαχ = 116-6 MN/m
*
Longitudinal strain, εχ = ^ —ν

= (1
v - 2 x 0-286) = 0-000 125
200 χ 10» '
.". increase in length = 0-6 X 0-000 125 m = 0-075 mm

Circumferential strain, e c = ^ — ν ^
6
58-3 Χ 10
9
(2 - 0-286) = 0-000 5
200 χ 10
The strain on the diameter, e d , is the same as the strain on the circum-
ference, so that
increase in diameter = 0-25 X 0-000 5 m = 0-125 mm
Volumetric strain, ε ν = εχ + 2e d f . . from equation (13.6)
= 0-000 125 + 2 χ 0-000 5
= 0-001 125
2 3
Λ increase in volume = - Χ 0-25 X 0-6 X 0-001 125 m
4
3 3
= 33-2 χ 10 mm

* In thin cylinders, the radial stress is negligible in comparison with the circumfer-
ential and longitudinal stresses.

t Alternatively, ν = ^d*l

Λ log ν = log ^ - f 2 log d + log!

dv ad dl
* ' ~v ~ ~d Τ
i.e. €V = 2 c d + 6/
272 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

8. A spherical vessel of I'd m diameter is made from 10 mm thick steel plate,


and it is to be subjected to a hydraulic test. Determine the additional volume of
water which it is necessary to pump into the vessel when the vessel is initially
just filled with water, in order to raise the pressure to the proof pressure of
2 2 2
10 MN/m . The bulk modulus of water is 2 GN/m . Ε = 200 GN/m and
ν = 0-286. (I.Mech.E.)
From Art. 1.5,
pd
circumferential stress, σ 0
6
10 χ ΙΟ χ 1-5 6 2
375 χ 10 N/m
4 χ 0-01

.". circumferential strain, ec = — — v —


Ε Ε
e
375 χ 10
(1 - 0-286) = 0-001 34
200 χ 10»'
The diametral strain, e d, is the same as the circumferential strain, so that
the strain on the cubic content of the vessel = 3f d
= 0-004 02
increase in capacity of vessel = ν X 0-004 02

Volumetric strain on water = —


Κ
= I°*2*=(H>05
9
2 χ ΙΟ
Λ compression of water initially in vessel = ν X 0-005
.'. additional volume of water pumped in = v(0-004 02 + 0-005)
3
= - π Χ 0-75 X 0-009 02
3
3
= 0-016 m

9 . The ends of a thin cylinder 150 mm internal diameter and wall thickness
2-5 mm are closed by rigid plates and it is then filled with a liquid. When an
axial compressive force of 28 kN is applied to the cylinder, the pressure of the
2
liquid rises by 60 kN/m . Find the bulk modulus of the liquid. Ε = 200
2
GN/m and ν = 0-3.
Let Ρ be the axial force and ρ the resulting pressure rise, Fig. 13.6.

* A s in Example 7, the effect of the radial stress is negligible.


ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 273
Then
pd
longitudinal stress, Οχ •
' nDt " Tt
3 3
28 χ 10 60 χ ΙΟ χ 0-15
π X 0-152 5 X 0-002 5 4 χ 0-002 5
= 21-7 χ 10 N/m (compressive)
6 2

_ pd
Circumferential stress, ac =
2t
3
_ 60 χ ΙΟ χ 0-15
2 χ 0-002 5
= 1-8 X 10 N/m (tensile)
6 2

6
21-7 χ 10 + 0-3 χ 1-8 χ 10*
Λ longitudinal strain, EX —
200 χ 10*
= 111-2 X 10 ~ (compressive)
6

FIG. 1 3 . 6

and
6 6
1-8 χ 10 + 0-3 χ 21-7 χ 10
circumferential strain, ec = 9
200 χ 10
= 41-5 X 10 " (tensile)
6

This is also the diametral strain, £ d, so that volumetric strain on cylinder


= ει — 2e d
= (111-2 - 2 χ 41-5) X 1 0 -
6

6
= 28-2 χ 1 0 -
Volumetric strain on liquid = ^ = ^
Κ A
Since no liquid is pumped in or escapes,
strain on cylinder capacity = strain on liquid contents
6
i.e. 28·2χ10-β= _^!
Κ
2
Λ Κ = 2-13 GN/m
274 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

10. Derive expressions for Poisson's ratio (v) and bulk modulus (K) in terms of
the moduli of elasticity (E) and rigidity (G).
A steel bar 2 5 m m diameter carries a tensile load of 5 0 kN. Calculate the bulk
2
modulus and the reduction in diameter of the bar if Ε is 2 0 0 G N / m and G is
2 2
80 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 133-3 G N / m ; 0 - 0 0 3 j & m m )
11. A uniform bar 9 m long carries in tension an axial load of 2 0 0 kN. Determine
the increase in volume of the bar if the modulus of rigidity and Poisson's ratio
2 3 s
are 8 0 G N / m and 0-25 respectively. (U. Lond.) 7 Ans.: 4-5 χ 1 0 m m l_
12. An axial compressive load of 5 0 0 kN is applied t o a metal bar of square
section 5 0 m m χ 5 0 mm. The contraction on a 2 0 0 m m gauge length is found
t o be 0-55 m m and the increase in thickness 0-045 mm. F i n d the value of Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio.
2
I f in addition to the axial load of 5 0 0 kN a uniform lateral pressure of 8 0 M N / m
is applied t o the two opposite sides of the bar in both directions, find the con-
traction on the 2 0 0 m m gauge length and the change in thickness. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 72-7 G N / m ; 0-327; 0-406 m m ; 0-007 9 m m )
13. A cylinder of metal under axial compression is restrained so t h a t lateral
expansion is half the unrestrained value. Calculate the ratio of the axial strain
in this cylinder t o its axial strain if free t o expand laterally. Poisson's r a t i o
= 0-25 (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1 1 : 12)
14. Establish the expression for bulk modulus in terms of Young's modulus and
Poisson's ratio.
A solid steel sphere of 4 0 0 m m diameter is subjected t o a uniform hydraulic
2
pressure ρ = 3-5 M N / m . Determine the decrease in the volume of the sphere if
2
Poisson's ratio and Young's modulus are 0-3 and 2 0 0 G N / m respectively.
3
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 703-5 m m )
15. F o r an elastic material, express Poisson's ratio in terms of the bulk modulus
and the modulus of rigidity, and prove the derivation of the expression.
Determine the percentage change in volume of a steel bar 8 0 m m square in
section and 1-2 m long when subjected t o an axial compressive load of 2 0 kN.
W h a t change in volume would a 100 m m cube of steel suffer a t a depth of
2
5 km in sea-water? Specific gravity of sea water = 1-025. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ;
2 3
G = 80 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0 0 0 0 781 ; 377 m m )
16. A piece of material is subjected t o three mutually perpendicular tensile
stresses and the strains in the three directions are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5. I f the value
of Poisson's ratio is 0-286 find the ratio of t h e stresses and their value when the
2
greatest stress in 100 M N / m . (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 1 : 1 - 0 9 : 1 - 1 8 5 ; 84-4 M N / m ; 92-2 M N / m )
17. I n tests on a sample of steel bar of 2 5 m m diameter, it is found t h a t a
tensile load of 5 0 k N results in an extension of 0-099 4 m m on a gauge length of
2 0 0 m m , and t h a t a torque of 2 0 0 N m produces an angle of twist of 0-925° in a
length of 2 5 0 m m . Deduce the value of Poisson's ratio for the steel, and prove
the formula which you use. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-27)
18. Prove t h a t Ε = 2G(l + v).
During a torsion test on a brass rod of 4 0 m m diameter, a twist of 0-8° was
recorded over a 2 5 0 m m gauge length when a torque of 5 0 0 N m was applied. A
tensile test on the rod showed t h a t the stretch over the same gauge length for a
pull of 60 kN was 0-125 mm. Calculate: (a) the maximum stress in the rod during
each test, (b) the modulus of elasticity, (c) the modulus of rigidity, and (d) Poisson's
ratio. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2 2
(Ans.: 39-75 M N / m ; 47-7 M N / m ; 95-4 G N / m ; 35-6 G N / m ; 0-34)
ELASTIC CONSTANTS; VOLUMETRIC STRAIN 275
19. Derive an expression showing the relationship between percentage volume
change, Poisson's ratio, elastic modulus and stress for a short column, loaded
axially.
A circular shaft 100 m m in diameter and 1 m long is loaded axially with a
compressive load of 1 MN and is found t o be reduced in volume by 0-27 per cent.
2
I f Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m , determine the angle of twist of one end of a shaft relative
to the other if it is subjected t o a torque of 15 kN m. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1-13°)
20. Deduce the relation between the modulus of elasticity, the modulus of
rigidity and Poisson's ratio.
A hollow shaft of 75 m m external diameter and 5 0 m m internal diameter twists
through an angle of 0-52° in a length of 1 m when subjected t o an axial twisting
moment of 1 kN m. E s t i m a t e the deflection a t the centre of the shaft due to its own
weight when placed in a horizontal position on supports 1 m apart. Weight of
shaft = 2 0 0 N / m and Poisson's ratio = 0-3. ( U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0 0 1 8 1 mm)
2 1 . Two specimens, each 2 0 m m diameter, were machined from the same sample
of metal. One specimen was tested in tension, showing an average extension of
9
3-1 χ 1 0 ~ m / N of axial pull, measured on a 2 0 0 m m gauge length. The second
specimen was subjected t o an axial torque, applied about the longitudinal axis,
and was found t o twist through 0-009 12° in a 2 0 0 m m gauge length for every Ν m
of applied torque. Calculate the modulus of elasticity, the modulus of rigidity
and Poisson's ratio for the metal. (I.CE.)
2 2
(Ans.: 2 0 5 G N / m ; 8 0 G N / m ; 0-28)
22. Establish a relationship between the modulus of elasticity, modulus of
rigidity and Poisson's ratio for an elastic material.
A close-coiled helical spring of circular wire and mean diameter 100 m m was
found to extend 42-6 m m under an axial load of 5 0 N. The same spring, when
firmly fixed a t one end, was found t o rotate through 90° under a torque of 6 Ν m
applied in a plane a t right angles t o the axis of the spring. Calculate the value
of Poisson's ratio for t h e material of the spring. (17. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-3)
23. A closely coiled helical spring of circular wire has a mean diameter of
coils = D. I t is found t o extend a length δ when loaded by an axial load W. When
subjected to an axial torque T, the angle of twist, in radians, is observed to be Θ.
Working from first principles, prove t h a t Poisson's ratio for the material is

1 { υ Μ )
we" - ·
2 4 . The ends of a long thin-walled cylindrical tube are closed by rigid flat plates.
The vessel is then subjected t o internal fluid pressure under the following con-
ditions: (a) free movement of the ends being allowed; (b) the ends being rigidly-
stayed together. Show t h a t , if Poisson's ratio = 0-25, the resulting increase in the
volume of the vessel will be the same in both cases. (U. Lond.)
2 5 . A spherical steel vessel having an inside diameter of 0-75 m and a wall
2
thickness of 11 m m is filled with water a t a gauge pressure of 5-8 M N / m . The
pressure is lowered by allowing some of the water t o escape, and t o reduce the
3
pressure t o atmospheric, the volume of the water released is 0-000 8 8 5 m . F i n d
2
the bulk modulus of the water. Ε for steel = 2 0 0 G N / m andl?oisson's ratio = 0-286.
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2-1 G N / m )
26. The dimensions of a steel cylinder a r e : length 1-8 m, internal diameter
0-3 m, thickness of walls 12 m m . The cylinder is initially filled with water a t
atmospheric pressure. Treating it as a thin cylinder, find the increase in volume
276 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
when the water is pumped in so as to raise the internal pressure to 7 M N / m . I f
the quantity of water which has t o be pumped in to produce this pressure is
3
0-000 53 m , find the value of the bulk modulus of the water. Neglect the de-
2
formation of the ends. Take Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and ν = 0-25. ( U. Lond.)
3 2
(Ans.: 0-000 111 5 m ; 2-13 G N / m )
27. A copper tube of 50 m m internal diameter, 1 -2 m long and 1 -25 m m thick,
has closed ends and is filled with water under pressure. Neglecting any distortion
of the end plates, determine the alteration of pressure when an additional volume
-6 3
of 3 χ 1 0 m of water is pumped into the tube. Modulus of elasticity for
2 2
copper = 100 G N / m . Poisson's ratio = 0-3. Bulk modulus for water = 2 G N / m .
2
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 1-445 M N / m )
2 8 . A copper cylinder, 0-9 m long, 0-4 m external diameter and 6 mm thick,
with flat ends, is initially full of oil a t atmospheric pressure. Calculate the volume
of oil which must be pumped into the cylinder in order to raise the pressure to
2 2
5 M N / m above atmospheric pressure. F o r copper, assume Ε = 100 G N / m and
2
Poisson's ratio = J . Take the bulk modulus of the oil as 2-6 G N / m . Neglect
3 3
deformation of the end plates. (U. Lond.) (A?is.: 521 χ 1 0 m m )
29. The internal diameter of a thin straight metal tube full of water is 300 m m
and its thickness 3 mm. The ends are closed with rigid end plates and an axial
compressive load L is applied to it. I f the rise in pressure of the water is observed
2
to be 51 k N / m , find the load L. Neglect bending in the tube due t o end effects.
2
F o r the metal, Ε = 140 G N / m and Poisson's ratio = 0-35. Bulk modulus for
2
water = 2-05 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 10-6 kN)
30. A thin cylinder of 150 mm internal diameter and wall thickness 2-5 mm
has its ends closed by rigid plates and is then filled with water. When an external
axial pull of 18 kN is applied to the ends, the water pressure, read by a gauge, is
2
observed t o fall by 4 8 k N / m . Neglecting any end effects due t o the plates,
2
determine the value of Poisson's ratio for the metal. Ε for the metal = 140 G N / m ;
2
bulk modulus of water = 2-2 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-311)
3 1 . A steel tube having outside and inside diameters of 4 5 m m and 3 8 m m is
firmly plugged a t both ends leaving an internal length of 2 5 0 m m between the
flat ends of the plugs. The plugs are designed so t h a t water can be admitted t o the
inner space and also so that an axial pull can be applied to the tube. I f the tube
is subjected to an axial pull of 4 0 kN and in addition is filled with water a t a
2
gauge pressure of 1-7 M N / m , find the volume of water which will escape from the
tube if the axial load is removed and the inner space opened to the atmosphere.
2 2
Κ for water = 2-1 G N / m , Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m , Poisson's ratio = 0-286.
3
(Ü. Lond.) (Ans.: 308 m m )
C H A P T E R 14

THICK CYLINDERS

14.1 Lame's Theory. In Art. 1.6, a formula is derived for the circum-
ferential stress in a thin cylinder, based on the assumption that this is
uniformly distributed across the thickness of the metal. Also, in calculating
the volumetric strain on the contents of a thin cylinder under pressure
(Examples 7 and 9, Chapter 13), it is assumed that the radial stress is
negligible in relation to the circumferential and longitudinal stresses. When
the thickness of the cylinder is appreciable in relation to the diameter,
however, these assumptions are no longer justified and the variation in
radial and circumferential stresses across the thickness is obtained from
Lame's Theory.

Pi
(a) (b)
FIG. 14.1
Fig. 14.1(a) shows a thick cylinder, of external and internal radii rx and
r 2 respectively, with external and internal pressures p x and p 2 , and Fig.
14.1(6) shows the stresses acting on an element of radius r and thickness dr,
subtending an angle do at the centre. The radial and circumferential
stresses, στ and aCi have both been assumed to be compressive, which is
considered positive.
If the radial stress varies from στ to o*r + άστ over the thickness dr, then,
resolving forces on the element radially over a unit length of cylinder,
(<rr + άστ)(τ + dr) άθ = σττ άθ + 2ac dr —
2
i.e. r άστ + στ dr = σ0 dr*
d
or aI + r ^ = ac (14.1)
dr
* If allowance is made for the variation in oc over the radial thickness dr, the further
term obtained is of the second order of small quantities.
277
278 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

If the longitudinal stress and strain are denoted by σχ and εχ respectively,


.r Οχ (ο + ολ
then e i _ = _ s ^τ _ _ j

It is assumed that εχ is constant across the thickness, i.e. that a plane


cross-section of the cylinder remains plane after the application of pressure,
and that σχ is also uniform across the thickness, both assumptions being
reasonable on planes remote from the ends of the cylinder.
It therefore follows from these assumptions that σΤ + σ0 is a constant,
which will be denoted by 2a.
Thus 2a (14.2)
Substituting in equation (14.1),
2a — στ

άστ
or 2o-rr + r
2
2ar = 0 multiplying through by r
dr"
2 2
i.e. (σττ - ar ) •• 0
dr
2 2
σττ — ar b
h

or -2 •a (14.3)
+
r
b
Therefore, from equation (14.2), a —— (14.4)
2
r
Equations (14.3) and (14.4) are known as Lame's Equations; in any given
application, there will always be two conditions sufficient to solve for the
constants a and b and radial and circumferential stresses at any radius r can
then be evaluated.
Thus, in the common case of a
cylinder with internal pressure only,
Fig. 14.2,
aT = ρ when r = r 2
and σ Γ — 0 when r = rx
b

and

from which a =

and FIG. 1 4 . 2
THICK CYLINDERS 279

» + 4

(14.5)
= -ρ
rt(
l
f i)
and

(14.6)

The maximum radial and circumferential stresses occur at r = r 2, when


στ = ρ
a n d
_j_ 2 f
r 2 rl+<*

o*c = —ρ ~
r
i — i
1,r the negative sign indicating tension. . (14.7)
The variations in aT and ac across the thickness are shown in Fig. 14.2.
14.2 Comparison with thin-cylinder theory. From equation (14.7)
<7c = î> (numerically)
2 2
d+ 2dt+ 2t
p. where t = rx — r2 and d = 2r 2
2t(d + t)
ι , _ where Jc = 4
i.e. ρ— = 2k(l + k) + i d
Assuming that σ 0 is constant across the thickness, as in Art. 1.4,
_ pd

or

FIG. 14.3
κ
280 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The relation between ac/p and k from both theories is shown in Fig. 14.3
and also the error in using the thin cylinder theory, assuming Lamé's
Theory to be correct. The error is 5 per cent when k = 0-05 (i.e. when
t = d/20) but this falls to 0·2 per cent if the mean diameter is used in place
of the internal diameter in the thin cylinder theory.
14.3 Longitudinal and shear stresses. It is assumed in Lamé's
Theory that the longitudinal stress, is
uniform across a cross-section and its value
is obtained by considering the equilibrium
of the forces exerted on the end of the
cylinder.
Thus, in the case of a cylinder with internal
pressure only, Fig. 14.4,
ρ Χ nr\ = σι X n{r\ — r\) FIG. 14.4

14 8
••oi = r ^ < ·>
r r
l 2

To agree with the sign convention adopted for σ Γ and o c , this should be
negative since it is tensile and it will be seen from Art. 14.1 that it then
corresponds with the value of α in Lamé's equations as applied to this case.*
In the absence of any external shearing force or torque, σ Γ, ac and σι are
principal stresses and hence the maximum shear stress at any point is half
the difference of the maximum and minimum principal stresses (see Art
12.2). Eemembering that στ is compressive, while ac and σι are usually
tensile, the maximum shear stress at any point is given by
σ

τ = — τ - — ° c since σ >
^
σι 0

-ΚΚ)-Η)Κ· • <">·
Thus the maximum shear stress in the cylinder will occur at the inside
9

surface, where r = r 2.
14.4 The Lamé Line. Equations (14.3) and (14.4) can be written

and oc = a + - ^
2 2
If, therefore, στ is plotted against 1/r and a c is plotted against — 1/r ,
the two equations will be represented by the same straight line since they
both have the same constant a and the same slope 6. The two conditions
* I t can be shown similarly that in the case of internal and external pressure, the
longitudinal stress is again equal to the corresponding value of α if the external pressure
is also assumed to act on the outside of the end plate.
THICK CYLINDERS 281
which are used to solve for the constants a and b in the analytical solution
are used to determine the position of the line, from which any desired values
of aT and ac can then be read off.
Thus, for the simple case considered in Art. 14.1, the Lamé line is as
shown in Fig. 14.5, σ Γ being equal to ρ at l / r | and zero at 1/rf. The maxi-
mum value of ac is then evidently at — 1/rf and is given by

:+
from similar triangles

r\+rl
2 as in equation (14.7)
r2
r

f 0 ^
ν

FIG. 1 4 . 5

The intercept at 1/r = 0 represents the value of the constant a and from
Art. 14.3, this is the longitudinal stress, o>

14.5 Compound cylinders. A compound cylinder consists of two con-


centric cylinders, as shown in Fig. 14.6, the outer cylinder being shrunk on
to the inner cylinder so that the latter is initially in compression before the
application of internal pressure.
The final stresses are then the resultants of those due to pre-stressing and
those due to the internal pressure.
If the radius of the common surface is r 0 and the pressure at this surface
before the application of the internal pressure is p 0 , then the initial stresses
are determined by considering the two cylinders
separately, the boundary conditions for the outer
cylinder being στ — p 0 when r = r0 and σΤ = 0
when r — rx and for the inner cylinder, aT = p 0
when r = r0 and aT = 0 when r = r 2. The stresses
due to internal pressure are obtained by con-
sidering the cylinder to be homogeneous, with
σ Γ = ρ at r = r2 and στ = 0 at r = rv
The various stresses are then combined alge-
FIG. 1 4 . 6
braically, as shown in Fig. 14.7, from which it is
282 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

evident that the maximum resultant circumferential stress is less than for
a homogeneous cylinder of the same cross-section with the same internal
pressure. Alternatively, for the same maximum stress, a thinner cylinder
can be used if it is pre-stressed, the optimum conditions being when the
resultant circumferential stress is the same at the inner surface of each
cylinder.

r2 / ^0 1-2 r0 _ r

(a)
Initial stresses

Stresses due t o ρ

Resultant stresses /
b)

FIG. 1 4 . 7

14.6 Solid shaft subjected to external pressure. If a solid shaft of


radius rx is subjected to an external pressure p , then

p.
Since σ Γ and ac are not infinite at r = 0, it follows that b = 0, so that
c;r = ac = a = ρ at all radii.

14.7 Shrinkage allowance. In order to produce the desired initial


pressure p 0 at the common surface of a compound cylinder, it is necessary
for the inside diameter of the outer cylinder to be slightly smaller than the
outside diameter of the inner cylinder. The outer cylinder is then heated
until it will slide over the inner cylinder, whence, on cooling, it exerts the
required pressure at the common surface. The initial difference in dia-
meters at this surface is termed the shrinkage allowance.
For the inner cylinder, let the circumferential stress at the outer surface
due to p 0 be a'c.
THICK CYLINDERS 283
Then circumferential strain at outer surface

Ε Ε

Λ decrease in diameter = ^ ( σ ό — vp0)


Ε
For the outer cylinder, let the circumferential stress at the inner surface
due to p 0 be σ".
Then circumferential strain at inner surface

Ε Ε
v
Λ decrease* in diameter = -j^(°'c ~~ Po)

2r „
.*. initial difference in diameter = —-{(o'c — vp0) — (a'c' — vpQ)}
Ε
=^v;-o . . (loo)
If the materials of the two cylinders are different, with moduli of elasti-
city Ex and E2 and Poisson's ratio vx and v2 respectively for the inner and
outer cylinders,
σ
then shrinkage allowance = 2r0\ Î L Z J ^ ? - ° ~ ^ \ (14.11)
E1 E2 /
1. Find the ratio of thickness to internal diameter for a tube subjected to
internal pressure when the ratio of the internal pressure to the greatest circum-
ferential stress is 0-5.
Find the alteration in thickness of metal in such a tube, 0-2 m internal
2 2
diameter, when the internal pressure is 75 MN/m . Ε = 200 GN/m and
ν = 0-3. (U. Lond.)
2 2
r 4- r
1
From equation (14.7), ac = —p \
But .-.4+4=2
2 n-r\
from which rx = V37\2
t = rx - r2 = ( V 3 - l)r.2
1
so that - = = 0-366
d2 2
* I t is assumed that all stresses are compressive but in fact ae will be tensile and the
inner surface will therefore increase in diameter. This will, however, be corrected auto-
matically by the negative sign which will arise in the calculation of σ'0 and the shrinkage
allowance thus involves the numerical sum of the circumferential stresses.
284 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Alternatively, set off — ac at — l / r | and στ = crc/2 at + l / r § , Fig. 1^·8.


2
Then (Tr = Oat 1/r .
1 . 1
2 2
r r
From similar triangles, 2
Ü !l= 2
1 1
from which as before

Irl -v * Ο ^

vi Or
σι σι

Fia. 14.8 FIG. 14.9

r 2 = 0-1 m, .'. rx = 0-1V3 m


2
At r = 0-1 m, σ Γ = 75 MN/m
2
and tfc = -150 MN/m
2
At r = O-lVâ m, ar = 0 and σ« = -75 MN/m *

or
2
0-1 2
= -75 χ 2 2
= - 3 7 - 5 MN/m
(0-1V3) - 0-1
The system of stresses applied to an element of the cylinder is shown in
Fig. 14.9.
Tensile circumferential strain at internal surface
<yc στ σι
E E Ε
e
_ (150 + 0-3 X 75 - 0-3 X 37-5) X 10
9
~ 200 χ ΙΟ
= 0-806 3 χ ΙΟ"
3

Λ increase in internal radius = 0-1 Χ 0-806 3 Χ Ι Ο


-3

= 0-080 63 χ ΙΟ" m
3

Tensile circumferential strain at external surface


e
_ (75 + 0-3 x 0 - 0-3 X 37-5) x 10
9
200 Χ 10
3
= 0-318 8 X 1 0 -
/ . increase in external radius = 0-lV3 X 0-318 8 X 10~
3

3
= 0-055 3 χ 1 0 - m
* I t is convenient to remember t h a t σ t+ acia constant (see equation 14.2).
THICK CYLINDERS 285
3
/ . decrease in thickness = (0-080 63 — 0-055 3) X 1 0 " m
= 0-025 3 mm
2. A thick-walled cylinder, 0-2 m internal diameter, is to contain fluid at a
2
pressure of 50 MN/m . Find the necessary thickness if the maximum shearing
2
stress is not to exceed 100 MN/m . What will then be the greatest and least
values of the hoop stress in the material?
If the inner surface becomes corroded and the cylinder has to be re-bored, by
how much can the inside diameter be increased without raising by more than
5 per cent the maximum shearing stress induced by the same internal pressure?
(U. Lond.)
T
From equation (14.9), τ = ° °° =
2
2 r
so that occurs when r = 0-1 m,
Tmax
i.e. 100 = — Λ b= 1
2
0-1
2
Also, at r = 0-1 m, σ Γ = 50 MN/m
Λ 50 = α + — 2 Λ a= -50
^ 0-1
At r = rv στ = 0, Λ 0= -50 + 4 .*. *Ί = 0-141 4 m
η
Λ thickness = 0-041 4 m
2
At r = 0-1 m, ac = - 5 0 —„ = - 1 5 0 MN/m
c 2
0-1 —
2
At r = 0-141 4 m, <rc = - 5 0 — = - 1 0 0 MN/m
2
0-1414
Alternatively, σ Γ + oc is constant, so that
2
o~c at outer surface = (50 — 150) — 0 = —100 MN/m
When cylinder is re-bored,
2
r m a x = 105 MN/m = A
4
2
Also at r = r 2, at = 50 MN/m = a + — = a + 105

a = —55
At r = 0-141 4 m, orr = 0
b
0 = -55 + 2
0-141 4
Λ b = 1-1

: r L = ( H2 3 M
' *=J W5 °
increase in diameter = 0-004 6 m = 4*6 mm
286 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

3. In a closed-ended cylinder with a diameter ratio of 2-5, the axial and


- 4
circumferential strains at the outer surface were found to be 0-918 X 1 0 and
4 2
3*69 X 10~ when the pressure was 230 MN/m . Determine the values of the
moduli of elasticity and rigidity and Poisson's ratio.
2
At r = r 2, (7r = 230 MN/m ,
/ . 230 = a +4
At r = rv aT = 0, .". 0 = a + 2
b = -6-25ari
(2-5r 2)
Λ 230 = a 6·25α a = -43-8
Therefore, at outer surface,
2
ac = a — -=2a -87-6 MN/m
2
a i= a= - 4 3 - 8 MN/m
2
Alternatively, set off σ Γ = 230 MN/m at \/r\
2
and (XR = 0 at \/r\{= l/6-25r ), Fig. 14.10.

2
230MN/m

FIG. 14.10

Then
6-25 6-25 2
230 5^25
6-25
2
crc = 87-6 MN/m
1
Ol _ 6-25 1
and
230 1 5^25
1
6^25
2
Λ σ, = 43-8 MN/m
The radial stress at the outer surface is zero, so that
e
(87-6 - ν X 43-8) X 10
tensile circumferential strain =
Ε
= 3-69 χ 10-* (1)
THICK CYLINDERS 287

and tensile axial strain =


Ε
4
= 0-918 χ ΙΟ" . . . (2)
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2)
2
Ε = 203 GN/m and ν = 0-287
Ε
G= from equation (13.1)
4 K
2(1 + v) '
Of)Q
2(1 + 0-287) 78-8 GN/m
2

4. A thick cylinder has a length of 0-25 m and internal and external dia-
meters o/0-l m and 0-141 4 m respectively.
(a) Determine the circumferential and longitudinal stresses at the inner
2
surface when the cylinder is filled with water under a pressure of 10 MN/m .
(b) How much more water does the cylinder contain than that required to
fill it at atmospheric pressure?
2
Take Ε for steel = 200 GN/m , ν for steel = 0-3 and Κ for water = 2
2
GN/m .
2 6
Atr = 0-05 m, <rr = 10 MN/m , Λ 10 = a ' 2
0-05
6
At r = 0-070 71 m, crr = 0, Λ 0= a + 2
0-070 7 1
. a = —10 and 6 = 0-05
Therefore, at inner surface,
2
acc = a - — o 2 = - 3 0 MN/m1
0-05
2
and σι=α= - 1 0 MN/m
Alternatively, the stresses may be obtained from Lamé's line as in
Example 3.
lieferring to Fig. 14.9, tensile circumferential strain,
_ /30 0-2 1-3 X 10 0-3 Χ 10N e
X 10
E Ε
e
30 x 10
Ε
and tensile longitudinal strain,
n o 1-3 X 10 0-3 X 30\
ο·: e
X 10
Ε Ε
e
4 x 10
288 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS

Λ volumetric strain on contents of cylinder


= 2ε 0 + ει
64 X l Q 6
= 9 9= Q-32X1Q-3
200 χ 10
2
Volumetric strain on water at 10 MN/m
6
_ ρ _ 10 χ 10 3
= 5 χ ΙΟ"
Κ 2 χ 10*
.". additional volume of water
π 2 3
χ 0-1 χ 0-25 χ (0-32 + 5) χ 1 0 "
e 3
= 10-45 X 1 0 " m

5. A steel rod, 0-06 m diameter, is forced into a bronze casing having an out-
side diameter of 0-1 m and thereby produces a hoop tension at the outer circum-
2
ference of the casing of 35 MN/m . Determine (a) the radial pressure between
the rod and the casing, and (b) the rise in temperature which would just elimin-
ate the force fit.
For steel, £ = 200 GN/m , ν = 0-28, α = 12 χ 10~«/deg C
2

For bronze, Ε = 110 GN/m , ν = 0-33, α = 19 χ 1 0 " / % C


2 6

(ϋ. Lond.)
2
At the outer surface of the casing, στ = 0 and σ0= —35 MN/m ,
B
.-.O = « + 2
0-05
b
and -35 = a - 2
0-05
Λ a = - 1 7 - 5 and b = 0-043 75
Therefore when r = 0-03 m,
0-043 75 2
p= - 1 7 - 5 + 2 31-11 MN/m
0-03
1
Alternatively, set off σ Γ = 0 at and a0 = —35 at — 2>

Fig. 14.11. 0-05


2
0-05

1 2 1 2
0-03
2
0-05
2
' /θ·03 " /0O5 Ο 2
1/0O5
2
Then VOO3
35 1
T 2
0-05 ' 0-05
T
2

2
,\ ρ = 31-11 MN/m FIG. 14.11
THICK CYLINDERS 289

At the surface of the rod,


2
ac = 31-11 MN/m (see Art. 14.6)
At the inner surface of the casing,
l f 7K 0-043 75
ac = —17-5 —
c 2
0-03
2
= -66-11 MN/m *
From equation (14.11), shrinkage allowance
Ε )steel ( Ε bronze}
,31-11 - 0-28 χ 31-11 -66-11 - 0-33 χ 31-11
Λ A fl
9
200 χ 10» 110 χ ΙΟ
β
= 48-3 χ 1 0 - m
β β
Thus 0-06 χ (19 - 12) χ 1 0 " χ Τ = 48-3 χ 10~
Λ Τ= 115 degC

6. A solid circular shaft has an outer diameter ο/0·1 m and is pressed into
a uniform sleeve of the same material,\0-12 m, inner diameter 0Ό99 9 m and
outer diameter 0-125 m. If the coefficient of friction at the common surface is
0-3, find the torque which can be transmitted from the shaft to the sleeve.
2
Ε = 200 GN/m .
Let the radial pressure at the common surface be p .
Then, for the sleeve,

o*r = ρ at r = 0-05 m,| \9 p = a+


* 2
0-05
b
and σ Γ = 0 at r = 0-062 5 m, Λ0= a + 2
0-062 5
2 65
. . a = - - p andA * = Ρ_
6

Therefore, at the inner surface,


b
ac=a 0-05
2

_ 256 400 _ _ 41
Ρ
~ 144^ 1 4 4 ^ " Ύ
Alternatively, this stress may be determined from
Example 3.
s' line, as in
Lame
* This may be obtained directly from Fig. 14.11.
t No appreciable error will be introduced by working on the nominal diameter of 0-1 m.
290 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

At the surface of the shaft, ac = ρ


Therefore, from equation (14.10),
0-10
initial difference in diameter = 9
200 χ 10 \
= 0-000 1 m
2
Λ ρ = 36 MN/m
36 X 10 χ π Χ 0-10 Χ 0-12
e
.·. normal force between shaft and sleeve =
6
= 1-356 χ ΙΟ Ν
1-356 X 10 X 0-3
e
Λ friction force between shaft and sleeve =
6
= 0-^7 χ ΙΟ Ν
0-^7 χ ΙΟ χ 0-05 N m
6
Λ torque transmissible =
= ^ 5 kNm

7. A compound cylinder is to be subjected to an internal pressure of 100


2
MN/m . The radii of the innery common and outer surfaces are respectively
0-1, 0-l\/2 and 0-2 m. Determine the shrinkage pressure necessary for the
resultant maximum circumferential stress to be as small as possible and
determine the value of this stress.
(a) Initial stresses. Let the shrinkage pressure be p .
For the inner cylinder,

aT = ρ at r = 0-1V2 m, Λ ρ = αλ + —^ = ax + 5 0 ^

(0-lV2) 2

and Οτ = 0 at r = 0-1 m, .·. 0 = at + = a, + 100k

/. ax = 2p and bx = —0-02^
Therefore, at the inner surface,
b
i A
σ ο = = α ι 2 = P
~οΤ *
For the outer cylinder,

στ = ρ at r = 0-1V2 m, Λ ρ = a2 + — = a« + 506 2
1
(ΟΊ-ν/2)
2 5
and <rr == 0 at r = 0-2 m, Λ 0 = a2 + ^ 7 ^= « 2 + & 2

/ . a2 — — a n d 6 = 0Ό4ρ
Therefore, at the inner surface,
b9
THICK CYLINDERS 291
(6) Stresses dice to internal pressure.
2
σ Γ = 100 MN/m at r = 0-1 m, Λ 100 = a + —• = a + 1006

and <r. — 0 at r = 0-2 m, Λ 0 = a A—— = a + 256


2
0-2
100 J
. _ 4:
and b = -
3 _ 1003 400 _ 500
Therefore, at r = 0-1 m, σ 0 = α MN/m
2

0-1 Ί Γ Ί Γ ~ ~3
and at r = 0-lV2 m, σ Γ = α — 6 _ _ 100 _ 200
2
(ΟΊλ/2) ~3~ " 3 "
2
= - 1 0 0 MN/m
For the resultant maximum circumferential stress to be as small as
possible, the resultant stresses at the inner surfaces of each cylinder must
be equal, as will be evident from Fig. 14.7,

i.e. -52?+4p=-100-3p
from which ρ = 9-525 MN/m
2

Therefore resultant maximum stress = —100 — 3 χ 9-525


2
= -128-57 MN/m

(a)

-1 -1 0
2 2 2 2 2
0-1 0-2 0-2 (0-1J2) 0-1
(=-100) (=-50) (=-25) (=25) (=50) (=100)
2
100MN/m
(b)
1 2
/1

F i a . 14.12
292 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Alternatively, the stresses may be obtained from Figs. 14.12(a) and (6)
which represent the Lamé lines for the initial stresses and the stresses due
to the internal pressure respectively.
t
1 0 0 + 100
From Fig. 14.12(a),
V 100 - 50
tr
U W5 0 T+ W
25
and J= =3
V
Ρ 5 0 - 25
100+25
From Fig. 14.12(6), ^- =
100 100 - 25
5 0 +1 w25
w
and ^ = =1
100 1100
0 0-- 25
8. A compound steel cylinder has a bore of 80 mm and an outside diameter
of 160 mm, the diameter of the common surface being 120 mm. Find the radial
pressure at the common surface which must be provided by shrinkage, if the
resultant maximum hoop tension in the inner cylinder under a superimposed
2
internal pressure of 60 MN/m is to be half the value of the maximum hoop
tension which would be produced in the inner cylinder if that cylinder alone
2
were subjected to an internal pressure of 60 MN/m .
Determine the final hoop tensions at the inner and outer surfaces of both
2
cylinders under the internal pressure of 60 MN/m , and sketch a graph to
show how the hoop tension varies across the cylinder wall. (U. Lond.)
(a) Initial stresses in inner cylinder. Let the shrinkage pressure be p .

aT = patr= 0-06 m, Λ p = ax+ A_ 2


2
0-06
and σ Γ = 0 at r = 0-04 m, Λ 0 =ai + 2
m
l-Sp and bx = — 0-002 SSp
Therefore, at the inner surface, ac = ax — ^ 2 = 3 - 6 ^
0-04
(6) Stresses due to internal pressure.
2
στ = 60 MN/m at r = 0-04 m, Λ 60 = . 2
0-04
and σ Γ = 0 at r = 0-08 m, Λ 0 = α 2 + b2 2
0-08
.·. α2 = — 20 and 6 2 = 0-128
2 2
Therefore, at the inner surface, σ0 = a» — ^ = —100 MN/m
c 2 2 1
0-04
Therefore, resultant stress at inner surface
= - 1 0 0 + 3-6^
THICK CYLINDERS 293
(c) Inner cylinder alone with internal pressure.
2
o\r = 60 MN/m
1 at r = 0-04 m, Λ9 60 = a3 3 + 2
0-04

and σ Γ = 0 at r = 0*06 m, .'. 0 = a3 + 2


0-06
«3 = 48 and b3 = 0-172 8
2
Therefore, at the inner surface, a.3 2
= - 1 5 6 MN/m
0-04
_ 156
Hence - 1 0 0 + 3-6>
ΊΓ
from which ρ 6-11 MN/m
2

(d) Initial stresses in outer cylinder.


ατ = ρ at r = 0-06 m, Λ ρ «4 + 2
0-06

and σ Γ = 0 at r = 0-08 m, 0 = a^ + 2
0-08
Λ α4 = —1-286^ and 6 4 = 0-008 229^
The resultant hoop stresses in the compound cylinder are then as follows :
Inner cylinder, inner surface : ac = —
2
= - 7 8 MN/m

Inner cylinder, outer surface: ac = ^a± — + (a2 -


2
= - 3 9 - 6 MN/m

Outer cylinder, inner surface: ac = ^ - + (a2 -


2
= - 7 7 - 3 MN/m

Outer cylinder, outer surface: ac = ^a 4 - + (a2 -


2
= - 5 5 - 7 MN/m
The variation in hoop stress across the cylinder is shown in Fig. 14.13.
O08m
294 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

9. A bronze cylinder of OS m internal diameter and 0-4 m external diameter is


surrounded by a closely fitting steel sleeve of 0-45 m external diameter. Calcu-
late ike maximum hoop stresses in the steel and bronze when an internal
2
pressure of 30 MN/m is applied to the compound cylinder, assmning that
before the application of this pressure, the contact stress at the common surface
is zero.
2
For steel, Ε = 200 GN/m and ν = 0-28
2
For bronze, Ε = 100 GN/m and ν = 0-35 (U. Lond.)
Let the pressure at the common surface after the application of the
internal pressure be p . Then, for the inner cylinder,
2
o-r = 30 MN/m at r = 0-15 m, Λ 30 = ax + -

l
and ar = ν at r = 0-2 m, .*. ρ = a, + — -

.·. ü l = - 3 8 - 6 + 2-285;? and 6 1 = 1-544 - 0-051 ip


Therefore, at the common surface,

^c = o l - ^ 52 = - 7 7 - 2 - 3-57Ji
0-2
For the outer cylinder,
ρ at r = 0-2 m, Λ ρ = a2 + A

6.2
and σ Γ = 0 at r = 0-225 m, 0 = a2 + 2
0-225
.·. a 2 = —3-76^ and b2 = 0-190 bp
Therefore, at the common surface,
a = a2 — — = —8-52«

The diametral strain at the common surface must be the same,


(-77-2 + S-blp) - 0-35p _ -S-b2p - 0-28^ *
9 9
" 100 χ 10 200 χ 10
2
from which ρ = 10-13 MN/m
Therefore, at the inner surface of the inner cylinder,
2
a c = ax1 - - A - 2 = - 6 0 - 8 MN/m
0-15 —
At the inner surface of the outer cylinder,
2
ac = -8-52jo = - 8 6 - 4 MN/m
* Neglecting longitudinal stresses. If these are to be taken into account, the com-
pound cylinder must first be treated as a composite bar under external load (i.e. the
force on the end platée), as in Art. 1.9.
THICK CYLINDERS 295
10. A cylindrical steel container has inner diameter 2 5 0 m m and outer diameter
2
4 0 0 mm. I f the maximum permissible tensile stress is 140 M N / m , what is the
maximum internal pressure it can carry and what will be the tangential stress a t
the outer circumference due to this internal pressure? (U. Lond.)
2 2
{Ans.: 61-35 M N / m ; 78-65 M N / m )
11. A steel pipe 100 m m outside diameter and 50 mm inside diameter is sub-
2 2
jected to an internal pressure of 14 M N / m , and an external pressure of 5-5 M N / m .
Plot a curve showing the distribution of tangential stress across the wall of the
pipe. Prove a n y formula used. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: Maximum stress = 8-67 M N / m )
12. State clearly the assumptions made in Lamé's theory of thick cylinders.
A cast-iron pipe 150 m m internal diameter and 2 0 0 mm external diameter is
2
tested under pressure and breaks a t an internal pressure of 4 8 M N / m . Find the
safe internal pressure for a pipe of the same material and of the same internal
diameter with walls 4 0 m m thick, using a factor of safety of 4. ( U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 17-3 M N / m )
13. Find the ratio of thickness to internal diameter for a tube subjected to
internal pressure when the pressure is § of the value of the maximum permissible
circumferential stress.
Find the increase in internal diameter of such a tube 100 mm internal diameter
2 2
when the internal pressure is 100 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; Poisson's ratio = 0-286.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-541 ; 0-094 3 m m )
14. The cylinder of a hydraulic r a m supported a t the open end is 2 5 0 mm internal
2
diameter, and is required to sustain an internal pressure of 2 0 M N / m . Calculate
the necessary thickness of the wall if the maximum shearing stress is limited to
2
50 M N / m .
Allowing for the effect of the longitudinal stress caused by the pressure on the
end of the r a m , calculate the increase in diameter due t o the application of the
2 2
20 M N / m pressure. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; Poisson's ratio = 0-28. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 36-5 m m ; OJOTmrn)
15. Derive from first principles formulae for the radial and hoop stresses in a
thick cylinder a t any radius r when subjected to radial pressure.
A thick cylinder of steel having an internal diameter of 100 m m and an external
2
diameter of 2 0 0 m m is subjected t o an internal pressure of 56 M N / m and an
2
external pressure of 7 M N / m . F i n d the maximum direct and shearing stresses in
the cylinder and calculate the change of external diameter.
2
Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and Poisson's ratio = 0-3. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 74-67 M N / m ; 65-33 M N / m ; 0-027 8 m m )
16. A steel tube is 18 m m internal diameter and 3 m m thick. One end is closed
and the other end is screwed into a pressure vessel. The projecting length is
300 mm. Neglecting a n y constraints due to the ends, calculate the safe internal
2
pressure if the allowable stress is not to exceed 150 M N / m . Calculate the increase
2
in the internal volume under this pressure. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; Poisson's ratio = 1/3-5.
2 3
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 4 2 M N / m ; 120-6 m m )
17. Derive formulae for the principal stresses and maximum shearing stress a t
a n y point in a thick cylinder subjected to radial pressure.
A steel cylinder is 1 m inside diameter and is to be designed for an internal
2
pressure of 8 M N / m . Calculate the thickness if the maximum shearing stress is
2
not t o exceed 3 5 M N / m . Calculate the increase in volume, due t o the working
pressure, if the cylinder is 6 m long with closed ends. Neglect any constraints due
2
to the ends. Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m ; Poisson's ratio = 1 / 3 . (U. Lond.)
3
(Ans.: 69-3 m m ; 0-002 835 m )
296 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

18. A thick steel tube with closed ends, of inside and outside diameters 5 0 m m
2
and 70 m m respectively, contains oil a t a pressure of 1 M N / m . The oil is allowed
2
to escape until the pressure in the tube has fallen t o 0-75 M N / m . F i n d how much
oil has been released per metre length of tube, if bending due t o end effects is
negligible.
2 2
Ε for steel = 2 0 0 G N / m ; Κ for oil = 2-75 G N / m ; ν for steel = 0-25.
3
(U. Lond.) {Ans.: 195 m m )

1 9 . A bronze sleeve 75 mm external diameter is a sliding fit on a solid steel r a m


2
50 mm diameter. When used in a pump, the external pressure is 3 0 M N / m .
Calculate the maximum stresses induced in the steel and the bronze. Ε for
2 2
steel = 2 0 0 G N / m ; Ε for bronze = 9 0 G N / m ; Poisson's ratio = 0-35 for both
2 2
materials. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 33-32 M N / m ; 24-68 M N / m )

2 0 . A bronze liner of 50 mm external diameter is to be shrunk on a steel rod of


4 0 m m diameter. Calculate the maximum radial pressure between liner and rod
2
if the maximum stress in the liner is limited t o 120 M N / m , also the difference
between the liner bore and shaft diameter before shrinking.
2 2
Ε for steel and bronze 2 0 0 G N / m and 9 0 G N / m respectively. Poisson's
ratio 0-3 for both steel and bronze. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 26-35 M N / m ; 0-0605 m m )

2 1 . A ring 12 mm internal diameter has a uniform outside diameter of 4 0 m m


and is 20 m m long axially. An oversize plug is pressed into the ring. I f the maxi-
2
mum stress in the ring must not exceed 4 5 0 M N / m , calculate the maximum
2
difference in diameter of the plug and ring. Ε = 200 G N / m ; Poisson's ratio = 0-3.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-0495 m m )

2 2 . A bronze bush having an outside diameter of 175 m m and an inside


diameter of 100 m m is pressed into a recess in a body which is assumed t o be
perfectly rigid. I f the diameter of the recess is 174-95 mm, find the radial pressure
produced on the outer surface of the bush and the m a x i m u m hoop stress in the
bush. Determine also the change in the inside diameter of the bush.
2
F o r bronze, take Ε = 100 G N / m and Poisson's ratio = 0-35. (U. Lond.)
2 2
(Ans.: 17-4 M N / m ; 51-65 M N / m ; 0-051 65 m m )

2 3 . I f the diameter ratio of a cast-iron hub is 1-75, calculate from first principles
what driving allowance should be made on the diameter of the steel shaft on which
2
it is to be forced, when the bursting stress is limited t o 2 4 M N / m .
2 2
Ε for steel = 2 0 0 G N / m ; Ε for cast-iron = 100 G N / m ; Poisson's ratio = 0-3
for both materials. ( U. Lond.) (Ans. : 0-000 3 0 9 6d)

2 4 . A steel cylindrical plug of 125 mm diameter is forced into a steel sleeve of


2 0 0 mm external diameter and 100 m m long. I f the greatest circumferential stress
2
in the sleeve is 100 M N / m , find the torque required t o turn the plug in the sleeve
assuming the coefficient of friction between the plug and the sleeve is 0-2.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 21-5 k N m )

2 5 . Derive the fundamental formulae for the principal stresses in a thick


cylinder under radial pressure.
A solid plug gauge of steel has a diameter of 25-005 mm, and is forced into a ring
gauge of the same material, which measures 2 5 m m inside diameter and 5 0 m m
outside diameter. I t s axial length is 2 0 mm. W h a t is the maximum stress in the
ring, and what force is required t o slide the plug, assuming the coefficient of
2
friction is 0-3? Take Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 2 5 M N / m ; 7 0 7 kN)
THICK CYLINDERS 297
2 6 . One steel cylinder is shrunk on to another, the compound cylinder having
an inside diameter of 100 m m , an outside diameter of 2 0 0 mm and a diameter of
150 m m a t the surfaces in contact. I f shrinkage produces a radial pressure p0 a t
the surfaces in contact, after which the compound cylinder is subjected t o a n
internal pressure pv find the ratio of p0 to p1 so t h a t the maximum hoop tensions
in the two cylinders shall be the same. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-103)
27. A gun-metal cylinder, 150 m m external diameter and 99-925 m m internal
diameter is forced on t o a steel cylinder 100 m m external diameter and 5 0 m m
internal diameter. Calculate the m a x i m u m resulting stresses in the steel and
gun-metal.
2 2
Ε for steel = 2 0 0 G N / m ;E for gun-metal = 100 G N / m ; Poisson's ratio = 0-35
2 2
for both metals. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 5 5 4 M N / m ; 54· 1 M N / m )
2 8 . A steel cylinder of 100 m m internal diameter and 150 m m outside diameter
is strengthened by shrinking another cylinder of the same length on t o it. The
inside diameter of this cylinder was originally 149-925 mm. Find the external
diameter of the outer cylinder so t h a t the contact pressure after shrinking will
2
be 17 MN/m*. Ε = 200 G N / m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 205-4 m m )
29. A steel cylinder 2 0 0 m m external diameter and 150 m m internal diameter has
another cylinder 2 5 0 m m external diameter shrunk on t o it. I f the maximum ten-
2
sile stress induced in the outer cylinder is 80 M N / m , find the radial compressive
stress between the cylinders.
Determine the circumferential stresses a t inner and outer diameter of both
cylinders and show, by means of a diagram, how these stresses v a r y with the radius.
Calculate the necessary shrinkage allowance a t the common surface.
2
Ε = 200 G N / m . (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 17-6, 8 0 , 62-5, 80-5, 62-8 M N / m ; 0 1 4 2 8 m m )
3 0 . A compound cylinder is to be made by shrinking an outer tube of 300 m m
external diameter on to an inner tube of 150 mm internal diameter. Determine
the common diameter a t the junction if the greatest circumferential stress in the
inner tube is to be two-thirds of the greatest circumferential stress in the outer
tube. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 243-5 m m )
3 1 . A steel cylinder of outside diameter 300 m m and inside diameter 2 5 0 mm
is shrunk on to one having diameters 2 5 0 m m and 2 0 0 m m , the interference fit
being such t h a t under an internal pressure ρ the inner tensile stress in both
2
cylinders = 84 M N / m .
Find the initial difference in the nominal 2 5 0 m m diameters, and the value of
2 2
pifE= 200 GN/m . (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 0-0273 m m ; 36-9 M N / m )

3 2 . A steel spur-wheel ring of 5 5 0 m m external diameter is shrunk on t o a wheel


centre, the original difference of diameters being 0-4 mm. The effective thickness
of the ring is 4 0 mm and of the wheel centre, which m a y be regarded as a hollow
cylinder, 2 5 mm. E s t i m a t e the radial pressure a t the common surface. Ε = 2 0 0
2 2
GN/m . (U.Lond.) (Ans.: 11-1 M N / m )
C H A P T E R 15

STRAIN ENERGY; THEORIES OF FAILURE

15.1 Strain energy due to three principal s t r e s s e s . Fig. 15.1 shows


an element of a material which is subjected
to three principal stresses σ χ , ay and az.

Force due to σ χ = σχ X yz.

· · τ ο 0% ν(σγ + σ ζ )
Strain in direction of ax = — — —
2£ Z£
change in length of side χ
χ

1 χ
Λ work done hy σχ = - Χ σχ X yz χ -{σχ — v(ay + σ ζ)}

χνζ
σσ
Similarly, work done by σγ = r^-fay — v(ayax + γ ζ)}

and work done by az = - ^ { ο £ — ν(σζσχ + ozoy)}


2E

.". total work done = ^ { c r x + oy + σ ζ — 2ΐ>(σχσγ + ayaz + σ ζ σ χ )}

This work is stored in the material as strain energy and since xyz repre-
sents the volume of the element, strain energy per unit volume,

U = + a\ + o\ - 2ν(σχσΥ + ayaz + σζσχ)} . (15.1)

15.2 Volumetric and shear strain energy. The system of stresses


shown in Fig. 15.1 produces (a) a change in volume of the element, and
(b) a change in shape of the element, due to the shear stresses resulting
from the unequal direct stresses.
If the three principal stresses are equal, there is no shear stress in the
body and the strain is purely volumetric. Thus if σχ = ay = az = a,
298
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; THEORIES OF F A I L U R E 299

strain energy per unit volume = — { 3 σ — 2v X 3o }


2 2

2E
= 3(1_-^) ^
K 1
2£ 2K
Since the strain energy is due only to change in volume, it is termed the
volumetric strain energy (Uv).
The general case of unequal stresses can be resolved into volumetric and
shear stresses as follows :
_ _ Οχ + Q y + ο ζ , <τχ — σ γ , orx — σζ
σ
χ — 3« Γ 3 3
_ 0·χ + Oy + Ο'ζ _ 0·χ — O y , gy ~ <*%
y
° 3 3 3
σ = Οχ + Oy + Οζ _ Οχ — Οζ _ Oy ~ Οζ
3 3 3
Thus the given stresses σχ, ay and σζ can be represented by Fig. 15.2, the
stresses on element (a) involving .pure volumetric strain and those on
elements (6), (c) and (d) involving pure shear strain in each of the three
co-ordinate planes (see Art. 12.3).
σ χ+ογ·σ ζ σ -σχ ζ θγ-σ χ

σ χ I O x + ^ O j t 3 σ -σ
χ ν * σ -σ
χ ζ I I 3
3 — —
fa/ (b) (c) (d)
FIG. 1 5 . 2

The volumetric strain energy due to the equal stresses on element (a)
σ
= _L^x + ν + . from equation (15.2)

_ 1 2
-r(o* + oy + <rz)
The shear strain energy due to the shear stresses on elements (b), (c) and
(d) is the difference between the total strain energy and the volumetric
strain energy,*
i.e. shear strain energy per unit volume,
U = σ σ
* + 1 + 1- MoxOy + ayaz + ογτ χ)}

* This can alternatively be obtained by considering the work done by each of the
stresses on elements (6), (c) and (d ) due to the resultant strains they produce.
300 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

= 2^{ο-χ + o-y + o\ - 2ν(σχσΎ + σγσζ + oyxx)}


1 2v
+ Oy + ol+ 2(σχσγ + σΥσζ + σζσχ)}
1+ ν
σ σ σ σ σσ σ
= -3^~{ χ + < % + Ι - ( * γ + γ ζ + ζ<*χ)}
. (15.3)
= ^ΛρΙ + σ$ + σ\ - (σχσγ + σνσζ + σζσχ)} .
15.3 Theories of elastic failure. In a simple tension test, elastic
failure is assumed to occur when the stress reaches the elastic limit stress
for the material, which will be denoted by σ 0 . When a body is subjected to
a complex stress system, however, elastic failure does not necessarily occur
when the greatest principal stress reaches the value σ 0 ; the other (lesser)
principal stresses in the perpendicular directions may affect the limiting
value of the greatest principal stress at failure, which may then be greater
or smaller than σ0.
The effect of the lesser principal stresses at failure depends upon the
application, i.e. on whether they are of the same or opposite sign to the
greatest principal stress and on whether the material is brittle or ductile.
Various theories have been propounded on elastic failure of a material
under complex stress and these are usually associated with the name of the
originator. Much research has been done on these theories and the most
important applications are given after each theory.
Whatever the system of stress applied to a body, it can always be re-
solved into three principal stresses, as shown in Fig. 15.1 and in the follow-
ing, it is assumed that σχ > σΥ > σζ and that all are of the same sign.
(a) Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine's Theory). Failure occurs
when the greatest principal stress reaches the elastic limit stress in a simple
tension test, irrespective of the other principal stresses,
i.e. when ax = aQ . . . . (15.4)
This theory has been found approximately true for brittle materials but
not for ductile materials, when rupture takes place on a plane inclined to
the plane of greatest direct stress, indicating failure due to shear.
9
(b) Maximum Principal Strain Theory (St. Venant s Theory). Failure occurs
when the greatest principal strain reaches the strain at the elastic limit in
a simple tension test,

i.e. when —^

or . (15.5)
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; THEORIES OF F A I L U R E 301
For like stresses, this theory gives ox > o0 but this is not substantiated
by experiment and the theory finds little general support.
(c) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest's or Tresca's Theory). Failure
occurs when the greatest shear stress reaches the maximum shear stress at
the elastic limit in a simple tension test,

i.e. when
" = go

2 2
or ox — oz = o0 . (15.6)
This theory gives generally good correlation with experimental results
obtained with ductile materials.
Care must be taken in applying equation (15.6) to the case of unlike
stresses; the maximum shear stress involves the greatest algebraic differ-
ence of principal stresses.
(d) Strain Energy Theory (Haigh's Theory). Failure occurs when the energy
stored per unit volume in a strained material reaches the strain energy per
unit volume at the elastic limit in a simple tension test, i.e. the maximum
energy a body can store without permanent deformation is a fixed quantity,
irrespective of the manner in which it is strained.
2
1 2
Thus --{ol + o y + a z - 2v(oxoy + oyoz + σζσχ) = | |

or ol + ay + o\ — 2v(oxOy + ογοζ + ozox) = ol . (15.7)


This theory receives good support from experiments on ductile materials,
particularly with thick cylinders. It breaks down, however, in the case
of hydrostatic pressure (ox = oy = oz = o); it predicts failure when
or = o0/V3(l — 2v) whereas, in fact, no failure would occur.
(e) Shear Strain Energy Theory (Von Mises's Theory). Failure occurs when
the shear strain energy stored per unit volume in a strained material
reaches the shear strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in a
simple tension test ; this is similar to the preceding theory but it is assumed
that the volumetric strain energy plays no part in producing elastic failure.

ThUS -^{Ol + Oy + Ol - (0XOy + O y O Z + ΟZ0χ)} = ^

2
or ol + o y+ + ογοζ + ozox) = o%
ol — (oxoy . (15.8)
The results given by this theory are generally similar to those given by
the strain energy theory (see Fig. 15.3). It is more recent and may be re-
garded as a refinement of the strain energy theory but experimental
evidence is not conclusive.
* Obtained b2y putting σ7 = σζ = 0 in equation (15.3). This result should not be
confused with r /2G per unit volume, given b y equation (1.21); τ is the shear stress
whereas σ0 is the direct stress.
302 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

15.4 Two-dimensional cases. If σ. 0, the five theories of elastic


failure reduce to
(α) σχ = σ 0 . (15.9)
(b) (15.10)
(c) σχ = a0 (for like stresses) Ί
(15.11)
or ax — ay = σ0 (for unlike stresses)]
(d) ο-χ + σ°γ — 2νσχσν = σ§ (15.12)
(e) ο"χ + ο\ — σχσγ = σ\ (15.13)
These results are shown graphically in Fig. 15.3; the horizontal axis

f°y

FIG. 1 5 . 3

represents σ χ and the vertical axis represents ory, tension upwards and to
the right, compression downwards and to the left.
For the maximum principal stress theory, the boundary within which crx
and ay must lie for no failure is the square ABCD, the limiting value in
either direction along OX and OY being σ 0 .
For the maximum principal strain theory, the boundaries E F and FG
represent respectively ax — vaY = σ0 (for crx > ay) and ay — νσχ = σ0
(for ay > σ χ ) , the greater principal stress in each case being tensile. The
lines GH and HE represent the corresponding equations when the greater
principal stress is compressive.
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; THEORIES OF F A I L U R E 303
The maximum shear stress theory gives σχ = σ0 (for σχ > ay) and σΎ = σ0
(for ay > σχ) with like stresses; thus, in the first and third quadrants, the
boundary coincides with that for the maximum principal stress theory.
For unlike stresses (second and fourth quadrants), σχ — σγ = σ0 (or
σ σ
tfy ~ χ = ο)> ^ r e the maximum stress in either case can be tensile or
wn

compressive. These equations are represented by J K and LM.


The strain energy and shear strain energy theories are represented by
ellipses with their axes inclined at 45° to OX and OY, the latter ellipse
passing through the corners A and C.
Fig. 15.3 shows clearly the following points:
(a) the boundary representing the maximum shear stress theory and the
two strain energy theories are generally similar;
(b) the maximum principal stress theory, usually regarded as only applic-
able to brittle materials, is nevertheless applicable to ductile materials in
the case of like stresses, where it coincides with the maximum shear stress
theory ;
(c) the maximum principal strain theory diverges widely from the other
theories in the case of like stresses.
1. In a piece of material, the stresses on two planes at right angles are: on
2 2
the first plane 60 MN/m tension and 20 MN/m shearing stress; on the
2
second plane 40 MN/m compression and the complementary shearing stress.
On a plane mutually at right angles to both the planes specified, there is no
stress. Find the equivalent system of pure shear and pure bulk stress.
Calculate (a) the total strain energy stored per unit volume, (b) the strain
energy stored in volumetric strain and in shear strain. Take Young's modulus
2 1
and the bulk modulus both as 200 GN/m and Poisson s ratio as
(U. Lond.)
The principal stresses are given by
σ = | { ( σ χ + Oy) ± V(ax — σγ) + 4τ }
2 2
. from equation (12.12)
2 2
= |{(60 - 40) ± V(60 + 40) + 4 χ 20 }
2
= 10(1 ± V29) MN/m
Hence the principal stresses are 10(1 + V29), 10(1 — V29) and 0, and
20
2
the mean stress is — MN/m .
Resolving the principal stresses as in Art. 15.2,

10(1+ V 2 9 ) ^ ^ + +
1 0 ( 1
+
ô ô à

ά ô ô
304 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

and
2 2
Thus the given stress system is equivalent to a bulk stress of -^· MN/m
and shear stresses in the three co-ordinate planes of -V°-(l + V29),

From equation (15.1),

15
_ 23-3 x l O 3

9
= 19>«ff J / m
~~ 6 x 2 0 0 x l 0
From equation (15.2),
2 12
(1 \ °3- ) /x i^o
= = ni J3 / m
v 9
2x200xl0 -—
3
·. Us = 19>βίΓ-111 = 19^eg J / m

2. In a two-dimensional stress system, normal stresses of 20 and 120


2
N/mm act on two mutually perpendicular planes in conjunction with a
2
shear stress of 40 N/mm . The stress intensity, judged by the shear strain
energy, is excessive. As it was found impossible to reduce the applied stresses,
the severity of the shear strain energy condition was reduced by increasing the
2
normal stress of 20 N/mm to some higher tensile value, X. Find the value of
X at which the shear strain energy is least. (U. Lond.)

The principal stresses are given by


2 2
σ = £ { ( 1 2 0 + Χ ) ± Λ / ( 1 2 0 - Ζ ) + 4 χ 4 0 } from equation (12.12)

i.e. a, = ( °n-f
6
200-60Z+^
2

and a2 = ( +f)~^/ 2 0 0 - 6 0 X + ^
60 5 2

.*. Us = -^{ο\+σ\—σχα2} . . . from equation (15.3)


66r

= -^(19 2 0 0 - 1 2 0 X + X ) , substituting for ax and a2


2

For maximum shear strain energy, = 0,


aX
2
Λ X = 60 N/mm
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; THEORIES OF F A I L U R E 305

3. A thin cylinder of internal diameter 0-3 m is subjected to an internal


2
pressure ofA MN/m and to an axial torque of 9π kN m. If the maximum safe
2
stress for the material in simple tension is 150 MN/m and ν = 0-3, find the
required thickness by each of the five theories of ehstic failure.
From Art. (1.4),
4 χ 10 χ 0-3
e
pd 0·6Μ Μ/
σ = = N m/ = M N /m
° * It Τ

σ> = £ = ^ Μ Ν / π ι ·

t Q ur e 9π X 1 03 2
r = ^ . = N/m
radius X cross-sectional area 0·15(π X 0-3 χ t)
2
= 2j? MN/m
Therefore the principal stresses are given by
1//0-6 , 0·3\ /ÄMJ 0·3\· /0·2\«\

= >9±0·5)

2
.. σχ — — and σ2 = — MN/m
t t
(a) Maximum principal stress theory :
I0-7
—t = 150 t = 0-004 67 m
(b) Maximum principal strain theory:
0·7_
Λ .7 Λ .Ο

ϊ_ί - 0-3 Χ — = 150 .·. t = 0-004 27 m


Τt t
(c) Maximum shear stress theory
— = 150* / . t = 0-004 67 m
t
(d ) Strain energy theory :
t = 0-004 45 m

(e) Shear strain energy theory :

t = 0-004 16 m

* Since the second principal stress is of the same sign as the first, the maximum shear
stress is half the difference of the first and third principal stresses, the latter being zero.
306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

4. A solid round steel shaft transmits a torque of 20 kN m and is subjected


also to a bending moment of 10 kN m. If the torque on the shaft is increased to
22 kN w, to what value must the bending moment be reduced if the maximum
strain energy is to be the same as that under the initial conditions? Poisson's
ratio = 0-28.
From equation (12.21), the principal stresses are given by
2 2
ο = 6
J f ± VM + T)
nd
2 2
= MM ± VM — + T) where k=
nd*
Equating strain energies per unit volume in the two cases,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F(10 + VlO2 + 2 0 ) + 2 k (\0 2- VlO + 220 )
- 2 X 0·28& (10 + VlO + 20 )(10 - VlO + 20 )
2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= k (M + \/M + 2 2 ) + k (M - VM + 22 )
2 2 2 2 2
- 2 χ 0·28& (Μ + VM + 22 )(M - VM + 22 )
from which M = 6-78 kN m
5. A circular shaft 0-1 m diameter is subjected to combined bending and
twisting moments, the bending moment being three times the twisting moment.
2
If the direct tension yield-point of the material is 350 MN/m and the factor
of safety on yield is to be 4, calculate the allowable twisting moment by the three
following theories of elastic failure: (a) maximum principal stress theory;
(6) maximum shearing stress theory; (c) shear strain energy theory.
(U. Lond.)
From equation (12.21), the principal stresses are given by

a = i l ( M ± VM
3
2
+ T)
2

πα
16 2 2
(3T ± V9T + T ) = 5 090Γ(3 ± VÎO)
3
π Χ 0·1
(α) Maximum principal stress theory:
X
5 090Γ(3 + VlO)= /.3P= 2790Nm
4
(b) Maximum shear stress theory :
3 50 X l
5 090T(3 + VÏO) - 5 090T(3 - VÏÔ) = °* Λ Τ = 2 715 Ν m
4
(c) Shear strain energy theory :
2 2
{5 090T(3 + VÏÔ)} + {5 090T(3 - VÎÔ)}
3 5Q l o
- {5 090T(3 + VÏÔ)}{5 090T(3 - VÏO)} = ^ * y
Λ Τ = 2 755 Ν m
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; T H E O R I E S OF F A I L U R E 307
6. A thick cylinder in which the outside diameter is three times the inside
2
diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 80 N/mm . The material has
2
a yield stress of 400 N/mm and ν = 0*30. Calculate the factors of safety
from the five theories of ehstic failure.
From Lamé's line, or otherwise, the principal stresses at the inside surface
2 2
(the most highly stressed point) are 80 N/mm (compressive), 100 N/mm
2
(tensile) and 10 N/mm (tensile).
Let F be the factor of safety.
(a) Maximum principal stress theory :

F
(b) Maximum principal strain theory:

80 - 0-3 χ 10 = ^ ?
100 + 0-3 χ 8< · /. F = 3-31

(c) Maximum shear stress theory :

100 + 80 = — Λ F -= 2-22
F
(d) Strain energy theory:

1 0 0 + 8 0 + 1 0 - 2 χ 0·3( - 1 0 0 X 8 0 - 80 χ 10+10 χ 100)


2 2 2

Λ F = 2-75
(e) Shear strain energy theory:
2 2 2
1 0 0 + 8 0 + 1 0 - ( - 1 0 0 x 8 0 - 8 0 X 1 0 + 1 0 x 100)
-m'
:. F = 2-57
7. A piece of material is subjected t o three mutually perpendicular tensile
2
stresses of 5 0 , 6 5 and 80 M N / m . Calculate the strain energy per unit volume.
Calculate also the maximum shear strain energy per unit volume and explain
the difference between these two strain energies. Poisson's ratio = 0·3*
3 3
(U. Land.) (Ans.: 14-14 k J / m ; 1-00 k J / m )
2
8. A t a point in a steel member the major principal stress is 2 0 0 M N / m , and
the minor principal stress is compressive. I f the tensile yield point of the steel is
2
2 5 0 M N / m , find the value of the minor principal stress a t which yielding will
commence, according t o each of the following criteria of failure: (a) maximum
shearing stress; (b) maximum total strain energy; (c) maximum shear strain
energy. Poisson's ratio = 0-28.
Prove any formula used for (b) and (c). (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 5 0 , 104-1, 80-3 M N / m )
9. A t a point in a stressed material the direct stresses on two perpendicular
2 2
planes are 140 M N / m tension and 9 0 M N / m compression respectively, and the
2
shearing stress on these planes is r . The yield stress for the material is 2 5 0 M N / m .
308 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Find the value of τ a t which failure m a y be expected, according to each of the


following theories of failure: (a) maximum principal stress theory; (b) maximum
shearing stress theory ; (c) maximum shear strain energy theory.
Comment on the difference between the values obtained. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 1 9 3 4 , 4 9 , 86 M N / m )

10. A close-coiled helical spring has a wire diameter of 2-5 m m and a mean
coil diameter of 4 0 mm. The spring is subjected to a combined axial load of 5 4 Ν
and a torque acting about the axis of the spring. Determine the maximum per-
missible torque if: (a) the material is brittle and ultimate failure is to be avoided.
The criterion of failure is the maximum tensile stress, and the ultimate tensile
2
stress is 1·2 G N / m ; (b) the material is ductile and failure by yielding is to be
avoided. The criterion of failure is the maximum shear stress and the yield in
2
tension is 0*9 G N / m . ( / . Mech. E.) (Ans.: 1-692 N m; 1-665 N m)
11. Derive a formula for the total strain energy per unit volume of a material
subjected t o three principal stresses.
A torque of 1 -5 kN m is transmitted by a cylindrical tube 100 mm external
diameter and of uniform thickness 2-5 mm. I f the elastic limit of the material
2
under simple tension is 2 5 0 M N / m , calculate the factor of safety when the criterion
of failure is (a) maximum shearing stress, (b) maximum shear strain energy.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.:3>0±; 3-51)

12. A mild steel shaft is subjected t o a torque of 2-5 kN m and to a bending


moment of 1-5 kN m. Calculate the equivalent torque on the shaft and necessary
2
diameter for a maximum shearing stress of 80 M N / m : (i) according to the maxi-
mum shearing stress theory, (ii) according to the strain energy theory. Poisson's
ratio = 0-3. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 2-915 K N m; 57 m m ; 59-4 m m )
13. In a solid circular shaft, subjected t o a bending moment of 2 kN m and
a twisting moment of 1-5 k N m , the total strain energy must not exceed t h a t
2
produced by a simple tensile stress of 80 M N / m . Find the minimum diameter of
the shaft, if Poisson's ratio is 0-325. Derive from fundamentals the expression
used for total strain energy. (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 66-8 m m )

14. A hollow cylindrical brass beam, of inner and outer diameter 5 0 and 75 m m
respectively, sustains on a certain cross-section a pure bending moment of
2 kN m and an axial torque. I f a factor of safety of 3 is required, what is the maxi-
mum torque t h a t m a y be transmitted along the shaft if failure is reckoned t o
have occurred when the shear strain energy per unit volume has reached a value
2
corresponding t o a simple tensile stress of 2 0 0 M N / m ? (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 1-1 kN m )
15. A shaft of diameter 100 m m is subjected to a bending moment of 5 k N m.
F i n d the value of the maximum torque which can be applied t o the shaft for each
2
of the following conditions: (a) m a x i m u m direct stress not t o exceed 120 M N / m ;
2
(b) maximum shearing stress not t o exceed 6 0 M N / m ; (c) maximum shear strain
2
energy per unit volume not to exceed t h a t induced by simple shear of 8 0 M N / m .
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 17-92, 10-66, 14-32 kN m )

16. Show how t o find the total strain energy per unit volume in a piece of
material subjected to pure shearing stress combined with a simple direct stress.
A solid circular shaft is required t o carry a twisting moment of 6 k N m and a
bending moment of 2 kN m. Determine the diameter on the assumption t h a t the
total strain energy per unit volume is not to exceed t h a t in material under a pure
2 2
shearing stress of 30 M N / m . Ε = 2 0 0 G N / m and Poissons ratio = 1 / 3 - 5 .
(JU. Lond.) (Ans.: 100-7 m m )
STRAIN E N E R G Y ; THEORIES OF F A I L U R E 309
17. A direct-tension test on a specimen of steel gave elastic breakdown a t
2
300 M N / m . A shaft made of this material is 5 0 mm diameter. Determine accord-
ing t o the following theories the torque required t o produce elastic breakdown
when the shaft also carries a bending moment of 2*5 kN m : (a) maximum principal
stress theory, (b) maximum total strain energy theory. Poisson's ratio = 0*3.
(U. Lond.) (Ans.: 4-167 kN m; 3-35 kN m )
18. A shaft of circular section is subjected simultaneously to bending and
torsion. Deduce the relation between the combined bending moment and torque
and the simple torque a t elastic failure on the assumption t h a t failure occurs a t a
constant value of (a) the m a x i m u m principal stress; (b) the maximum shearing
stress; (c) the maximum strain. (U. Lond.)
2 2 2 2
(Ans.: TE = M + VN + T; TE = VM + T;
2 2
TE = (1 - v)M + (1 + v)VM + T)
19. Three exactly similar specimens of mild steel tube are 4 0 m m external
diameter and 32 m m internal diameter. One of these is tested in tension and
reaches the limit of proportionality a t an axial tensile load of 9 0 kN. The second
is tested in simple torsion. The third is also tested in torsion, but with a uniform
bending moment of 3 5 0 Ν m applied throughout the test. Assuming maximum
shear stress t o be the criterion of elastic failure, estimate the torque a t which the
two torsion specimens should fail.
How would you expect the practical results of these tests to differ from these
estimates? (U. Lond.) (Ans.: 737 N m ; 648-6 Ν m )

20. A bending moment M applied t o a solid round shaft causes a m a x i m u m


direct stress a a t elastic failure. Determine the numerical relationships between M
and a twisting moment Τ which, acting alone on the shaft, will produce elastic
failure, according t o each of the following theories of failure : (a) maximum prin-
cipal stress ; (b) m a x i m u m principal strain ; (c) maximum strain energy ; (d) maxi-
mum shear stress; (e) shear strain energy. Poisson's ratio = 0-30. (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: Τ = 2M; Τ = 1 - 5 4 3 / ; Τ = 1-24JW; Τ = Μ; Τ = 1 - 1 5 5 J Î )
2
21. A specimen of steel has a yield-point stress in simple tension of 3 2 0 M N / m .
A shaft made of this material is 5 0 m m diameter and is subjected t o a twisting
moment of 2-5 k N m. Assuming the criterion of elastic failure is the reaching of
a definite value for the shear strain energy per unit volume, calculate what
additional bending moment will cause the material t o pass the yield point.
(Ans.: 3-274 k N m )
22. In an apparatus of a certain design a solid shaft was subjected t o a pure
torque of magnitude t. The same shaft is t o be included in an apparatus of dif-
ferent design, in which it will be subjected t o a torque of magnitude Τ and a
bending moment of magnitude 2T. F i n d the ratio of Τ t o t if the maximum value
of the shear strain energy per unit volume is t o be the same in the first case as
in the second. (Ans.: 0-397 5 )
23. A shaft 100 m m in diameter transmits a torque of 13 kN m together with
an axial thrust. F i n d the m a x i m u m value of this thrust which will give a factor
of safety of 2 against elastic failure by (a) m a x i m u m shearing stress; (b) m a x i m u m
2
shear strain energy. The elastic limit of the material is 3 0 0 M N / m . ( U. Lond.)
( ^ r w . ; 5 5 6 k N ; 7 6 0 kN)

24. Explain clearly what is meant by the theory of elastic failure (a) by maxi-
mum principal stress, (6) by maximum shear strain energy.
A steel drum 0-6 m diameter is required t o hold gas under a pressure of 3-5
310 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2
M N / m . Calculate the thickness according t o both the above hypotheses if the
2
material used has a tensile working*strength of 70 M N / m . (U. Lond.)
(Ans.: 15 m m ; 13 m m )
25. Show t h a t , for a material subjected to two principal stresses crx and σ2 the
strain energy per unit volume is given by

l - { o » + a\ -

A cylindrical drum of 0-6 m internal diameter is to withstand an internal pressure


2
of 1-7 M N / m . Calculate the necessary wall thickness for a factor of safety of 3 if
the criterion of failure is the maximum strain energy, and the elastic limit in pure
2
tension is 2 4 0 M N / m . Poisson's ratio = 0-3. ( U. Lond.) (Ans.: 6-21 m m )

26. A thin-walled cylinder of internal diameter 0-3 m, with closed ends, is


2
subjected t o an internal pressure of 3-5 M N / m and to an axial torque of 70 kN m.
I f the maximum shear strain energy is taken as the criterion of failure, and the
shear strain energy per unit volume is limited t o t h a t induced in simple tension a t
2
150 M N / m , find the necessary thickness for the cylinder walls.
(Ans.: 6-47 m m )
27. A cast-iron cylinder has outside and inside diameters o f 2 0 0 m m and 125 mm.
2
I f the ultimate tensile strength of the cast iron is 150 M N / m find, according t o
each of the following theories of failure, the internal pressure which would cause
rupture, (a) Maximum principal stress theory, (b) Maximum strain theory.
(c) Maximum strain energy theory.
Assume no longitudinal stress in the cylinder. Which of the results obtained do
you consider should be applied t o this case? ν = 0-25. (U. Lond.)
2
(Ans.: 65-73, 59-25, 55-4 M N / m )

28. E x p l a i n the t e r m 'equivalent bending moment' as used in connection with


shafting subjected t o a bending moment combined with a twisting moment.
F o r a shaft of solid circular section subjected t o a bending moment M com-
bined with a twisting moment T, deduce the formula for the equivalent bending
moment Me in terms of Μ, Τ and if necessary, Poisson's ratio v, t o correspond
with each of the following hypotheses of elastic failure: (a) m a x i m u m principal
stress; (b) m a x i m u m shearing stress; (c) m a x i m u m strain energy.
F o r a shaft 0 · 1 m diameter, made of steel for which the limiting stress in
2
simple tension is 120 MN/m , draw t o scale a graph for each of t h e above
theories showing the limits within which combined values of M and Τ must
occur according t o each of the hypotheses, ν = 0 - 2 8 6 . (U. Lond.)

2 2 2 1 + ν
{Ans.: Me = \(M + Vjlf * + T ); Me = VM + T ; M< if
2
+
2

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