Tensile Testing 1
Tensile Testing 1
Specimen
Grip
Tensile Testing
(stretching or pulling)
Engineering Strain = ε
ε = (change in length)/(original length) = δ/L0
Engineering Stress = σ
σ = (applied force)/(original area) =P/A0
Stress-Strain Curve
.
• Elastic Limit: Greatest stress a material is capable of
developing without a permanent set.
• Note; elastic limit for metals do not differ widely from the
values of the proportionality.
• Elastic limit may be taken as that stress at which there is
a permanent set of 0.2%.It is therefore higher than limit
of proportionality. (suggested by some authors)
• Hooke s’ law: Stress is directly proportional to strain in
the elastic range.
• Young s’ Modulus: It is ratio between stress and
reversible strain (stiffness)
• It is in fact a measure of the inter atomic bonding forces.
Yield strength/ Proof stress: usually defined as the stress
which produces a measurable amount of permanent strain
i.e. 0.2% or 0.1%.
Tensile strength - the maximum stress applied to the specimen.
Failure stress - the stress applied to the specimen at failure
(usually less than the maximum tensile strength because
necking reduces the cross-sectional area)
Ductility
% Elongation:
% elongation is a measure of ductility, which is given by:
where,
Lo = Initial length
Lf = Final Length
Ductility
% Reduction in Area:
% reduction in area is a measure of ductility, which is given
by:
where,
Ao = Initial area
Af = Final area
Poisson’s ratio
dLi
dε =
Li Assumes constant volume.
Valid for all strains up to
Li
ε = ln
L
point where necking begins.
o
Li = Lo +∆L;
ε = ln(1 +e)
Engineering Vs. True Stress-Strain
Curves
Stress True Stress Strain
Curve
Fracture
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Engineering
Stress Strain
Curve
Fracture
Strain
Holloman Petch Relation ship
An empirical relationship was proposed by
Holloman in 1945 to describe the shape of the
stress-strain curve.
σ = Kεn
• σ true stress, ε is true strain, K is strength
coefficient, and n is the strain-hardening
exponent.
• Thus, one can obtain n from a log-log plot of σ
versus ε. K is the true stress at ε = 1.0.
• n = 0 for perfectly plastic solids
• n = 1 for perfectly elastic solids
• n = 0.1 – 0.5 for most metals
• c
• IN Stress-Strain Curves
• Plastic deformation is uniform and
permanent between the elastic limit and
the UTS.
• • Plastic deformation becomes non-
uniform once the UTS is exceeded.
• In tension this non-uniform deformation
manifests itself
• as “necking”
Criterion for necking
Increase in true stress (due to reduction in
cross-sectional area) as the specimen
elongates is more than to load carrying
capacity due to strain hardening.
Criteria for Instability
Rate of Geometrical Softening and
Rate of Work Hardening
Holloman Petch Relation ship
An empirical relationship was proposed by
Holloman in 1945 to describe the shape of the
stress-strain curve.
σ = Kεn
• σ true stress, ε is true strain, K is strength
coefficient, and n is the strain-hardening
exponent.
• Thus, one can obtain n from a log-log plot of σ
versus ε. K is the true stress at ε = 1.0.
• n = 0 for perfectly plastic solids
• n = 1 for perfectly elastic solids
• n = 0.1 – 0.5 for most metals
• c
• Uniform Plastic Flow
• • The stress-strain curve (i.e., flow curve) in
• the region of uniform plastic deformation
• does not increase proportionally with
• strain. The material is said to work
• harden (or strain harden).
• • An empirical mathematical relationship
• was advanced by Holloman in 1945 to
• describe the shape of the engineering
• stress-strain curve.
• σ = Kεn,
• where is the σ true stress, ε is true strain,
• K is strength coefficient, and n is the
• strain-hardening exponent. Thus, one
• can obtain n from a log-log plot of σ
• versus ε. K is the true stress at ε = 1.0.
Criteria for Necking
0.2 % Offset Yield StrengthOffset Yield Strength
Li Lo + ∆L Pf
= = (1 + e) σf=
Lo Lo
Af
σ = S (1 + e)
• Stress: The true stress is defined as the ratio of the applied load to the
instantaneous cross-sectional area;
• True stress: can be related to the engineering stress if we assume that there is
no volume change in the specimen. Under this assumption,
•
which leads to
http://ceeweb.egr.duke.edu/~dolbow/TENSILE/tutorial/img11.png
True Strain
dLi Assumes constant volume.
dε = Valid for all strains up to
Li point where necking begins;
Hence, valid for S < Su.
Li
ε = ln
Lo
Special Case,
Li = Lo + ∆L;
True Fracture Strain:
ε = ln(1 + e)
Ao
ε f = ln
A
f
True Strain:
• True Strain: Change in gage length with
respect to the instantaneous gage length
over which the change occurs.
• εtrue = ln(1 + εe).
• σtrue = (1 + εe)(σe),
0.2 % Offset Yield Strength